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THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. 



^ 



7 



CYCLOPEDIA 



OF 



CHEONOLOGY 



OR 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 

WITH 

LAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND AN 
HISTORICAL CHART. 

EDITED BY GEORGE f. PUTNAM. 




REVISED EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR 

51 & 53 JOHN STEEET. 

60I.D BY BOOKSBLLBns, GBNERALLY, THROUGHOUT IHK UNITED BTAT«». 

1860. 



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^■i> '^'^ THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. 

'7 



■>? 



CYCLOPEDIA 



OF 



CHRONOLOGY 



OB 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 

WITH 

TABULAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND AN 
HISTORICAL CHART. 

EDITED BY GEORGE P. PUTNAM. 

(11 




REVISED EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR 

51 & 53 JOHN 9TEEET. 

S01.D BY BOOKSELLERS, GENERALLY, THROUGHOUT THB UNITED STATB*. 

1860. 



311 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, 
Br A. S. BAENES & CO., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District of New Yorlc. 



TRANSFER 

':2 

OCT 4 1943 

ierjal Recoru Division 
TltLiliriDfofDonsrtit 

Oapy 



THE 



HOME CYCLOPEDIA. 



OR 



LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. 

IN EIGHT VOLUMES, 
EACH COMPLETE IN ITSELF. 



I. History and Cheonologt. The World's Progress. By G. P. Putnam. 
II. General Literatuee and the Fine Arts. By George Kipley and Bayard Taylob. 
[II. The Useful Arts — including Agriculture, Domestic Economy, &c. By Dr, Antiset,!,. 
ly. Universal Biography — a Eecord of the Names of Eminent Persons, By Pakkb 
Godwin. 
V' V. Universal Geography — a Comprehensive Gazetteer of the World. By T. C. Calli- 
cott. 
VI. Science — including Natural History, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, «fec. By Profeesor 

Samuel St. John, of Western Eeserve College. In Press. 
VII. Architecture — Historical, Descriptive, Topographical, Decorative, Theoretical, and 

Mechanical. By Eobert Stuart. 
iTIII. Cyclopedia of Europe — a Manual of European Geography — embracing valuable Sta- 
tistics concerning every important place. By F. L. Ungewittee. 

*^* Theso volumes are intended to comprise a comprehensive view of the whole circle of human knowledge — in 
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NEW YORK: 

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? 51 & 53 JOHN STEEET. 

"%!.. »0L» BY BOOKSELLERS) OKNKRALLV, THEOL'GHOUT THE UMTBD 8TATB*, 

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PREFATORY NOTE 

TO THE TWELFTH EDITIOIT. 



The favorable reception of the former editions of this work hag 
mduced the new proprietors to have it revised and brought down 
to the close of 1854. A slight departure from the original plan will 
be observed in the continuation ; the events which in the first part 
were placed under the heads of their respective countries, being now 
arranged in the supplement to the Chronological Tables. Of the 
various sources from which the materials have been drawn, particular 
mention is due to the "American Almanac," the "State of the 
Union," and some valuable articles in the "New York Tribune." 
The articles upon the British Museum, and Education in Europe, are 
taken, with the permission of the editor, from "Norton's Literary 
Almanac," a work which ought to be upon the table of every one 
who feels the importance of accurate information upon education and 
bibliography, 

New York, August, 1855. 



PREFACE. 



While revising a chronological manual, in compiling which I had, 
at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found 
material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. 
Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford 
Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the 
comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn,t has been 
incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United 
States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations 
to the present year. 

The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had 
cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating 
them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only 
were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for 
the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- 
ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent 
reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; 
and showing also what was going on at the same time in different 
countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, 
many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they 
are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. 

To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- 
rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while 
the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and 

* Chronology— Kxi Index to Universal History, &c. 12mo. Leavitt, New- 
JTork, 1833. The volume has been long out of print. 

t Fourth edit. 8vo. Lond., 1847. That work needs no praise here. 



IV PREFACE. 

others J are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they 
are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason 
that they contain too tnuch for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- 
ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. 

What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- 
tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the 
governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to 
recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and 
to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. 

The alphahetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more 
full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the 
whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge— a Diction- 
ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the 
largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible 
compass. 

. There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names 
and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances 
the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not 
numerous or important. 

The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute 
it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously 
useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it 
the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will 
show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- 
sons lived during the life-time of that individual. 

It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That 
such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be 
supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all 
reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the 
World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in 
Politics and Government. Gr. P. P. 



EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OE HISTORY, 

Representing, in a Chronological Scries, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall f (ht 
principal Empires of the World. 

OK THE PLAN OF DR. J. PRIESTLEY. 

Ii IS necessary to notice, that the space allottea .0 each country is rather according toils relative 
political nnpoitance, than to its geographical extent 

The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen- 
tury or lUO years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, tlie names of which are 
espressed at the end of the chart. 

By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at 
the period we fix upon. For instance: about 1500 years before Christ, we see stales forming iu 
Greece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy- 
rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but tlieir 
history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a 
greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued 
by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under 
barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African 
provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek 
Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerlul in Asia: many of the modern states of 
Europe founded; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. 

On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by lookmg 
along the chart horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; uniied with that 
of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 53G; falls 
in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and. Tartars, successively. — The 
Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1-151 ; under the Judges about 1300; under 
Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; t/iei/ave conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians ; 
restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac- 
cabees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. D. 622; afterwards by the cru- 
saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- 
tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the 
Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170; with Wales, 1280; with 
Scotland, 1600. — Itali/ in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300 — 200 
B. c. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern 
times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about 
1600, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the 
Pope, and the King of Naples. 

" They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to 
excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions aro 
marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in 
what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part o( 
their species ' "—Priestley. 



s-¥ 



CONTENTS. 



TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 

IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS. 

I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Pbriod I.— The Antediluvian (1656 years) ... .3 

Period II.— Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).— Tiie Deluge lo Abraham 4 

I'eriod III.— The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years).— Abraham to Moses . , 6 

Period IV.— The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years).— Moses to Saul . . 8 

Period V. — The Monarchical (489 years).— Saul to Cyrus . . . .14 

Period VI. — The Persian (322 years).— Cyrus to Alexander . , 21 

Period VII. —The Grecian (184 years). — Alexander to the Fall of Greece . , 2C 

Period VIII.- Tlie Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . Jf8 

II. MODERN- inSTORV. 

Period I. — (306 years). — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine , . 48 

Period II. — (170 years.) — Coastantine (o O.ioacer .... 58 

Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet . . . . .62 

Period IV.— (178 years.)— Mahomet to Charlemagne ... 68 

Period V.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . .72 

Period VI, — (233 years.) — William the Conqueror to Othman I. . . 86 

Period VIL — 154 years.)— Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . . 102 

Period VIII. — (145 years.) — Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes . 112 

Period IX. — (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden . 122 

Period X— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon • • 134 
Period XI.— (40 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1850 ...... 146 



il. DICTIONARY OF DATES 145 

III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY G(i9 

IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c , . . 64« 

V BIOGUAPIHCAL INDEX . . .657 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PAUT I. 

TABULAE VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

I. Ancient CHRONOLoaY — ^from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. 
II. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 yeara 



I. ANCIENT CHKONOLOaY. 

DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 



1. From the Creation, 

to the Deluge, 

2. From the Deluge, 

to the Call of Abraham, 

3. From the Call of Abraham, 

to the Exode from Egypt, 

4. From the Exode, 

to the Kingdom of Saul, 

5. From Saul, 

to the Captivity of Israel, 



B. C. 

4004 
2348. 



, 1656 years The Antediluvian Period. 

. 427 years The Dispersion Period. 

. 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 



2348 
1921... 

1921 
1491... 

1491 

1095 396 years The Theocratic Period. 

1095 



58S, 507 years. ....... .The Monarchical Period. 

, . 258 years. The Persian Period. 

to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 ........ 184 years The Cfreetan Period, 

. . 146 years .The Roman Period, 



6. From the Captivity, 

to Alexander the Great, 

7, From Alexander, 



330. 
330 



8 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 
to the Birth of Christ, 0. 



• From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned 
BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to A. n.—the Year of our Lord. 



THE world's progress. 



FIKST PERIOD— (^7«e Antediluvian)— IQ56 years. 



B.C. 

4004 



3875 
3874 
3769 



3679 
3609 
a544 
3aS2 
3317 
3130 
3074 
3017 
2948 
2468 
2348 



THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.— (Hebrew Pentateuch.) [Hales places it 5411 B. c* 

The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour. 

The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman— a husbandman. 

The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd 



Seth born, the third son of Adam. 
Enos born. 



Cainan born. 
Mahalaleel bom. 
Jared " 

Enoch " 

Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) 
Lamech " 

Death of Adam, aged 930 years. 
Enoch translated. 
Noah born. 

The building of the Ark commenced. 
THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 
B. c] 



Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 

Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He in 

troduces the use of weights and measures. — Ja- 

sepkus. Tytler. 
Irad. 

Mehujael. 
Methusael. 
Lamech — polygamy introduced 



Jabal, 
The first to 
build a Tent 
for habita- 
tion, and to 



Jubal 
He invent- 
ed the Harp 
and the Or- 
gan,or wind 



usecaltle for ^and stringed 
purposes of instruments 
husbandly. | of music. 



Tubal-cain. 
He discov- 
ed the mode 
ofpreparing 
and using 
iron, brass, 
and other 
Metals. 



Naamah. 

She intro- 
duced the 
artsof^Spzn- 
ning and 
Weaving. 



* See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch places the Creation B. c. 4700 ; the Septuagint, 5872 ; Josephus, 4658 ; the 
Talmudists, 534.^ ; Scaliger, 3950; Pe/at-zMS, 3984 ; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enu- 
merates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and remotest 
date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted 
as the most generally received standard. 

t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column.— They 
are however contemporary with those in the other column. 



Remarks.— The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed 
eince the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing 
ia known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or 
paint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their 
adaptation to the use of man, other arts, ard a considerable advance in science and the mechanical 
powers. 



^r3r-THE TABtLAR V I E W S ABB CONTINtJED ACROSS TWO PAGES AT TBI 

SAME TIME. 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



SECOND J^EmOD— (Dispersion of Mankind. y - 



B.C 



2347 



2247 



2231 



2122 



2100 



2095 



Progress op Society and the Arts. 



Wine made by No?ih from the grape. 



Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. 
Confusion of languages at Babel. 



AstroTunnical observations begun at Babylon. 



2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed 
through the earth : those of Shem probably 
in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet ia 
Europe. 

2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend- 
ants of Ham. 

2247. The building of Babel.* 

2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of 
Cush, and Grandson of Ham. 

NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of 
Shem. 



Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 



Sculpture and Painting employed to com- 
memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. 

Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science 
of Geometry begim to be cultivated. 



fi)98 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of 
Husbandry, and the method of making 
Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



1996. Abraham bom. 



1921. The call of Abraham. 



* The chronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placet 
Babel 531 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 b. o. 
—the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates. 



THE world's progress. 

427 years. — TJie Deluge to Abraham. 



. c. 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (/n this ■period traditional and uncertain.} 



Asia. 



2207 CHINA. The first imperial 
dynasty of Hia begins. Folii 
(who is perhaps Noah him- 
self) is mentioned as the first 
Chinese monarch. 



2124 



2069 
2059 

2017 



IJelus reigns in BABYLON. — 
[Some suppose Belus to be 
the Nimrod of Scripture. If 
so, there is a discrepancy of 
121 years between the sacred 
and profane chronologies.] 
The origin of the kingdoms 
of Babylon and Nineven, and 
of the Assyrian empire, is 
variouslystated by the chron- 
ologists. See Sacred Hist.] 



Ninus, son of Belus, reigns m 

Nineveh. 
He establishes the ASSYRIAN 

EMPIRE. 



Semiramis enlarges and embel- 
lishes Babylon, and makes it 
the seat of empire. [By others 
placed 2107 B.C.] 



1975 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- 
opia, and India. 



1937 



The Arabs seize Nineveh. (1) 



Africa. 



EUBOPB. 



2188. Misraim (Mcnes), the son 
of Ham, builds Memphis, in 
EGYPT, and begins the E- 
gyptian monarchy. 



2111. THEBES founded by 
Busiris. 

2100. Osymandyas, the first 
warlike king, passes into 
Asia, and conquers Bactria 



2085. Egypt conquered by the 
shepherd kings of Phenicia, 
who hold it 260 years. 



1938. Lake Moeris constructed. 



2089. SICYON, the first king- 
dom of GREECE, founded 
by Egialus, or Inachus. 



2048. A colony of Pheniciana 

land in Ireland. (?) 
2042. Uranus arrives in Greece. 



Revolt of the Titans 
War of the Giants. 



6 



/ THE world's progress. 

THIRD PEHIOD— (T/ie Ahrahamic or Patriarchaiy 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C 


Progkess of Society and the Arts. 


B. c. The Jews. 






1921. Abraham called. 


1920 


Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 


19:20. — goes into Egypt. 

1912. —delivers Lot from captivity, and Tfr 

ceives the blessing of Melchizedec. 
1909. Ishmael born. 
1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. 

God renews his covenant with Abraham. 
1896. Isaac born. 


1891 


Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 


1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in 

sacrifice. 
1856. Isaac married. 

1836. Jacob and Esau born. 

1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 


1822 


Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 


1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 
1739. His name changed to Israel. 

1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 

1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 

1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 

1702. End of the seven years' famine. 

1699. Death of Jacob. 

1635. Death of Joseph. 


15S8 


Atlas, the astronomer. 




1582 


The chronology of the Arundelian marbles 
begins. 




1580 


The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. 


1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 
1574. Aaron born. 
1571. Moses born. 


1534 


Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. 
Book of Job written about this time. (?) 












1531. Moses flees into Midian. 






1513. The supposed era of Job. 


1506 


ThejZw/e invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 




1497 


Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams 
and draws prognostics from omens. 




1491 


Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 


1491. God appears to Moses m a burning bush 
at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to delivei 
the Israelites. 

The Ten Plagues in E5:ypt. 

Institution of the Passover. , 










The EXODUS of the Isn '" " 






Egypt. 



THE world's progress. 

Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) 



B.C. 



PROFANE mS>TOKY .—{^Still fc\bulous or uncertain.) 



Asia. 



Africa. 



1766 



China. The 2d Imperial dy- 
nasty begins. 



1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 

1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns 
in Egypt. 



F.U'^.OPB. 



1856. InachuB, the Phenician 
plants a colony in ARGOS. 



1807. Phoronoui reigns in 
Argos. 

1764. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia. 

1707. Apis, king oJ Argos. 

1732. The Ogygeaa Deluge in 
Attica. 

1711. The city of Argos built 
by Argus, the son of Niobe. 

1710. A colony of Arcndiana 
emigrate into Italy under 
CEnotrus.— CEnotria after- 
wards called Magna Grecia. 

1641. Criasus succeeds hif 
father, Argus. 



1556. ATHENS founded ly 

Cecrops. 



1552. Triopas. king of Argoa 
The kingdom divided, Poly- 
caon reigning in Messenia. 

1546. TROY founded by Scn- 
mander. 

1529. Deluge of Deucalion it\ 
Thessaly. 

1520. Corinth founded. 

1516. Sparta founded, and tha 
kingdom of Laconia, or La- 
cedemon. 

1507. The Areopagus establish- 
ed in Athens. 

1506. Crotopas succeeds to th<» 
throne of Argos. 

1504. Deucalion arrives in At 
tica. 

The kingdom of Mess* 
nia commenced by Polycaon 

1493. THEBES in Boeotia 
founded by Cadmus, a Phe 
nician, who introduces tlxa 
alphabet into Greece. 



THE world's progress. 



FOURTH PERIOD.— (TAe Mosaic or Theocratic.)-- 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C. 


Progress of Society and the Arts> 


The Jews. 






1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt. 






The law given at Mount Sinai. 


1490 


Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 




1486 


Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. 
The fabulous or traditionary Hermes- Tris- 






megistus placed about this period. 


1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram 

1453. Aaron dies. 

1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 

1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. 




Bacchus, god of wine. 




1453 


Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. 
Apollo, god of music and poetry. 


1443. Joshua dies. 

1405. Othniel judges Israel. 

1390. The tribe of Benjamin ilmost extinct. 


1370 


Bucklers used in single combat invented by 
Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. 




1356 


Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- 
pus. 


1343. Eglon, king of Mpab, enslaves Israel. 
1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 
1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an 

ox goad. 
1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan. 
1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- 

ites — Sisera killed by Jael. 


1284 


Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled 
in music. 




1263 


The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the 
council of Amphictyons. 




1263 


Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the 
first naval expedition on record. 

MuscBus, a poet. 


1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes. 
1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats tha Mi- 
dianites. 


1240 


The axe_ wedge, wimble and. lever, also masts 
and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of 
Athens. 




1224 


1 he game of Backgammon invented by Pala- 






m Jdes of Greece. 


1209. Abimelech judges Israel. 
1206. Tola judges Israel. 

1183. Jair, judge of Israel. 



THE world's progress. 

396 years.-^Moses to Saul. 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (-S-iiW uncertain.) 



Asia. 



Dardanus, king of Troy, builds 
Dardania. 



Ericthonius reigns in Troy. 



Cushanrishathaim, kiiig of 
Mesopotamia. (See Scrip 
ture.) 

Teucer, king of Troy, 



Troas, king of Troy. 
IIus, son of Troas, founder of 
Ilium. 



Laomedon, king of Troy. 
Phenicia : TYRE founded. 

Second Assyrian Dynasty : 

Mithreaus or Ninus II. 
Troy taken by the Argonauts. 



Hercules arrives in Phrygia. 
Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 
les, first king of LYDIA. 
Priam, king of Troy. 
Tautanas, king of Assyria. 



The TROJAN WAR begins. 
Troy taken, 403 years before 

the 1st Olympiad. 
Teutaeus, kmg of Assyria. 
Trojans migrate into Italy. 



Africa. 



1491. Pharaoh and his army 
drowned in the Red Sea. 

1485. Egyptus reigns, and 
gives name to the country. 



Europe. 



1376. Sethoa jeigns in Egypt. 



1233. Carthage founded by the 
Tyrians 



Sthenelus reigns in Argoa. 



1474. Danaus usurps the king- 
dom of Argos. 

1463. Damnonii invade Ire- 
land. 

1457. The kingdom of Mycene 
begins under Perseus, lata 
'king of Argos. 

1453. Olympic games first ce- 
lebrated at Elis. 

1438. Pandion begins to reign 
at Athens. 

1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 

1397. CORINTH becomes a 
kingdom under Sisyphus. 

1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 

1376. The Isthmian games in- 
stituted. 

1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- 
troduced. 



1283. ^geus reigns in Attica. 

1266. CEdipus, king of Thebes. 

1263. The Argonautic Expe- 
dition. 

1257. Theseus unites the cities 
of Attica under one govern- 
ment. 

1243. The Arcadians conduclei 
by Evanderinto Italy. — Mu- 
saeus, a poet. 

1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 



1225. First Theban War.— 
Euristhenes and Procle* 
kings of Lacedemon. 

1222. Hercules celebiates the 
Olympic Games. 

1216. War of the Epigonii, or 
2d Theban War. 

1213. Helen carried olT by 
Theseus, is recovereJ by 
Castor and Pollux, and mar- 
ries Menelaus. 

1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 
1182. ^neas lands in Italy. 
1176. Salamis founded by 

Tcuccri 
1170. Epii-us : Pyrrhus Neop- 

tolemus. 



10 



THE world's progress. 

Fourth Period. — ( The Mosaic or Theocratic.)- 



1115 
1100 



Progress of Society and the Arts. 



SACIlliL) IIISTOIIY. 



The Jews. 



Mariner's compass said to be known in 
China. (1) 

A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- 
ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- 
she. (7) 



1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and 
Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a 
portion of Israel, 

1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and 
becomes judge of a part of Israel. 



1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the 
jawbone of an ass. 



1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 
1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 



1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 
1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- 
NARCHY. — Saul anointed king of IsraeL 



THE world's progress." 

396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul. 



tl 



1141 
1139 



1122 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (.S';j7//a6u/oiis or uncertain.) 



Asia, 



Temple of Ephesus burnt by 

t,he Amazons. 
Thineeus, king of Assyria. 



China :— 3d dynasty;— Tchcoo. 



1109 Dercylus, king of Assyria. 



Africa. 



Europe. 



1152. Alba-Longa built by 
Ascanius. 



1124. JEolian migration. 

THEBES, the Capital of 
Bosotia, founded. 



1104. Return of theHeraclidae. 
—End of the kingdom of 
Mycene. 



12 



THE world's progress. 



FIFTH PERIOD.— (T^ Monarchical.)— 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C 


Progress op Society and the Arts. 


The Jews. 






1095. Saul, King of Israel. 






1085. David bom. 






1062. David kills Goliath. 




, 


1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron 
over Judah ; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- 
naim, over eleven tribes. 






1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king 
over all Israel. 




- 


1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- 
ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to 
the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on 
the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 






1036. Solomon born. 

1023. Revolt and death of Absalom. 
1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 


1015 


Minos gives his lates to Crete. 


1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of 
David. 

1016. David dies. 

1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the 
temple. 

1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S 
TEMPLE. 






1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- 
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, 
via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- 
tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad- 
mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec. and 
other cities. 




"'"'^-^ 


985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wives. 




"j^S-.-V 


975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. 
JusAH. Israel. 




— i*j~/ - ,-■,. 


975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 
971. Shishak plunders 

the temple. 
958. Abijah, king. 
955. Asa, king. 

954. Nadab, king. 
953 Baasha, king. 



THE world's progress. 

507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. 



13 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



Asia. 



1044 



The Ionian emigrants settle 
in Asia Minor. 



Al^nce between Solomon and 
Hiram, king of Tyre. 



986 



Samos built. 



971 



Sh&hak plunders Jerusalem. 



Africa. 



Alliance between Solomon and 
Pliaraoh. 



986. Utica built. 



978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- 
ture, and supposed Sesos- 
tris,) king of Egypt. 



Europe. 



1088. End of the kingdom of 

Sicyon. 
1070. Heremon, from Gallicia, 

conquers Ireland. 
1069. Codrus devotes himsell 

for Athens. 
1060. Athens governed by 

Archons. 



976. Capy? 
Longa. 



reigns in 



&Jb4« 



14 



THE world's progress. 



Fifth Period. — {Tlie Monarchical) — 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C. 


Progress op Society and the 


Arts. 


The Jew 


s. 








JUDAH. 

942. Asa defeats Ze- 
rah, king of Ethio- 
pia, with a million 
of men. 

941. — makes a league 
with Benhadad, king 




Israel. 








of Syria, 


930. 
929. 

918. 


Elah, king. 
Zimri, king. 
Omri, king. 
Aiiab, king. 


937 


Breastplates invented by Jason. 











Homer's poems brought into Greece. 
Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. 
Gold and silver coined by Phidon., tyrant of 
Argos. 



Prophecies of Jonah. 



Carpets in use for tents. 

The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels 

with three banks of oars. 
First recorded Olympiad and beginning of 

authentic chronology in Greece. 
Sculpture first mentioned in profane history — 

an Egyptian art. 



The first eclipse of the moon observed by the 
Chaldeans at Babylon. 

The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 
into India. 

Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 
12 months instead of 10 as before. 

Augurs instituted by Numa. 

Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- 
toius, and Evander, poets. 

Chess invented 



914. Jehoshaphat, 
king. 

907. Benhadad, king of 
Syria, besieges Sa- 
898. Jehoshaphat as- maria, but is re- 
sists Ahab. pulsed. 
894. War with Moab. 
839. Jehoram, king. 

897. Ahaziah, king. 
896. Jehoram, king. 
895. Elijah translated. 

884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. 
Athaliah, queen ; 
usurps the throne, 856. Jehoahaz, king. 
878. Jehoash, king. 



The Prophet Jo- S41. Jehoash, kin£ 



nah. 

839. Amaziah, king, 
810. Azariah, king. 



758. Jotham, king. 
742. Ahaz, king. 



717. Hezekiah, king. 

712. Sennacherib in- 
vades Judah. 

711. His army (185,- 
000) destroyed by a 
pestilence. 

696. Manasseh, king. 



825. Jeroboam, king. 
784. Interregnum. 
773. Zachanah, king. 

Shallum, king. 
772. Menahem, king. 
770. Pul invades Is-. 

rael, and is bribed 

to depart with 1000 

talents. 
762. Pekahiah, king. 
759. Pekah, king. 
Interregnum, 
Hoshea, king. 
721. CAPTIVITY OP 

ISRAEL. 



THE world's progress. 

507 years, — Saul to C2^rz<55.— (Continued.) 



t5 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



Asia. 



97i Homer bom. (?) 



Africa. 



840 Jonah preaches to the Nine- 
vites. 



820 Arbaces, king of Assyria.— 

Media revolts. 
797 Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. 

771 Pul, king of Nineveh. 



767 Sardanapalus, king of Nine- 
veh. 
Media subjected to Assyria, 

761 Alyattes, king of Lydia. 

747 ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— 
Assyrian empire destroyed. 
— Meles, king of Lydia. 

744 Pharnaces, king of Cappado- 
cia. 

736 Ti^Iath-Pileser conquers Sy- 
ria and part of Israel. 

735 Candaules, king of Lydia. 

721 Shalmanezer king of Nine- 
veh, takes Samaria, and car- 
ries the Ten Tribes into 
captivity. 

riB Gyges usurps the throne of 
Lydia. 

717 Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 

710 MEDIA becomes a kingdom 
under Dejoces. 

709 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. 



680 Babylon and Nineveh under 
Esarbaddon. 



Europe. 



869. Dido arrives in Africa, 
and builds Byrsa. 

825. The dynasty of the Ta- 
nites in Egypt ; begins with 
Peterbastes. 



781. The dynasty of the Saites 
in Egypt. 



737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 



935. Bacchus, king of Corinth. 



916. Calpetus, king of Alba- 



903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 

895. Tiberinus drowned in tha 
river Albula, which is thence 
called the Tiber. 



864. Romulus, king of Alba 
Longa. 



845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 



814. The kingdom of MACE- 
DON founded by Caranus. 
808. Procas, king of Alba. 
794. Numitor, " " 

794. Amulius, « « 



Olam Fodia, king in Ire- 
land. (■?) 

769. Syracuse founded by 
Archias of Corinth. 

753. BUILDING OF ROME. 

Catania founded by a co- 
lony from Chalcis. 

747. Union of Romans and 
Sabines. 

743. 1st Messinian War. 



716. Romulus murdered by the 

senators. 
715. Numa Pompilius. 
713. Gela in Sicily founded. 

703. Corcyra built by the Co- 
rinthiars. 

685. 2d Messinian War. 



m 



THE world's progress. 



Fifth Period. — {TJie Monarchical.)-^ 



Progress of Society and the Arts. 



Attempt to discover the primitive language of 
mankind ; Interpreters instituted by Psam- 
meticus ; children educated in the language 
and manners of Greece. 

Se-Matsien's history of China begins. 



The Spherical form of the earth and the true 
cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes, 
who discovers the electricity of amber. 



Periander encourages learning at Corinth. 



Draco frames his bloody code of laws at 
Athens. 



Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the 
Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 
120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 
out a Phcenician fleet which, sailing through 
the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the 
third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus 
circumnavigating Africa. 



Sappho, AlccRUS, Pittacus, Bius, Chilo, My- 
son, Anacharsis, jEsop, Ilychis, Theognis, 
Siesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmus (of 
Miletus), flourish at this time. 



Thales' prediction of a »olar eclipse accom- 
plished. — (See Asia.) 



Soloti's legislation in Athens, supersedes that 

of Draco. 
The Pythian Games at Delphi, 



SACRED HISTORY. 



The Jews. 



677. Manasseh carried to Balylon, is After' 
wards restored. 



640. Animon, king of Juc'iah. 

641. Josiah. king of Judah. 



cho. 



Josiah killed at Megidco, oy Pharaoh JNe- 



609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to 

Egypt. 

Jehoiakira, kmg. 



606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by 

Nebuchadnezzar. 



598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three montbt, 
and is carried captive to Bahylon. 
Zedekiah, king. 
591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 



588. CAPTIVITY OF J UD AH completed. 
JERUSALEM DESTROYED— the tem 

pie burnt. 
Ohadiah prophesies. 



xiE world's progress. 

507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 



17 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



B.C. 



676 



658 
648 
647 



634 
631 

626 

624 

619 
612 



Asia. 



C06 



604 
601 



509 
S96 



Ardysus II., king of Lydia, 



Holofernes, Assyrian general. 



Phraortes, king of Media, 

Saracus, king of Babylon and 

Nineveh. 
Phraortes conquers Persia, 

Armenia, &c. 



Cyaxares, king of Media. 
Sadyattesj king of Lydia. 

Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- 
racus. 

The Scythians invade Lydia 
and Media. 

Alyattes II., king of Lydia. 

Nineveh a second time destroy- 
ed. 

Nabopolassar, king of Baby- 
lon. 



Africa. 



Pharaoh-Necho defeated by 
Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- 
sium, on the Euphrates. 

Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 
bylon. 

Daniel interprets the king's 
dream. 

A solar eclipse predicted by 
Thales — separates the Medes 
and Lydians in battle. iNew- 
ton's Chron.,5S5.) 

Birth of Cyrus. 

Astyages of Media drives out 
the Scythians. 



660. Psammeticus, king of 
Egypt. — Memphis becomes 
the capital of the kingdom. 



Europe. 



610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of 
Egypt. 



600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 



594. Pharaoh-Hophra, kiig of 
Egypt. 



678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma» 

cedon. 
672. TuUus Hostilius, king oi 

Rome. 
668. Messina in Sicily founded. 
665. Alba destroyed. 
664. Sea fight ' between the 

Corinthians arid Corcyreans. 

658. BYZANTIUM founded. 



640. Ancus Martius. — The port 
of Ostia built.— The Latins 
conquered by the Romans. — 

Philip, 1st king of Mace- 
don. 

629. Periander rules at Co- 
rinth. 



616. Tarquinius Priscus, king 
of Rome. 



602. ^ropus, king of JlafB' 
don, conquers Illyrijw 



594. Solon, Archor of Athsna 



18 



THE world's rROGRESS, 

SIXTH VE^lOD.—iTJie Persian.)- 



B.c Progress of Society. 



685 



578 3Iojiei/ coined at Rome hy Set- 
vius TuUius. 



568 



562 



540 



Depoenus and Scyllis open a 
school of statuart/ a.i Athens. 

Naucrates given to the Greeks 
by Egypt as a factory. 

Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- 
bited cities. 

Fii'st comedy acted at Athens 
on a cart, by Susarion and 
Dolon. 

Dials invented by Anaximan 
der of Miiems. 

Anaximenes, Cleobulua. 



535 



527 



5Zi 



Jews. 



559. Handwriting on the wall 
at Bclshazzar's feast. 



The Corinthian order of ar- 
chitecture invented by Cali- 
machus. 

Zoroaster^ the Persian Philo 
sopher. 

Simonides, Anacreon, poets. 



Thespis performs the first 
tri~gedy at Athens. 



Learning encouraged at Ath 
ens. — Firet public library 
founded. 

Confucius the Chinese philO' 

sopher. 
The Doric issued by Darxus. 



536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- 
turn of J,he Jews. 
Joshua, Zerubbabel. 

535. Rebuilding of the tem- 
ple begins. 

Zechariah, Haggai, 



Asia. 



582. Nebuchadnezzar invadei 
Elam— takes Susa. 



572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 

569. Nebuchadnezzar losms 
his reason is deposed. 
New Tyre founded. 



562. Croesus, king ot Lydia. 

Solon and ^sop at his court. 
561. Evil-Merodach, king of 

Babylon. 

559. Neriglissar or Belshazzar 
killed in the night. 

Cyaxares H. (Darius) 
king of Media. 

Cyrus the Persian assists 
him. 
Asia Minor subjected to Cros 
sus. 



546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. — 
Croesus made prisoner. — 
The Lydian Kingdom end- 
ed. 

538. BABYLON TAKEN by 
Cyrus. 

536. PERSIAN EMPIRE 
founded by CYRUS, com- 
posed of Assyria, Media and 
Persia. 



529. Cambyses, king of Per- 
sia. 



522. Darius Hystasp«3, king 
of Persia. 



516. Dedication of the second 
temple. 



THE world's progress. 



19 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander the Great. 



Africa. 



681 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 



571 
569 



536 



^5 



Apries taken prisoner, and 
strangled in his palace. 

Amasis, king — connection be 
tween Greece and Egypt. 



Greece. 



585. Death of Periander, tyrant 
of Corinth. 

582. Corinth becomes a repub- 
lic. 



Pythagoras visits Egypt. 



Psammenitus, last king of 
Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- 
byses, who defeats the 
Egyptians at Pelusium, and 
takes Memphis. 

Egypt becomes a Persian 
Province. 



560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Ath- 
ens. 



Rome, etc. 



578. Servius TuUius, king of 
Rome. 



567. Conque&t of the Etrurians 

by Rome. 
565. First census of Rome: 

84,700 citizens. 



549. Temple of Apollo at 
Delphi burnt by the Pisis- 
tratidae. 

547. Amyntas, king of Mace- 
don. 



539. The Phocians emigrate to 
Gaul and build Massilia 
(now Marseilles). 



527. Pisistratus dies. 



522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- 

mos. 
514. Hipparchus killed. 



510. The Pisistratidre expelled. 
— Democracy estab Pished at 
Athens. — Statues erected to 
Harmodius and Aristogiton, 
leaders m the revolution. 



534. Tarquinius Superbufl, 
king of Rome. 

530. Cadiz built by the Car- 
thaginians (near the ancient 
Tarshish). 



20 



THE world's progress. 

Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)- 



B. c. Progress of Society. 



509 Abolition of the Regal Govern- 
ment, and establishment of 
Republic at Rome. 



507 



500 



HeracUtus, Theano, Prota- 
goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- 
phers. — Corinna, poetess. 

The Phmnician letters carried 
to Ireland from Spain. 

Pythagoras teaches the doc- 
trine of celestial motions. 

The temple of Minerva built. 



The Jews. 



483 The Etrurians excel in music, 
tlie drama and architecture. 



479 JSschylus, Pindar, poets. 



4*7 Simonides, of Cos, obtains the 
prize at Olympia, for teach- 
mg a system oi Mnemonics., 
which he had invented. 

473 Empirics instituted by Acron, 
of Agrigentum. 

471 Thucydides born. 

4^ Sophocles, the tragic, and 
Plato, the comic poet. 



460 Voyage of the Carthaginians 
to Britain for tin 



483. Joachim, High Priest. 



Asia. 



508. Darius conquers India. 



500. The lonians revolt from 
Persia and burn Sardis. 



490. Darius sends an army of 
500,000 men mto Greece. 



487. Artabazes, king of Pon- 

tus. 
486. Xerxes, king of Pereia. 

481. The expedition of Xerxes 

into Greece. 
480. The family of Archean- 

actes, from Mytilene, settle 

in Bosphorus (now Circas- 

sia.) 



478. Death of Confucius.— 
China distracted by internal 
wars. 



458. Esther. 

457. Ezi'a goes to Jerusalem, 

collects the Jewish Scrip 

tures : and 
453. —writes the Chronicles. 



466. Persians defeated by sea 

and land. 
465. Xerxes assassinated. 
464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima- 

nus,) king of Persia. 



THE world's progress. 



21 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



487 



480 



Africa. 



Egypt revolts — is subdued by 
Xerxes. 



Hamilcar killed in battle. 



Greece. 



460 



455 



Rome and Italy. 



Egypt, under Inarus, revolts 
from Persia. 



All Egypt reduced by Megaby- 

BUS. 



505. Lacedemonian War. 
504. Lemnos taken by Milti- 
ades. 



497. Alexander 1st, king of 
Macedon. 

Hippocrates, tyrant of 
Gela. 

490. Invasion of the Persians 
under Daiis and Artapher- 
nes. 

Battle of MARATHON. 



489. Miltiades imprisoned. 
484. Herodotus born. 
483. Aristides banished. 



480. Battle of Thermopylae. 
Athens burnt by Xerxes. 
Battle of Salamis. 
479. Mardonius a second time 
takes Athens. 

Defeat of the Persians at 
Platea and Mycale on the 
same day. 

(?) 
476. Themistocles rebuilds 

Athens. — The Piraeus built. 

470. Cimon son of Miltiades. — 
Themistocles banished. — 
The kingdom of the Odrysse 
extends over the most of 
Thrace. 

466. The Persians twice de- 
feated at the Eurymedon by 
Cimon. 

465. 3d Messinian War. 

461. Ostracism of Cimon. — 
Pericles rises to great 
power. 

459. Athens assumes to be the 
head of Greece. 

456. Cimon recalled. 



509. The Tarqums expelled 

fiom Rome. 
Brutcs and Collatinus 

first Consuls of Rome. 

507. Second census of Rome, 

130,909 citizens. 
The Capitol finished.— War 

against the Tarquins and 

their ally Porsenna. 



tor. 



Titus Lartius, firat Dicta- 



Tribunes of the people. 
496. Posthumius, Dictator. 



491. Coriolanus banished. 



8. At the request of his 
mother, Coriolanus with- 
draws the Volsci from Rome. 

485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 

483. Quaestors appointed. 



480. The Carthaginians de- 
feated by Gelon. 

479. Syracuse governed by 
Hiero. 



477. The 300 Fabii slain. 



467. Thrasybulus succeeds 
Hiero, and is expelled for 
his cruelty. 

Democracy in Syracuse. 



461. Earthquake at Rome. 



456. Cincinnatus Dictafcw 



THE world's progress. 

The Sixth Period. — (The Persian.) — 



450 



145 



441 



434 



432 



Pkogress of Society, etc. 



The Britons inflict punish- 
ment of death by drowning 
in a quagmire. 



Empedocles., Parmenides, 
Aristippus, and Antis- 
t/ienes, philosophers. — 
Phidias the finest sculp- 
tor of antiquity. — Euri- 
pides, gains the first prize 
in tragedy. 

The Battering Ram invented 
by Anemones. 



Aristophanes, prince of an- 
cient comedy. 



Meton begins his lunar cycle. 

Socrates, the greatest of hea^ 
then moralists. 

Hippocrates, of Cos, the father 
of medicine. 

Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- 
rians. 

Democritus, the laughing phi 
losopher. 



414 



410 



The Jews. 



445. Walls of Jerusalem built 
by Nehemiah. 

Sect of Samaritans. 



An eclipse of the sun causes 
the defeat'o/" the Athenians 
at Syracuse 



Thucydides' history ends, and 
Xenoplion's begins. 



Asia. 



449. Persians defeated at Sa- 
lamis in Cyprus. 
Peace with Greece. 



438. Spartacus takes posaiea- 
eion of the Bosphorus. 



425. Xerxes 11. k. of Persia 
424. Darius II. k. of Persia. 



404. ArtaxerxesII. (IVuiemoQ.) 

king of Persia. 



THE world's PROGRESS. 



23 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



B.C. 



Africa. 



Greece. 



Hi 



AmyrtsBUS, king of Egypt, 
shakes off the yoke of Per- 



407 The Carthaginians send 300,- 
000 men into Sicily. 



454. Perdiccas, II. , king of Ma- 
cedon. 

449. Cimon dies. 

448. First Sacred War. 
447. Athenians defeated at Che- 
roncea. 



440. Pericles takes Samos, 



437. Amphipolis planted by 

Athenians. 
436. Corinth at war with Cor- 

cyra. 



432. Revolt of Potidaea from 
the Athenian confederacy. 

431. The Peloponnesian War. 
Invasion of Attica. 

430. The Plague at Athens. 

429. Pericles dies, having gov- 
erned Athens 40 years. 

425. An earthquake separates 

the peninsula of Euboea 

from the main land. 
424. Exile of Thucydides. 
Campaign of Brasidas in 

Tlirscc 
420. The 90th Olympiad. 

Alcibiades effects a treaty 

between the Athenians and 

Argives. 
416. Nicias, general of the 

Athenians. 

War in Sicily . 
413. The Athenians alarmed by 

an eclipse. — Their army in 

Sicily destroyed. 
413. Archelaus, king of Mace- 
don. 
411. Athens governed by the 

400.— Alliance of Sparta 

with Persia. 
411. Alcibiades at the court of 

Tissaphemes. 
410. Alcibiades defeats the 

Spartans. 



408. Capture of Byzantium. 

405. Lysander defeats the 
Athenians, 404, takes Athens, 
and establishes the 30 ty- 
rants. 

End of the Peloponnesian 
War. 

Death of Alcibiadea. 



Rome, etc. 



451. Decemviri— the laws of 
the 12 tables. 

Virginia killed by her 
father. 



446. Syracuse reduces Agri- 
gentum. 

445. Military Tribunes. 

444. Office of Censor insti- 
tuted. 

440. Famine in Rome. 



437. The Veil defeated. 



434. War with the Tuscans. 

433. The temple of Apollo de- 
dicated. 
431. The Equi and Volsci d©« 

feated. 



24 



THE WOIILD'!? progress. 

The Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)- 



B. c. Progress of Society, etc. 



399 



396 



388 



The Jews. 



380 



377 



Catapulted invented by Diony- 
sius. 



Cynics, sect of philosophers 
founded by Antisthenes. 



Plato, the philosopher. 
Philoxenes, the poet. 



Treatise on conic sections by 
Aristcsus. 



Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates 
and Isoius, orators. 



Asia. 



401. Cyrus the younger de- 
feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 
under Xenophon. 

400. The city of Delhi found 
ed. 



387. The Greek cities of Asia 
tributary to Persia. 

383. BITHYNIA becomes a 
kinsrdom. 

Miihridates 1st, king oi 
PONTUS. 



368 A celestial globe brought into 
Greece from Egypt. 



360 



Philippics of Demosthenes. 



Commerce of Rhodes with 
Africa and Byzantium 



366. J.eshua slam by Johan- 
nan in the inner court of the 
temple, for which a heavy 
fine is laid on the daily sacri- 
fices. 



362. AriobarzaneskingofPon- 
tus. — Revolt of the Persian 
governor in Asia Minor. 

361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- 
erxes III. king of Persia. 

360. CAPPADOCIA becomes 
a kingdom under Ariarathcs L 



THE world's progress. 



25 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



379 



362 



360 



Africa. 



The Carthaginians land in 
Italy. 



Tachog, king of Egypt. 

Agesilaus, the Spartan, 
aids The Egyptians. 



Voyages of the Carthaginians 
under Hanno. 



Greece. 



401. Thrasyhulus expels the 
30 tyrants. 

i>eath of Socrates. 



399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- 
cedon. 



396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 
395. Corinthian War begun. — 
Battle of Coronea. 



382. Thebes taken by Phffibi- 
das. 

380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- 
pides and Epaminondas. 
100th Olympiad. 

377. Spartan fleet defeated at 
Naxos. 

372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- 
loponnesus, swallowed up 
by an earthquake. 

371. Battle of Leuctra. 

Alexander II., king of Ma- 
cedon. 

Predominance of Thebes. 

370. Perdiccas III., king of 
Macedon. 

364. Pelopidas killed in'battle. 

362. Battle of Mantinea, death 
of Epaminondas. 

Decline op Quectan 
Republics. 

360. Philip n., king of Mace- 
don. defeats the Athenians 
at Methone. 

The Macedonian phalanx. 

War of the allies against 
Athens. 



358. Philip takes Amphipolis 

and loses his right eye by an 

arrow from Astor. 
357. The 2d Sacred War. 
356. Philip conquers Thrace 

and Illyria. 

The Temple of Diana at 

Ephesus burnt. 

ALEXANDER«the 

Great" bom. 



Rome and Italy. 



400. Siege of Veil begun. 



397. Lake Alba drained. 



391. Camillus, Dictator, takes 
Veii, after a siege of ten 
years. 

390. Rome taken and burnt by 
the Gauls, under Brennus 
— The Capitol besieged. — 
Camillus delivers his coun- 
try. 

386. Damon and Pythias. 

384. M. Manlius Capiiolinus 
thrown from the Tarpeian 
rock. 



379. The Volsci defeat th« 
Romans. 



376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- 
beian consul. 

Camillus, the fifth time 
Dictator. 

371. The curule magistrates 
appointed. 



362. Curtius leaps into a gulf 
in the Forum. 



357. DionTsius, the younger 
expelloa from Syracutie. 



26 



^ 



THE world's progress. ? 

SEVENTH PEEIOD.— (TAe Grecian.)— 



i.e. Progress op Society, etc- 



M3 



342 



Aristotle, the logician and piii- 
losoplier, founder of the Pe- 
ripatetics; JSschines, ora- 
tor. 

Demosthenes ; Icetas, of Syra- 
cuse. 

The Lyceum built in Attica. 



336 



335 



Alexander spares the house of 

Pindar. 
The revolution of eclipses first 

calculated by Calippus, the 

Athenian. 

Caustic painting or the art 
of burning colors into wood 
or ivory, invented by Gau- 
sias, a painter of Sicyon. 



328 



320 



The voyage of Nearchus from 

the Indus to the Euphrates. 
Apelles, the painter ; Calis- 

thenes, philosopher. 
Menander, the inventor of the 

new comedy. 
Lysistratus invents moulds 

from which to cast wax 

figures. 



First work on mechanics, writ' 
ten by Ai'istotle. — Diving 
Bell first mentioned. 



The Jews. 



Asia. 



Alexander enters Jerusa- 
lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the 
High Priest, clad in his 
robes, he declares he had 
seen him in a vision, invit- 
ing him to Asia, and pro- 
mising him the Persian em- 
pire. He goes to the Tem- 
ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- 
vah, and departs. 



336. Mithriddtes II., kuisg ol 

Pontus. 



334. Battle of the Granicus. 

333. Battle of issi<s.—Parthia, 
Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana, 
and Asia Minor, conquered 
by Alexander. 

332. Tyre subdued after seven 
months' siege. 

Damascus taken. — Gaza 
surrenders. 

331. Battle of Arbela.—ThQ 
Persian army totally defeat- 
ed. 

330. CONQUEST of the PER- 
SIAN EMPIRE. 

329. Thalestris, queen of the 
Amazons, visits Alexander, 
with a train of 300 women. 

328. Alexander extends hia 
conquest to the Ganges. 

323. Alexander dies at Baby- 
lon. 

322. Peidiccas takes Cappa- 
docia. 



320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 
Jews into Eypt. 
Onias I, 



320. Eumene8 lefcatedby Aa- 
tigonus. 



THE world's progress. 



^7 



184 years. — Alexmider to tJie Fall of Gh-eece. 



349 



Africa. 



340 



SS2 



323 



Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, 
and pillages ita temples. 



The Carthaginians defeated by 
Timoleon. 



Egypt conquered by Alexan- 
der. 

Alexandria built. 



Ptolemy L 
gus.) 



(Soter, son of I,a- 



Greece — Macedon. 



353. The Phocians defeated bv 
Philip. 

348. End of the Sacred War. 
Philip takes Olynthus. 

346. Philip admitted to the 
Amphictyonic Council. 

345. Duras buried by an earth- 
quake. 

^3. Thrace tributaiy to Mace- 
don. 

Aristotle appointed tutor 
to Alexander. 



341. Philip makes war upon 
Athens. 

340. — lays siege to Byzantium. 
Timoleon recovers Syra- 
cuse, expels Dionysius, the 
tyrant, and defeats the Car- 
thaginians at Agrigentum. 

338. Philip defeats the Greeks 
at Cheronea. 

336. Philip is murdered by 
Pausanias. 

ALEXANDER III., sur- 
named the Great. — He rava- 
ges Greece, destroys Thebes, 
sparing the house of Pindar 

335. — is chosen generalissimo 
of Greece against Persia. 

334. — invades Persia, and after 
several great battles (see 
" Asia ") subdues the Per- 
sian empire and Egypt, and 
marches into India. 



330. .ffischines, the orator, 
banished. 



325. Demosthenes banished. 

323. Death of Alexander. — 
The Grecian cities revolt 
from Macedon. — Demosthe- 
nes recalled. 

322. The Greeks defeated by 
sea and land near Cranon. 
Death of Devwsthenes. 

321. Antipater, regent. 



319. Polysperchon succeeds 
Antipater, and proclaims 
liberty to the Grecian cities- 



Rome, etc. 



354. Dion put to death, and 
Syracuse usurped by ty- 
rants. 



345. Twelve cities ir Campa- 
nia buried by an earihquake. 

343. Samnian War, which con- 
tinues 53 years. 



340. P. Decius devotes him- 
self for his country. 

All Campania is subdued. 



332. The Caledonian mo- 
narchy (Scotland) founded 
by Fergus I. 



325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator. 



321. The Samniteis make the 
Romans pass under the yoke. 

320. The Samnites defeated aJ 
Luceria. 



28 



THE world's progress. 

Tlie Seventh Period. — [The Grecian^ 



B.C. Progress of Society, etc. 



Commerce of Macedon with 
India, through Egypt. 



The Appian Way constructed. 
— The Gnomon invented to 
measure altitudes. 



Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 



Euclid, of Alexandria, the 
celebrated mathematician. — 
Zeno, founder of the Stoics ; 
— Pyrrho, of the Skeptics; 
Epicurus, of the Epicu- 
reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- 
nes, philosopher. 

The great Chinese Wall built. 



The first sun-dial erected at 
Rome by Papirius Cursor, 
and the time first divided 
into hours. 



Fabius iXiito&vxzeB painting at 
Rome. 

The Colossus of Rhodes 
built by Chares, of Lindus. 



Theocrites, the father of pas- 
toral poetry. 

Dionysius, the astronomer at 
Alexandria, begins his era. 
He found the solar year to 
consist of 365 days, 5 hours, 
and 49 minutes. 

The Septuagint translation of 
the Old Testament, begun at 
Alexandria, by oi'der of Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus. 



The Jews. 



311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo- 
nus. 



301. Judea under the domi- 
nion of the Ptolemies. 



284. The sect of the Saddtcceea. 



Asia. 



312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator. 



311. Seleucus Nicator retakes 

Babylon. 

Era of the SeleucidcR. 
310. Eumeles usurps the 

throne of Bosphovus, putting 

to death all his brothers. 

After a reign of six years, is 

murdered. 



305. War in India, against 
Sandrocottus. 



301. Battle of Ipsus. — Antigo- 
nus killed. 

ALEXANDER'S EM- 
PIRE DIVIDED in four 

parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
Cassander. Lysimachus. 

Mithridates III., king of 
Pontus. 



291. Seleucus founds Antioch, 
Edessa, and Laodicea. 



285. The Scythiana inraiia 
Bosphorus. 



THE world's progress 



29 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



B.C 



307 
306 



Africa. 



GREliCE. 



Agathocles is defeated by the 
Carthaginians. 

Peace between Sicily and Car- 
tilage. 



318. Phocion put to death by 
the Athenians. 

317. Cassander assumes 
the government of Macedon. 
Demetrius Phalerius gov- 
erns Athens. 

315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, 
and founds Cassandria. 



312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II., 

the greatest hero of his time. 



306. Democracy established at 
Athens by Demetrius. 

304. Athenians repulsed from 
Rhodes. 

303. Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
general of the Grecian States. 



300. Restoration of Democracy 
at Athens. 



291. Death of Cassander. — 
Alexander and Antipater 
succeed. 

296. Siege of Athens, by De- 
metriiis. 

294. Demetrius murders Alex- 
ander, and seizes the throne 
of Macedon. 



287. Athens revolts from De- 
metrius. 

286. Pyrrhus expelled from 
Macedon. 



284. The Achaean Republic. 



Rome, et( 



317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp- 
ed by Agathocles. 



312. War with the Etruscans, 



310. The Carthaginians defeat 
Agathocles, and besiege Sy- 
racuse. 

308. Fabius Maximus 
defeats the Samnites. 



303. Establishment of the 
Tribus Urbance,. 



SOO.First Plebeian High Priest. 



290. End of the Samnite War. 



286. Law of Ilortensius, by 
which the decrees of the 
people had the force of those 
of the senate. 



30 



THE world's progress. 



The Seventh Period. — ( The Grecian^—' 



B.C. Progress of Society, etc. 



The Pharos built at Alexan- 
dria, the first light-house on 
record. 

Philetaenis, of Pergamus, pa- 
tron of the arts, especially 
Architecture. 

Alexandria, ■ the resort of the 
learned, and centre of trade. 

Chariots armed with scythes 
axi^ fortified camps ^ in use 



First society of critics formed. 



Ptolemy makes a ^anal from 

the Nile to the Red Sea. 
Silver money first coined. 



The Paria7i Chronicle cora- 

poseil 
Gladiators first exhibited at 

Rome. 



Berosus, the historian of Ba- 
bylon. 

The armillary sphere invented 
by Erustoslhenes.who maiie 
the first attempt to determine 
the length of a degree. 



Greece instructs the Romans 
in the arts and sciences. 



The Jews. 



Asia. 



•282. The kingdom of PER. 
GAMUS founded by Phile. 
tjfcrus. 

281. Lysimachus defeated and 
killed by Seleucus. — Antio- 
chus Soter succeeds Seleu- 
cus. 



266. Ariobarzanea III., kingo/ 

Pontus. 



262. Antiochus Soter defeated 
at Sardis. 



256. Kingdom of PARTIIIA 
founded by Arsaces. 

255. The fourth imperial dy- 
nasty of China begins. 



252. Mithridates IV., besiege J 
in his capital by the Gauls. 



248. Onias II., high prie=t 



THE world's progress, 



31 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



B.C. 



283 



269 



256 



251 



Africa. 



Ptolemy Philadelphus king of 
Egypt. 



Egypt first sends ambassadors 
to Rome. 



Regulus invades Africa, and is 
defeated by Xantippus, a 
Spartan general. 



Metellus defeats Asdrubal. 



Greece. 



283. Lysimachia destroyed by 
an earthquake. 



281. Lysimachus defeated and 
slain by Seleucus. 

The Achsean League of 
12 states, under Aratus, of 
Sicyon. 



279. Irrruption of the Gauls 

under Brennus. 
278. — they are defeated near 

Delphi. 
277. Antigonus Gonatus, king 

of Macedon. 



274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- 
don, defeats Antigonus, and 
is proclaimed king. 



272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 
and Argos — is slain, and An- 
tigonus is restored. 



268. Athens taken by Antigo- 
nus Gonatus. 

Second incursion of the 
Gauls into Macedon. 



255. Antigonus liberates 
Athens. 

Athens joins the Achaean 
league. 



251. Sicyon joins the Achaean 
league. 

250. The Romans begin to re- 
sort to Greece for improve- 
ment in knowledge. — Far- 
thia revolts from Macedon. 



Rome, etc. 



283. The Gauls and 
rians subdued. 



Etnb- 



281. The Tarentine War. 



280. The Tarentines seek the 
alliance of Pyrrhus, who 
conquers the Romans at 
Pandosia, and at 

279 — Asculum. 

278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- 
hus. 



275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, 
and compels him to leave 
Italy. 



272. Fall of Tarentum. 



266. Rome mistress of all Italy : 
census of the city 292 224. 

264. The first PUNIC WAR. 
— Appius Claudius drives 
Hiero from Syracuse. 

260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- 
tory over the Carthaginian 
fleet. 

256. Regulus gains ano- 
ther victory. 

255. The Lacedemonians as- 
sisting Carthage. — Xantip- 
pus defeats Regulus, and 
takes him prisoner. 

254. Palermo besieged by the 
Romans. — About this time 
the Huns are first heard of, 
governed by Teuman. 

249. Naval fight at Drapanura 



32 



THE world's progress. 

The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian.)—^ 



J 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Agrarianism attempted in 
Sparta, but is put down. 



Comedies first acted at Rome, 
those ofLivius Andronicus. 



The original MSS. of ^schij- 
lus, Euripides and iSlopho- 
cles, lent by the Athenians 
to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 
talents. 



Fabius Pictor, the first Roman 
historian. 

AppoUonius Rhodius, poet. — 
Chrysippus, Stoic philoso- 
pher. 

Archimedes^ the mathemati- 
cian, demonstrates the pro- 
perties of the lever, and 
other mechanical powers, 
also the art cf measuring 
solids and surfaces,and conic 
sections — constructs aplane- 
tarium. 



The art of Siorffery, introduced. 
An eclipse of the moon ob- 
served in Asis Minor. 



The Jews. 



237. Simon 11., High Priest. 



Asia. 



246. Antiochus II. poisoned by 

his wife. 



241. Attalus I., king of Perga^ 
mus. 



1 



22&. Seleucus III., k. of Syria. 



224. The Colossus of Rhode» 
thrown down. 



213. Chi Horg Ti destroys th« 
records of the Chinese em- 
pire. 

211. Antiochus tha 
Great, king of Syria. 



THE world's progress. 



m 



I 



184 


years. — (Continued.) 






B.C. 


Africa. 


Greece. 


Rome, etc. 


247 


Ilamilcar Barcas, general of 




247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- 




the Carthaginians. 




mans at Liliboeum. 


246 


Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy- 
ria. 








243. Corinth taken by A ratus. 








242. Demetrius II., of Mace- 








don. ., 








241. Agis, kirt* of Sparta, put 


241. End of the first Punic 






to death for attempting to es- 


War. 






tablish an Agrarian law. 








240. Cleanihus, the Stoic, 








starves liimself. 




238 


End of the Libyan War. 






237 


Ilamiloar with Hannibal, pass- 
es into Spain. 


232. Philip III., of Macedon. 

2281 Roman ambassadors first 
appear at Athens and Co- 


231. Sardinia and Corsica con- 
quered by Rome. 


227 


Carthagena in Spain, built by 


rinth. 






Asdrubal. 


The fortress of the Athe- 
n£eum built. 

226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- 
ta, defeats the Achseans.— 
Lyscades killed. — The Agra- 
rian law restored. 








225. The Romans send another 


225. The Gauls repulsed in 






embassy to Greece. They 


Italy. 






are admitted to a share in 






the Isthmian games, and 








. granted the Ireedom of Ath- 








ens. 


224. The Romans first cross 
the Po. 






223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- 


223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n - 






polis. 


t i a and Cremona. 






222. Battle of Sellasia. 


222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu- 


221 


Ptolemv Philopater, king of 




ria (Genoa) conquered "by 




Egypt. 


220. The SocialWar. 


Rome. 


219 


Conquests of Hannibal, 
the Carthaginian, in Spain ; 


— Philip, of Macedon, as- 


219. Hannibal takes Sagun- 




sists the Achaeans. — Cleome- 


tum, and crosses the Alps, 




He crosses the Alps. 


nes dies in Eyypt.— Agesi- 
polis and Lycurgus elected 
kings of Sparta. 








218. Acanania ceded to Philip. 


218. The Second Punic 
War . — The Romans de- 
feated by Hannibal at T i • 
c i n i s and T r e b 1 a . 

217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated 
at Thrasymene. 

216. Varro at C a n n ae to- 






215. A ratus poisoned at 


totally defeated by Hannibal. 






.^gium. 


F a b i u s M a x i in u s , 






214. First Macedonian War, 


Dictator. 






# 


212. Syracuse and Sicily con- 






quered by Marcel lus. 








— Archimedes killed. 




, 


211. Alliance of Philip with 


211. The Carthaginians driven 




« 


Hannibal. 


from Capua. 



84 



THE world's progress. 

The Seventh Period — (The Grccian.)- 



B. c. Progress of Socisrr, etc. 



207 



206 



202 



200 



198 



Ennius, of Calabria, poet; 
Sotion, of Alexandria, a 
grammarian. 

Plautus, of Umbria, the co- 
mic poet; Appollonius, of 
Perga, mathematician; Ze- 
710, of Tarsus, the philoso- 
pher. 

Gold coined at Rome. 



The art of printing in China. 



Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 

Alexandria. 
Caius Lelius, the Roman 

orator. 



Books, with leaves of vellum, 
introduced by Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls. 



18S 



183 



180 



The Jews. 



203. .TUDEA CONaUERED •JY 

Antiochus the Great. 



201. Onias III., High Priest. 



200. Jesus, the son of Sirach, 
writes Ecdesiasticus. 



198. The Jews assist Antio- 
chus in expelling Scopas and 
the Egyptian troops from 
Jerusalem. 



First mention of 
Sanhedrim. 



a Senate or 



A total edipsfi of the sun at 

Rome. 
Asiatic luxuries brought to 

Rome. 



A comet visible SO days. 
Bion and Moschus, comic 
poets. 

Statius CcBcilius, comic poet. 



Asia. 



206. The dynasty of H a n in 
China. 



197. Eumenes, king of Perga- 
mus. 

196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, 
who seizes the Thracian 
Chersonese. 



192. Syria at war with Rome. 
190. Scipio Asiaticus defeata 
Antiochus at Magnesia. 



187. Antiochus killed in the 
temple of Jupiter Belus. — 
Syria becomes a 
Roman province. 

186. The city of Artaxata (in 
Armenia) built. 

185. Seleucus IV., king of Sy- 
ria. 

133. Phamacesl.,king of Pon- 
tus, conquers S i n o p e . 



THE world's PROGRESS. 



35: 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



205 



202 



J 99 

198 



Africa. 



Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of 
Egypt. 

The Roman general Scipio be- 
sieges Utica, and takes in 
one day the camps of Asdru- 
bal and Syphax. 

Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- 
ba poisoned by Masinissa. 

Hannibal defeated at Z a m a . 
—End of the 2d Punic War. 



193 



180 



Treatj of Carthage with Ma- 
sinissa, king of iSTumidia. 

Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 
sions. 



Masinissa harasses the Cartha- 
ginians, and injures their 
commerce. 



Greece. 



208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. 
— Philip, of Macedon, de- 
feats the JEtolians. 



206. Battle of Mantinea : 
Philopcemen, the Prae- 
tor of Achaia, defeats the 
Spartans. 



200. The Rhodians defeat the 
Macedonian fleet near Chios. 
— Siege of Abydos. — Second 
Macedonian War begins. 



193. The Achfeans and Spar- 
tans join the Romans against 
Macedon. 

197. Philip III. defeated at Cy- 
nocephalae by the Romans, 
under Flaminius. 

195. Flaminius, the Roman, 
quarrels with Nabis, king of 
Sparta. 



189. Epirus declared free by 

the Romans. 
188. Philopcemen abrogates 

ihe laws of Lycurgus in 

Sparta. 



Rome, etc. 



Ptolemy Philometer, king of 
Egypt. 



210. Scipio takes New 
Carthage, and conquers As- 
drubal. 

207. Nero and Livy defeat As- 
drubal at Metaurus — Asdru- 
bal killed. 

206. The Carthaginians driven 
out of Spain. 



204. Scipio carries the war 
into Africa. 



201. Scipio carries Syphax in 
triumph to Rome. 



183. Philopcemen defeated and 
killed by Dinocrates, king of 
Messinia. ^ 



197. Flaminius victorious in 
Macedon. 

195. C a t in Spain. 



190. War with Antiochus, of 
Syria, who is totally defeat- 
ed by L. C. Scipio, and 

188. Syria is made a Roman 
province. 

187. Scipio Africanus banish- 
ed from Rome. 



183. Cato, the elder, censot 
181. Plague at Rome. 

180. Death of Scipio Africa- 
nus. 

179. Numa's books found m & 
stone coffin at Rome. 



SB 



THE world's progress. 

The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian.)- 



*. c. Progress of Society, etc. 



17: 
169 



168 



167 



162 



161 



159 



Paper invented in China. 

Polybms, historian of Greece 
and Rome. 

The comedies of Terence per- 
formed. 

An eclipse of the moon, which 
was predicted by Q.. S- Gal- 
lus. 

The Jirst library opened at 
Rome, consisting of books 
brought from Macedon. 

The Roman treasury is so rich 
that the citizens pay no 
taxes. 

Hipparchus of Nice fixes the 
first degree of longitude and 
latitude at Ferro, whose 
most western point was 
made the first genei'al meri- 
dian — lays the foundation of 
Trigonometry. 

Philosophers and rhetoricians 
banished from Rome. 



The clepsydra or water clock 
invented by Scipio Nascia. 



The Jews. 



176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 

175. Jason obtains the high 

priesthood by corruption. 

172. Jason defeated by Mene- 
laus. 



170. Jerusalem and the temple 
plundered by Antiochus 
Epiphanes, who attempts to 
abolish the Jewish religion, 
and commits great cruelties. 



167. Matthias, High Priest. 



165. Judas Maccabeus ex- 
pels the Syrians, and puri- 
fies the temple. 



Asia. 



150 Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro 
nomer. — Aristarchus, of 
Alexandria, grammarian. 



161. Judas kills Nicanor — is 
succeeded by Jonathan. 

First treaty with the Ro- 
mans. 



158. Jonathan compels the Bac- 
chides to withdraw — is mur- 
dered by Tryphon. 



150. Jews take Joppa. 



172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha- 
nes) king of Syria. 

171 — declares war against Pto- 
lemy Philomater. 

170. An irruption of Tartan 
into China. 



166. Prusias, kirgoflithyma. 



164. Antiochus Epiphanes 

died. 
162. Demetrius Soter, king of 

Syria. 

Mithridates Philopater, 

king of Cappadocia. 



157. Mithridates V,, king o'. 
Pontus. 



153. Ariarafhes VII., king oi 

Cappadocia. 



150. Alexander Bala kills De- 
metrius,and takes the throne. 



149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kill- 
ed by his son Nicomedes. 



THE world's progress. 

184 years. — (Continued.) 



21 



B. C 



174 



Africa. 



Ca',; s embassy to Carthage. 



152 
151 



146 



Greece. 



178. Perseus, king of Mace- 
don. 



171. Third Macedonian War. 



168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- 
na, by Paulus Emilius. — 
Macedon becomes a Ro- 
man Province. 



165. Romans enter Achaia. 



Rome, etc. 



Massinissa defeats the Cartha- 
ginians. 

Joint reign of Philomater and 
Physcon in Egypt. 



CARTHAGE TAKEN 

destroyed. 



and 



170. Tiberius and Caiue 
Gracchus. 



167. Census 327,032. 



155. Embassy of Diogenes, 
Carniades, and Critolaus to 
Rome. 



152. Andriscus usurping the 
government of MacedSn, is 
conquered by Metellus. 



147. Metellus defeats the Ach- 
seans in Greece. 

146. Corinth taken and de- 
stroyed by Mumraius. — 
GREECE becomes a RO- 
MAN PROVINCE under 
the name of Achaia. 



155. Romans unsuccessful in 
Spain. 



151. Defeat of Galba. 



149. Third Punic War. 



Conquest of Carthage and 
of Corinth. 

Greece annexed to the 
Roman empire. 



38 



THE world's progress. • 

EIOHTH PERIOD.— (T^e Roman.)- 



R.C. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


116 


Alexandria, the centre of com- 
merce. 






143 


Hipparchus begins his new 








cycle of the moon. 


142. Simon, High Priest. 




140 


Toothed icheels applied to the 
clepsydra by Clesibius. 






137 


Learning and learned men 




137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetes,) 




liberally patronized by Ptol- 




king of Syria. 




emy Physcon. 








Diodorus and Satyrus, peri- 








patetics ; Nicander. physi- 








cian and poet ; Lucius Ac- 


135. End of the Apocrypha. — 






ciics, tragic poet ; Arislobu- 


Jerusalem besieged by An- 






lus, the Jewish peripatetic. 


tiochus IV. 


134. Antiochus invades Judea. 


J 33 


Equestrian order, a distinct 
class. 






130 


Revival of learning in China. 


130. John Hyrcanus delivers 


130. Antiochus IV. defeated 






Judea from the Syrian yoke : 


and killed in a war with Par- 






— reduces Samaria and Idu- 


thia. 






mea. 


lS9. Demetrius II. (Nicator) 

regains Syria. 
123. Mithridates the Great, 


120 


The theory of eclipses known 
to the Chinese. 




king of Pontus. 




. 




116 


L. Ccelius Antipater, histo- 
rian ; Lucillius, the first 
Roman satirist; Apollodo- 
rus, of Athens, chronologist ; 
Castor, of Rhodes, chrono- 
logist; Anthemgn, philoso- 




• 




pher. 




HI. Mithridates conquers Scy* 


110 


Firsii; sumptuary law at Rome. 




thia, Bo.5phorus, Colchia, 






103. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- 


&c. 






rid.. 
107. — succeeded by his son 








Aristobulus, who first as- 








sumes the title of king. 








10.5. Alexander Janneus at 








war with Egypt— takes Ga- 








za. — Rebellion excited by 








the Pharisees. 





THE world's progress. 



39 



146 years. — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. 



B C. 

146 
145 



Africa. 



Commerce of the world cen- 
tres at Alexandria. 

Ptolemy Physcon becomes 
sole king of Egypt by the 
death of Philomater. 



I 



129 

128 
123 
118 



116 
112 



107 



105 



Ptolemy Physcon driven from 
his throne for his cruelty. 

Pestilence ia Egypt. 

Carthage rebuilt. 

Death of Micipsa, king of 
Numidia, and the assassina- 
tion of Hiempsal by Jugur- 
tha. 

Ptolemy Lathy rus, king of 
Egypt. 

Jugurthine War. 



Alexander I , king of Egypt. 



Jugurtha is defeated and sur- 
renders Numidia to the Ro- 



Roman Empire. 



In the East. 



In Europe. 



133. Pergamds, a Roman 
Province. 



118. Dalmatia, a Roman 
Province. 



141. Numantian War. 

140. The Picts from the north 

of England settle in the south 

of Scotland. 



135. Servile -yar in Sicily, 



133. Numantia destroyed by 
Scipio : Spain becomes a 
Roman Province. 

Death of Tiberius Grac- 
chus. 



123. Tribunate of Caiua 
Gracchus. 



113. First great migration qf 
the German nations. 



109. War of the Teuton! and 
Cimbri. 



105. Numidia becomes a Ro- 
man province by the defeat 
of Jugurtha. 

104 The Teutoni defeat 80,000 
Romans on the banks of the 
Rhone. 

102. M a r i u s victorious 
over the Teutoni and Ambro- 
nes at Aquss Sextse. 

101. Marius and Catullus de- 
feat the Cimbri. 

100. Marius buys his sixth con- 
Banishment of Metellufc 



40 



THE world's progress. 

27^6 Eighth Period. — [The Rojjian.)- 



B. c Prooress of Society, etc. 



70 



66 



Libraries of Athens sent to 
Rome by Sylla. 



Decline of Agriculture in 
Italy; corn supplied from 
tlie provinces. 

Posidonius calculates the 
height of the atmosphere to 
be about 800 stadia. 

Zeno^ of Sidon, the Epicurean ; 
ApeUicon of Athens ; Alex- 
ander Polyphislor^ihe gram- 
marian ; Photius Gallus, 
rhetorician ; Q. Valerius 
Anlias^ Roman historian ; 
Q. Ilortensius, orator. 

The cherry tree brought to 
Europe from Asia by Lu- 
cuUus. — Terentius Varro 
writes three books on agri- 
culture. 

The Romans possess gold 
mines in Asia Minor, Mace- 
donia, Sardinia and Gaul ; 
and productive silver mines 
in Spain. 

The first water mill described 
near a dwelling of Mithri- 
dates. 

Ebony introduced at Rome by 
Pompey. 

Vikramaditya king of Ozene, 
in India, patron of literature 
— at his court flourish Ame- 
ra Sinka, lexicographer ; 
Varuruchi, grammarian ; 
Kalidasa, poet. 



The Jews. 



79. Alexandra, widovf of Jan- 
neus, governs Judea. 



70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, 
deposed by his brother Aris- 
tobulus. 

67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus 
appeal to Pompey, who en- 
ters Judea and takes Jerusa- 
lem, and restores Hyrcanus 
to the priesthood. 



63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- 
VINCE. 



Asia. 



98. China still submits to the 
Han dynasty ; S e m a t - 
z i n , Emperor. 

97. Mithridates conquers Cap- 
padocia. 

95. Cappadocia declared free 
by Ptome. — Ariobarzanea 
elected king. 

94. Antiochus, king of Syria, 
defeated ly Seleucus. 

93. Tigranes, king of Arme- 
nia. 



Pontus at war with Rome. 



86. Mithridates takes Bythi- 
nia and several Roman'pro- 
vinces. 

83. Tigranes made king of 
Syria. 



75. By the death of Nicome- 
des Bythinia becomes a 
province. 



70. Damascus possessed by 

the Romans. 
69. Mithridates and Tigranea 

defeated by Lucullus. 
56. Mithridates defeated ty 

Pompey. 

65. Antiochus XII. defeated 
by Pompey. — The race of 
the Seleucidae becoir.es ex- 
tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., 
king of Cappadocia. — An 
earthquake in Bosphorus 
lays in ruins several towns. 

64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia, 
seizes Armenia Minor. 

63. Pharmaces, king of Pontua 



THE world's progress. 



41 



146 years. — (Continued.) 



ff7 



Africa. 



By the death of Ptolemy 
Apion, Cyrene becomes a 
Roman province. 



65 



Roman Empire. 



In Asia and Africa. 



97. Annexation of Cyrene. 



Revolt in Upper Egypt. — 

Thebes destroyed. 
Alexander II., king of Egypt. 



Ptolemy Auletes, king of 
Egypt. 



89. Mithridatic War; Sylla 

commands the Roman army. 
88. The Athenians seek as 

sistance from Mithridates 

against Rome. 
86. Athens, reduced by famine, 

is taken by Sylla. 

83. Second Mithridatic War. 
82. Sylla plunders the temple 
of Delphi. 



79. P m p e y defeats Do- 
mitius in Africa. 



75. Bythinia a Roman 
Province. 



74. Third Mithridatic War 
under LucuUus. 



In Europe. 

99. Lusitania conquered 
by Dolabella, and becomes 
a Roman province. — Birth 
of Julius Caesar. 



66. Metellus subdues Crete. 
P o n t u s becomes a 

Roman Province. 
65. Syria, a Roman 

Province. 



91. Social War in Italy. 



?- Sylla defeating the 
Marsi and Peligni, puts an 
end to the Social War. 

Civil War between Ma- 
rius and Sylla. 



82. Sylla defeats Marius, and 
is created perpetual dictator. 

80. JULIUS CiESAR'S First 
Campaign. 



77. Sertorius revolts in Spain 
and defeats Metellus and 
Pompey. 



73. War of Spartacus, the gla- 
diator. 

71. Spartacus defeated by Cras 
sus. 



70. Pompey and Cras- 

sus Consuls. 
69. Census 450,090. 



65. M. T. Cicero, Consul. 



63. Catalme's Conspi^ 
racy detected and sujv 
pressed by Cicero. 



i^ 



THE world's progress. 

T/ie Eighth Period. — {The Roman.)- 



B.C. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


62 


Magnificent houses of the 
nobles; marble theatre of 
Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- 
tators. 






GO 


Cicero, statesman and orator ; 
Sallust, historian; Lucre- 
tius and Catullus, poets; 
Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhe- 
torician ; Aristomedes, of 
Crete, grammarian ; Andro- 
nicus, of Rhodes, peripate- 
tic philosopher. 






55 


Iron chain cables used by the 

Veneti. 










53. Crassus plunders the tem- 


53. Parthian War.— The Ro- 






ple of 10,000 talents. 


mans defeated. — Crassus 
slain. 


60 


A water mill on the Tiber at 
Rome. 


48. Antipater, the Idumean, is 
made lieutenant in Judea by 
Caesar. 


49. The era of Antioch. 


47 


The Alexandrian library (400,- 




47. Battle of Zela.— PhamaCM 


46 


000 vols.) burnt. 
The year of confusion — so 
called because the calendar 
was altered by Sosigenes. 




conquered by Caesar. 


45 


Ccesar reforms the Calendar, 








by introducing the solar in- 









stead of the lunar year. — 








First Julian year. — Vitru- 








vius, the greatest Roman ar- 
chitect. 
Cornelius Nepos, historian ; 




44. A comet saen ia China. 


43 


43. Judea oppressed by Cras- 






DiodoT us Siculus, histo- 


sus. 






rian. 


Malichus poisons Anti- 
pater. 
40. Herod the Great, son of 








Antipater, defeats his rival, 


39. The Parthians, under Par- 






Antigonus, and Parcorus, 


corus, defeated by Venti- 






the Parthian — takes .Terusa- 


dius. 






lem— marries Mariamne — is 


Darius, king of Pontus. 






made king by the Romans. 


38. Ariobarzanes dethroned l^ 
Marc Antony. 



THE world's progress. 



43 



146 years. — (Continued.) 



68 



46 



45 



43 



Africa. 



Ptolemy goes to Rome, Bere- 
nice reigns in his absence. 



The African War. — Scipio 
anc* Juba defeated at Thap- 
sus — Cato kills liimself at 
IJtica. — Ptolemy Dionysius 
drowned in the Nile. 

Caesar rebuilds Carthage. 



Cleopatra ]>oisons her brother 
and reigns alone 



Roman Esipire. 



East. 



53. Crassus defeated and killed 
in Parthia. 



48. Thessaly becomes the seat 
of war. — The Athenians de- 
clare for CaBsar against Pom- 
pey. 

Battle of Pharsaha: — Pom- 
pey, defeated by Caesar, flees 
into Egypt, and is slain there. 

47. Caesar takes Alexandria, 
and conquers Egypt. — Cae- 
sar victorious at Zela, in 
Asia. 

45. Corinth rebuilt by Csesar. 



West. 



60. First Triumvirate :- - 
Pompey, Crassus, and Julius 
Caesar. 

Sciold, first king of Den- 
mark. — Boh, a fierce son 
of Odin. 

58. Clodius procures the ban 
ishment of Cicero. — The 
Helvetii defeated by Julius 
Caesar. 

57. Cicero recallei.. — S a 1 - 
lust expelled from tho 
senate. — Gylf, king of Swe- 
den. 

55. Caesar passes the 
Rhine, defeats the Get- 
mans and Gauls, and In 
VADES Britain. 

54. Caesar's second invasion 
of Britain. 



52. Pompey, sole consul. 

51. Caesar completes the con- 
quest of Gaul., which be- 
comes a Roman province. 

49. Caesar passes the 
Rubicon, and in sixty 
days makes himself master 
of Italy— marches into Spain 
and forces Pompey's troops 
to surrender. 

48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 



45. Caesar perpetual 
dictator — he subdues 
the two sons of Pompey, and 
acquires the sole power. 

44. Caesar assassinated in the 
Senate House. 

43. Second Triumvirate : — 
Octavius Caesar, Marc An- 
tony, and Lepidus. — Cicero 
proscribed and murdered. 

42. The Battle of Philippi :— 
Antony and Octavius defeat 
Brutus and Cassius. 



44 



THE world's progress. 

The Eighth Pei'iod. — [The Rcmian.)- 



B. c. PRoaREss OF Society, etc. 



Golden age ..of Roman litera- 
ture. 

The revenue of the empire 
amounts to about 40 milhons 
sterling. — First standing ar- 
my in Rome. — Direct trade 
of Rome with India. — Silk 
and linen manufactories 
in the empire. 

Temple of Janus at Rome 
closed— there being now a 
general peace. 



Treasures of Egyptian art 
brought to Rome. — The Pan- 
theon built. 

Horace, Virgil, Tibtdlus, 
Propertius, poets ; Varrus 
and Tucca., critics; Livy., 
historian ; Maecenas, minis- 
ter of Augustus, patron of 
literature ; Strabo, geogra- 
pher; JEniilius Macer, of 
Verona, poet ; Agrijma, war- 
rior, and patron of the arts. 

Warship of Is is at Rome. 

Pantomimic dances intro 
duced on the Roman stage. 



Aqueducts constructed by 
Agrippa. 

Dedications of bioks first in- 
troduced. 



The Jews. 



30. Herod kills Mariamne. 



Asia. 



34. Antony takes possession 
of Armenia, which becomes 
a Roman province — leads 
an inglorious expeditioa 
against Parthia. 



29. E p h e s u s , next to 
Alexandria, the chief place 
of trade in the Roman ens- 
pire. 



19. The Temple rebuilt by 
Herod — he also builds Cy- 
pron, Antipatris, Pharscelis, 
and the to'wer of Phaseel in 
Jerusalem. 



The legions distributed over 
the provinces in fixed camps, 
which soon grew into cities 
— among them were Bon7i 
and Mayence. 

The calendar corrected by 

Augustus. 
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, 
historian ; and Dionysius, 
geographer. 

BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- 
] fore the Vulgar Era. 
3. Archelaus succeeds Herod 
with the title of Etlmarch. 



Cyrenius taxes Judea. 



20. Porus, king of India, soli- 
cits an alliance with Rome. 
Parthians defeated by Ti- 
berius. 



14. Polemon coivjuers Bo» 

porus. 



THE world's progress. 



45 



146 years. — (Continued.) 



36 



34 



31 



Africa. 



Roman Empire. 



30 Alexandria taken by Octavius. 
— Antony and Cleopatra de- 
stroy themselves. 
Egypt becomes 4 Ro- 
man province. 



Cleo^ itra obtains from An- 
tony a grant of Phoenicia, 
Cyrene and Cyprus. 

— I'eceives all Asia from the 
rylediterranean to the Indus. 

Cleopatra and Marc Antony 
defeated by Octavius, ai 
Actium. 



East. 



21. Athens finally subjected to 

Rome. 
20. CXCth Olympiad. 



8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 

5. Q. Varriis appointed gov- 
ernor of Syria, and Cyre- 
nius governor of Judea. 



West. 



36. Sextus Pompey defeated 
in Sicily. 



32. Antony quarrels with Oc- 
tavius. 

31. By the BATTLE OF AC- 
TIUM Octavius acquires 
the empire. 



30. THE REPUBLIC BE- 
COMES A MONARCHY. 



29. Octavius s3 days triumph 
at Rome. 

Temple of Janus shut. 
Rome contains 4,101,017 
citizens. 
27. The titles of Augustus and 
Emperor conferred on Octa- 
vius lor 10 years. 



23. Agrippa in Spain. 



22. Conspiracy of Murasna. 

21. Augustus visits Greece 
and Asia. 

16. Lollius defeated by the 
Germans. 

15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhoe- 
bia, Vindeleiicia and Mcesia 
become Roman provinces — 
being conquered by Dru- 
sus. 

13. Augustus assumes the 
title of Pontifex Maximus. 

12. Pannonia, conquered by 
Tiberius, becomes a Ro- 
man province. 

11. Germany subdued rv Ger 
manicus. 



4. Cymbeline, king of Britaia 



PAllT II. 



MODERN CHRONOLOaY, 



FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



Epochas or Periods. 



J. From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Persecutiona Of 

to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 \ Christians. 



" Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 



III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 
X 

XI. 



" Flight of Mahomet, 



« 622 



•' Northern Invasions. 

" Justinian and Belisariua. 



" Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, " 800 \ P • - 

,. „ ... rxT .- u irtRRt " New Western Empire. 

" Battle of Hastings, " 1066 ^ -^ 

« Foundmg of the Turkish Empire, « 1299 S " ^^« <^''«««^««- 

" iirq? " Tamerlane,WickIiffe,andSuB$. 



" Taking of Constantinople, 



" Edict of Nantes, 



" Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, « 1718 ' 



" Battle of Waterloo, 



* present time. <:1850.) 



i" The Reformation; Discoverien 
and Inventions. 

" The English Commonwealth 
and Wars of Louis XIV. 

" American and French RevolU' 
« 1815 < tions. 

{ " European Revolutions Litero- 
\ ture and the Arts. 



48 THE world's progress. 

MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st.— (TAe Ten Persecutions.)-- 



26 



30 



50 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Celsus, the physician; Phczdrus, the fabu- 
list ; VeUius Paterculus, Roman histo- 
rian. 



Sacred. 



The BIRTH OF CHRIST :— (see p. 44.) 
Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch 
of Galilee. 



8. Christ reasons with the doctors. 



The Druids in Germany. 



Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 
Seneca, moral philosopher. 



Valerius Maximus, historian. 

Appion, of Alexandria, erammarian, called 
the "Trumpet of the World." 



A census being taken by Claudius, the em- 
peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome 
are found to amount to 6, 90lX,000.—i Univ. 
iy/sf.)— [More than three times the number 
of London at present.] 

Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books 
on husbandry. 



25. Pontius Pilate, governor or" Judea. 

26. John the Baptist begins hSs ministry. 

27. Christ baptized by John 

23. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew 
called. 

29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, "two and 
two." 

30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- 
day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection, 
Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, 
May 4. 

33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 

34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 

39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 

40. The disciples first called Christians ae 
Antioch. 

41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 



44. <S'^ Mark writes his gospel. — Death of 
St. James. 

45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 



50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athens. 

52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 

55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Csesa* 
rea. 

57. — pleads before Felix. 
59. —pleads before Festus, and appeals to 
Caesar. 



THE world's progress. 



49 



306 



years. — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine. 



Roman Empire. 



East. 
Caius Csssar makes peace with the Parthians. 



26 



Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. 
Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. 



Thrace becomes a Roman province. 



West. 

Tiberius returns to Rome. 

3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. 

— Caius CaBsar dies. 
6. Q,. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- 
erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- 
vince. 
9. The Germans, under Arininius, defeat and 
kill Varrus. 
Ovid is banished to Tomos. 
14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is 
succeeded by 

Tiberius .^P . 



J 9. The Jews banished from Rome. — The 

Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 
21. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire. 



26. Tiberius retires to Capraea. 



3L Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 

33. Conquest of Mauritania. 

S7. Tiberius dies, aged 78. 

-Caligula,' 



(noted for his profligacy and folly.) 
4L Caligula assassinated by Chereas. 
Claudius ^m 



succeeds to the tnrone. 
43. — invades Britain with his general, Plau- 
tius. 

45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 
48. Census of the city, 6,900,000. 



51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con- 
quered and brought to Rome. 



54.- 



N e r o ,' 



a profligate and bloody tyrant. 

55. — poisons Britanicui?. 

56. Rotterdam built. 



69. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to death by 
his order. 



50 



THE world's progress. [Modem : Period I. — 306 years. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Nero's golden palace built ; of great extent, 
inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in 
Rome more regular after the fire. 



Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural 
history ; Qidntius Curtius, historian ; Per- 
sius, satirist. 

Jossphus, the Jewish historian. 



The Coliseum of Vespasian. 



The Capitol rebuilt. 
Circumnavigation of Scotland. 
Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 



Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of 
Titus ; the group of the Laocoon. 

Qiiintillian, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet ; 
Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Py- 
thagorean philosopher; Epictetus, stoic; 
Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- 
losopher ; Philo By'^ius ; Ignatius and Pa- 
pias, two of the fathers of the church. 



Tacitus, historian ; Juvenal, satirist ; S'ta- 
tius, poet ; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- 
rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; 
the younger Pliny. 



Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 



59. Paul is shipwrecked on the Island of 
Meliia (Malta). 

60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 

63. Paul set at liberty. 

64. The first persecution of Christians by 

Nero. 

63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travels 
through the greater part of the known 
world. 

66. Pope Linus.* 

The Jews at war with the Romans, and 
Paul beheaded. 
St. Peter crucified. 

67. The Jews massacred by Floras. — ^Josephus, 
governor of Galilee. 

Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliel 
63. Vespasian invades Judea. 



70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by Titua. 



77. Pope St. Cletus 



83. Pope Anacletus. 



95. Second persecution of the ChristianB by 
Domitian. 

St. John writes his Gospel and Afvoca- 
lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patmos. 

96. Pope Evaristus. 



97. Timothy stoned. 

St. John returns from exile. 



The Ulpian library; Public schools in all 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan, 
the provinces; Jurisprudence flourishes; 



the city adorned with the Foru^n ; Pillar 

f Trajan, " 

le Danube. 



of Trajan, and batlis; bridge built over 
th< " 



* The word Pope is used in accordance 
with the Roman Catholic usage, though the 
name was not adopted by their PontiiTs liK 
several centuries after. 



— Christian Era to Constanti?ie.] 



THE world's progress 



Roman Empire. 



GO 



65 



East. 



Corbul:) subdues Armenia. 



Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by 
Nero. 



Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by 

Tiius. 
Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, 

Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. 
Revolt of the Parthians. 



West. 



61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa- 
dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- 
feated by kiuetonius, poisons herself. 

64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the 
Christians of the crime. 

— persecutes the Christians — Seneca^ /,«• 
cian, and others put to death. 



68.- 



G a 1 b a ,' 



reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 



69. 



O th o ,' 



(2 months) defeated and killed by 



• V i t e 1 1 i u s , 



70.- 



who is defeated by the army of 
Vespasian. ^M 



77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in 
one day. • 



79.- 



■ Ti t u s, 



(beneficent.) 
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed 
by an irruption of Vesuvius. 
80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor 
of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 



81.- 



■ D m i t i a n , ^ 
( a cruel tyrant.) 



i. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, 
defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a 
Yearly tribute. 
88'. Capitoline and secular games. 
War with Dacia 15 years. 



96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. 



N e r V a , 



(well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) 



98.- 



■Tra.jan,W 



(a ffreat sovereign and a warrior.) 
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. 
J. Severus, general in Britain. 



52 



THE world's progress. 



[Modern: Period I. — 306 years. 



l.D. 



197 



12C 



132 



16 
169 

18C 



Progress of Society, etc. 



The first credible historian among the 
Chinese. 



The great buildings of Palmyra.- 

the Sun at Baalbec. 
The Roman inosaics. 



-Temple of 



Jurisprudence improved by the publishment 
of Adrian's perpetual code. 

Ptolem,y, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer 
and geographer — Arriafi, Appian, Maxi- 
mus, Lysius and Pausanius, Greek histo 
rians ; Lucian, a satirical writer ; Hermo- 
genes^ rhetorician of Tarsus. 



Tschang Heng., the Chinese astronomer 



Galen^ Greek physician ; Athceneus, a gram- 
marian; Diogenes Laertius^ Greek histo- 
rian. 



The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 



Ecclesiastical-. 



100. St. John dies at Ephesus, set. 94. 



107. Third persecution of the Christiana by 

Trajan. 
lO'i, St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts. 
Pope Alexander I. 



118. Fourth persecution of the Christians by 
Adrian. 

119. Pope Sixtusl. 



126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens. 

127. Pope Telesphorus. 

130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- 
unites. 



134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges 
three Gods. 

135. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers. 

139. Pope Hygenus. 



142. Pope Pius I. 

Heresy of Valentine. 



150. Pope Anicetus. 

Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. 

154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for 
the Christians. 



162. PopeSoter. 



167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia 



171. Pope Eleutherus. 

177. The Christians persecuted at LyCdSj- 
Theophilus, Tatian, and Montanas. 



185. Pope Victor I. 
St. Irencbua. 



—Christian Era to Constantine.] 



THE world's progress. 



53 



A.D. 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



102 Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his 
j account of the Christians.— Great victories 
of Trajan. 



114 Trajan's expedition against the Parthians. 

Seizure of Ctesiphon. 

Armenia Major again governed by its ov?n 
Icmgs dependent upon Rome. 

Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 
earthquake. 

Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. 

130 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of 
^lia Capitolina, and erects there a temple 
to .Jupiter. . 

132 The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war 
of five years.— The Jews banished from 
Judea. 



116 

117 



120 



126 



Went. 

100. The Huns emigrate westwar i. 

101. Trajan reduces Dacia. 



115 Massacre of the Greeks and Romans \n 
the Jews of Cyrene. 



ICO ETibassy sent by Antoninus to China. 



168 



War with the Parthians, lasts 3 years. 



117.- 



Adrian 



120. —makes t progress through all the 

121. provinces -visiis Br/tain. builds there 
a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.— A 
wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 



133.-— Antoninus Pius,^ 



(eminent for his virtues and love of peace ) 
140. Lollius Urbicus extends the Roman do- 
mmion in Britain, and erects a second ram- 
part, called the Wall of Anioninus. 

145. Anionmus defeats the JMoors, Germans, 
and Dacians. ' 

146. —introduces the worship of Serapis into 
Rome. 

152. —stops the persecution of the Christiana 



161.— Marcus Aurelius, ^ (An^ v 
ninus,) 
(the stoic philosopher.) 
Escape of the thundering legion. 
158. Plague over the whole knovvn world. 

169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 



180. The emperor dies at Sirmlum : suc- 
ceeded by 



Com modus, 



(profligate and cruel ;) makes peace 

with the Germans. 
GOTHS in Dacia. 



54 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Moder7i : Period I. — 306 yeaji, 



208 



215 



235 



ii2 



249 
250 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Ecclesiastical. 



197. Pope Zephyrinus. 



Papinian, the greatest civil lawyer of anu- 
quity — Julius Africanus, chronologer. 



Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen- 
ship to all the provinces, that they may be- 
come liable to the taxes, inheritances, &c. 



Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla- 
tonic philosophy at Alexandria. 
Dio Cassius, Greek historian. 



Censorius, a critic and grammarian. 



Herodian, Greek historian. 
Longinus, philosopher and critic. 



202. Fifih persecution of the Christians under 
Severus. — TerhilUan, an able defender of 
Christianity. — Clemens, of Alexandria, and 
Minutius Felix, C. F.* 



217. Pope Calixtus I. 

The" Sept uagint found in a cask. 



228. Pope Urban I. 
2-34. Pope Pontianus. 

235. Anterus. 

Origen, C. F. 

Sixth persecution of the Christians, under 
Maximinus, in which Leonidas, IrencBus, 
Victor, Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar- 
tyred. 



244. Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Dionysiua 
of Alexandria, C. F. 



250. Pope St. Cornelius. 

Seventh persecution of the Christian!. 



* Christian Father. 



•Christian Era to Consta7dine.] 



THE WOE.LD S PROGRESS. 



55 



Roman EiiPiRE. 



189 



Uast. 
The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 



223 



226 



242 



PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Artax- 
erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasidae). 

Parthia tributary to Persia. 



Gordian defeats the Persians under Sapoi-. 



West. 

189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light- 
ning. 

191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 

192. Commodus assassinated by Mania and 
Laeius. 



193. 



P e r t i n a X , ^§- 



proclaimed by the Prastonan guards — 
murdered alter a reign of 3 months.— The 
empire bought by JDidius Juliaiius, who 
is put to deatli by order of the senate. 



Septimus Sererus,] 
(governs with vigor.) 



— defeats his competitors, Niger and Albi- 
nus. 
194. — besieges Byzantium. 
202. — persecutes the Christians. 
203 — his sons Caracalla and Gea go to Bri- 
tain, where 50,000 Roman troops died of 
plague. 

The wall of Severus between the Forth 
and the Clyde built. 

211. Severus dies at York, in Britain. 

Caracalla and Geta. ^g 

Caracalla murders Geta. 

212. — visits the provinces along the Danube. 
— Wars with the Catti and Alemanni. 

217. Caracalla is assassinated. 

M a c r i h u s , 



put to death by the soldiers. 



218.- 



Heliopabalus 



(a monster of vice and cruelty.) 
222.- Alexander Severus .@ 



(a beneficent and enliglilened prince.) 
The Romans agree tu pay an annual tri- 
bute to the Goths, to prevent them from 
molesting the empire. 
226. The victoiy of Severus over the Persians 
at Tadmor. 

235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the 
army ; succeeded by 
'- M a X i ra i n u s , ^^ 



who defeats the Bacians and Sarmatians. 

236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops 
near Aquilea. 

— Balbinus and Gordian, ® — 
241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his- 
tory; they invade Gaul. 
244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacura. 
Gordian put to death by 

Philip .^y(the Arabian,) 

who makes makes peace with Sapor. 
247. The secular games restored. 



249 



D e c i u s 



persecutes the Christians. 
250. —slain by the Goths, who i.ivaJe the 
empire by crossing the Danube. 



56 



THE world's progress. [Modern : Period 7. —306 years. 



A.D. 



251 



268 



270 



274 



276 
277 



Pkogress of Society, etc. 



Plotinus. 

Odin in Scandinavia. 



Paulus, a Roman poet. 



Longinus at the court of Zenobia. 



Rome surrounded with a wall. 
Lon<?inus dies. 



Porphyry, the Greek philosopher and opposer 

of Christianity. 
Extraordinary naval ex^pedition of the Thra- 

ciau Franks in t ^3 Mediterranean and 

Northern Seas. 



284 



Diocletian's Oriental form of government — 
tire monarchy considered hereditary — nomi- 
nation of Csesars as co-rulers. 

Diocletian'' s baths, containing 3,000 benches 
of white marble, while the walls were 
adorned with paintings. 



Ecclesiastical. 



251. St Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. — Mo- 
nastic life originates about this time. 

Dispute between the churches of Rome 
and Africa about baptism. 



259. Pope Dionysius. 



262. PffiM^, bishop of Samosatia, deiiea the 
divinity of Jesus Christ 



269. Pope Felix I. 

272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 



274. Pope Eufychianes. 

Manes originates the heresy of the Mani- 
chaeans — rejects all the sacraments ; refuses 
allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 



283. Pope Caius. 

The Jewish Talmud and Targum com- 
posed. 
Paul, the Theban, the first hermit. — Reli- 
gious ceremonies multiplied. — Pagan ritea 
imitated by the Christians. 



286. nierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts 
that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and 
denies the resurrection. 



i 



• — Christian Era to oonstantine.] 



THE world's progress. 



57 



251 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



IIUNS on the Caspian Sea. 



259 

260 
261 



264 



269 
273 



The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 
Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman 

arms. 
The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and 

Caesarea. 

Odenatus, king of Palmyra — he is succeeded 

by his wife. 
Z e n o b i a, v^rho reigns with the titles of 

' Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' 



280 



Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, 

and Asia Minor. 
Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 

destroys lier magnificent capital, and carries 

her to Rome. 



The Persians iefeated by Probus. 



251.- 



West. 



GaUus 



purchases a peace with the Goths.— Con- 
federacy of the Franks beiween the Rhine 
and Elbe. 

—a great pestilence prevails in the empire. 



253.- 



254.- 



E m i 1 i a n u s 



Valerian 



— is successful against the Germans and 

Goths. 
256-69. Four great piratical expeditions of the 

Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 
259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and 

flayed alive by the Persians. 



G a 1 1 i e n u s 



Period of the 30 tyrants. 
The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 
264. Alliance with Odenatus. 

267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Gotha 
and Scythians. 

268. Gallienus killed at Milan. 



•Claudius 11.^ 



defeats an army of 320,001) Goths. 
269. — dies at Sirmium. 



270.- 



— Aurelian, ^^ 

(a great warrior.) 
271. —defeats the Goths and Aleraanni. 

273 — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- 
ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 

274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to 
obedience. 

The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. — 
Dacia given up to the barbarians. 

275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 
An interregnum of 6 mojiths. 



Tacitus, 



(a descendant of the historian,) 
reigns with wisdom 6 months. 



277.- 



Probus, 



(a warlike prince.) 
— obtains several victories over the barba- 
rians. — The Franks permitted by Probus to 
settle in Gaul. 
282. Probus slain by his soldiers. 



C a r u s 



killed by lightning. 

Carinus and Numerianus, 

(effeminate and cruel.) 
288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. 



284. 



Diocletian 



sends ambassadors to China. 
"The Era of Diocletian," or of "the 
martyrs," August 29. 
287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigna 
7 years. The empire attacked by the north- 
ern barbarians, and several provinces 
usurped by tyrants.— Maximianufl, a col- 
league of the Emperor. 



5* 



58 



THE world's progress 



[ModeTTi : Period I. — 306 years. 



A.D. 



290 



304 



312 



323 



330 



340 



357 



Progress of Society, etc. 



The Gregorian code. 



Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; E/ius, 
Sjwj'lianits, and Vopiscus, historians ; Tre- 
beUius Polio. 



Ecclesiastical. 



I 



296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 
Pope Marceilinus 



303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converte(? 
.'rom idolatry. 



The prceiorian guard broken up by Constan- 
tine. 



Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine 
the Great. — Celebrated dome of St Sophia: 
the splendor of the court so great that it 
cost more than the legions. 

Constantinople become^ the seat of art and 
literature. 



MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 years — 

306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by 
Constantius. 

310. Pope Eusebius., 
Arius excommunicated. 

311. Pope Malchiades. 



Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to 
have flourished about this time. 



Eutropius and Marceilinus., historians ; Jam- 
blicus and Eunapius, Greek historian. 



314. Pope Sylvester I. 

319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine 
the Great. 



325. The Council of Nice (from .Tune 19th, 
325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, 
who condemn Arisimsm.— Eusebius, bishop 
of Caesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- 
rian. — Lactantius. Athanasius, Arius, 
Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the 
reign of Constantine. 

336. Pope Marcus. 

337. Pope Julius. 

Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, 
the cross reverenced, and incense used by 
the Christians. 



341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by 
Frumaintius. 

356. Pope Felix II. 

St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of 
Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F. — 
Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthago. — 
Cyril, bishop of Je rusalem. — Monasteries in 
Thebais. 



— C/iristian Era io Consianiine.'] 



THE world's progress. 



59 



294 

296 
301 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



Nurses, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- 
potamia, and Assyria. 

Alexandria taken by Diocletian. 

Hormisdis, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. 



From Constantine to Odoacer. 



West. 



291. The Franks make themselves masters of 

Batavia and Flanders. 
293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 



296. Britain restored to the emperor. 



304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em- 
pire to 

Constantius and Galerius. 



325 
328 



333 

334 

337 



340 
350 
354 



361 



331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- 
ples to be destroyed. 



The first general council at Nice. 

The seat of government removed to Constan- 
tinople, v/hich was solemnly dedicated on 
May Uth, 330. 

Great famine and pestilence in Syria. 
Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- 

persed over the empire. 
Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, 

Constantius, Constans,and Constantine 



306. — Constantine the Great, ^g ■ 

(first Christian emperor.) 
Licinius, Maximian, and Maxentius, his 
three colleagues. 
Constantine defeats the Franks. 
312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 
314. Civil war with Licinius. 
319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- 
tianity. 

321. —appoints the observance of Sunday. 

322. —defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- 
comes sole emperor. 

325. —abolishes the combats of gladiators and 
assemblies. 



1.50 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 

earthquake. 
Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 

extensive empire. 
Gallus put to death by Constantius. 



Constantius dies at Tarsus. 

A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 



EASTERN EMPIRE 

extending from the lower Danube to the con- 
fines of Persia. 



340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and 

killed by Constans at Aqullea. 
350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 



357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at 
Strasburg. 



361.— Julian, the Apostate, ^g • 

— attempts in vain to rebuild the temple 
at Jerusalem. 
3G3. —is slain in a war with the Persians. 



Jovian 



364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of 
Valentinian and Valens, under whom the 
EMPIRE is DIVIDED : 

WESTERN EMPIRE, 

extending from the Caledonian ramparts 
to the foot of Mount Atlas. 



60 THE world's progress. 



[Modern: Period II. — 170 year*.. 



330 



302 



395 



412 



425 



(35 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Aurelius Victor, author of lives of celebrated 
Romans. 



Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 
Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- 
maticians. 



Claudian, Latin poet. 



Macrobius, Platonic philosopher. 



Theodosius establishes public schools, and at- 
tempts the restoration of learning. 



The Theodosian code published. 



Ecclesiastical. 



373. The Bible translated into the Gothic lan- 
guage. 



379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much 
enlarged. 

381. The second general Council of Constan- 
tinople. 



384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate 

for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 

385. Pope Syricius. 



392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople ; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan ; 
St. Jerome, St. Martin, and St. Augustine, 
' Christian Fathers.' 

Image worship. — The Christian hier- 
archy begins. 



401. Pope Innocent I. 



412. Cyn7, bishop of Alexandria; Isidore and 
Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosius, 
a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and 
Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi- 
nal sin, &c. 

416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the 
African bishops. 

417. Pope Zozimus. 

418. Pope Boniface I. 

422. Pope Celestine I. 



429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ao 
knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 

431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 

432. Pope Sixtus III. 

St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ira- 
land. 
435. Nestorianism prevails in the East. 



440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 

443. The ManickcBan books burned at Rome. 
445. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. 



— From Constantine to Odoacer.] 



THE world's progress. 



61 



Eastern Empire. 



V al e n s 



IIUNGAR V, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by 
the Huns, from whom it is named.— The 
Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by 
Valens lo settle in Thrace. 

Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near 
Adrianople. 

T h e o d o s i u s the Great, ^§ 

a zealous supporter of Christianity. 



Theodosius defeats Maximus, the tyrant of the 
western empire. 



Western Empire. 



364.- 



Valentinian 1, 
elected by the army. 



368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de- 
feated by Theodosius. 



375. 



G r a t i a n 



gains a victory over the Germans ; suc- 
ceeds to the eastern empire on the death ol 
Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. 
— Gratian killed at Lyons. 



379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- 
via, and defeat the Vandals. 



383. 



Valentin ian II. 



—is dispossessed by Maximus, but is re- 
stoied by Theodosius; makes Treves his 
capital. 
384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a 
Gaul, commander of the army. 



Theodo sius w 



becomes sole emperor of the East and West. 

Complete down fall of Paganism. 

Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. 

Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. 



A r c a d i u 



-Theodosius II. ^m — 
a child ; Athenius, minister. 



Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 



Persian War. 



Armenia divided between the Persians and 

Romans. 
A great part of Constantinople destroye.1 by 

fire. 

Pannonia, Dalmatiaand Noricum gained from 
the western empire. 



H n r i u s 



401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 

403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 

406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, 

Gaul, &c. 
410. Rome sacked and burned by the Gotfaa 

under Alaric. 
412 Beginning of the Vandal power in Spam. 

413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 

414. The'Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- 
louse. 



417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by 
the Goths. . 

420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their 
first king, on the lower Rhine. 



424. — Valentinian III -^S ' 

426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 

427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 

428. ^tius, the Roman general, defeated by 
the Franks and Goths. . 

Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con- 
quests to the river Somme. 

433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," formi 
an immense empire from China to the At- 
lantic. 

437. ^tius defeats the. Goths. 

439. The kingdom of the Vandals in 
Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who 
takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 

441. The Roman territories invaded by the 
Huns, Persians and Saxons. ^. . ,. 

445. Tha famous embassy from Britain, soli- 
citing aid against the Picts. 



62 



THE world's progress. [Modem : Period II.— 170 years. 



450 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Zoztmtcs and Olympiodorus, Greek histo- 
rians. 



Ecclesiastical. 



447. Eictycfips asserts the existence of only 
one nature in Jesus Christ. 

449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa ; and Eusebius, 
bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 

450. Sozomen and Tkeodoret, ecclesiastical 
historians. 

451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon, 
at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianisni 
are solemnly condemned, 



468 



476 



The principle established that every accused 
person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. 



Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric 
being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- 
narchy. 



The tottering empire of the west was linally 
overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the 
great event which precedes the middle or 
'■'•dark ages." The form of the old 
Roman government remained — the senate, 
the consuls, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a 
succession of wars, plagues, famines, and 
every form of public tyranny and domestic 
slavery, was nearly a desert. 



461. Pope Hilarius. 
465. Pope Simpliciua. 



Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Ooa- 
stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- 
salem — all striving for the supremacy.-— 
The church now begins to assume a politi* 
cal aspect. 



4 



■^ — From Comtantme to Odoacer.] 



THE world's progress. 



C3 



450 



Eastern Empire. 



M a r c i a n , 



a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual 
tribute to the Huns. 



457 



461 



474 

475 



Western Empire. 



448. Franks :— Merovceus 1st, king of the Me- 
rovingians. 

.SlTius defeats the Huns. 



451. The arrival of the Saxons 
in Britain, under Hengist and Hors*. 

452. The city of VENICE Ibunded. 
455. Valentinian assassinated by 

Petronius Maximus. ^M 



— Leo I . , (the Thracian,) 



first ennperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 
War with the Goths. 

Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is received 
from them as a hostage. 



Z e n o . 



a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- 
racies. 
Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, 

and invades the empire. He ravages 

Thrace. 



A y i t u I 



4.57.. 



-Ma j o r i a n 



458. Franks : — Childeric I., conquers as far 
as the Loire and takes Paris. 



461.- 
467.- 



S e v e r u 



Athenius 



(The last three emperors slain by 
. Ricimer.) 
468- Spain : — The Visigoths, under Eric, esta 
blish their kingdom. 



472. 



O 1 y b i u s . ^^ — 

Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- 
tinople. 



473.- 

474.- 



Glycerins .^ 



Julius Nepos 



475.— Romulus Ausrustulus. ^^ 
476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of 
the Herulii : 

END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 
1228 years after the building of Rome; and 
commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un- 
der Odoacer. 



64 



THE world's progress. 

MODERN : PERIOD IE.— 146 years 



Progress of Society, etc. 



486 



493 
498 
501 

511 

513 

514 

516 



529 

530 

531 

5;» 



538 



Rise of the feudal system in France, under 
Clovis. 



Theodoric introduces the architecture of 
Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. 



Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- 
bylon. 



Burgundian laws published, being a collec- 
tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- 
gundians. 



The Salic law established in France. 



Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 

Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 
tinople. 



The Christian Era proposed and introduced 
by Dionysius, a monk. 



The schools of Athens suppressed. 

The fables of Pilpay translated into Persian. 
Chess introduced into Persia from India. 

Justinian's pandects and code of larvs. 



Architecture : the church of St Sophia built 

at Constantinople. 
Frodica, a learned Platonist. 



Ecclesiastical. 



483. Pope Felix m. 

— excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of 
Constantinople. 

484. Christians persecuted by Iluneric, king 
of the Vandals, 



492. Pope Ge.asius I. 

494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his suprt 

macy. 
496. Cnristianity introduced into France. 



513. Christianity embraced by the Persian 

king, Carbades. 

514. Pope Ilormisdas. 



519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin. 



523. Pope John I. 

525. The Arian bishops deposed. 

526. Pope Felix IV. 

Extreme Unction introduced. 



529. The Order of Benedictine monks in- 
stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 

530. Pope Boniface II. 



533. Pope John ir. 

535. Pope Agapetus. 

536. " Sylvester I. 

Separation of the Aiynenians from the Greek 

clnirch. 
538. Pope Vigilius. 



THE world's progress. 65 

— Odcacer to Mahoviet. {The " Middle or Dark Ages'' begin here.] 



Eastern Empire. 



An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the 

greater part of Constantinople. 
Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul. 



Anastasius I 



The Green and Blue factions. 

The emperor's persecution of the Catho- 
lics, and protection of the Manicheeans, oc- 
casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. 



The empire ravaged and the imperial army 
destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. 

Long walls built to protect Constantinople 
from the Bulgarians. 

A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 
killed. 



Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose 
fleet is consumed by the burning glass of 
Proclus. 

Anastasius killed by lightning. 



-Justin I 



a peasant of Dalmatia. 
Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. 



Justinian I 



celebrated for his code of laws and the 

victories of his generals, Belisarius 

and Narses. 

Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- 

roes. 



— quells a conspiracy in Constantinople. 

— defeats the Vandals in Africa. 
— subdues Sicily. 
— takes Naples. 

—takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in 

Italy. 
— the Huns in Thrace, and 



Europe, generally. 



48L FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,® founder 
of the French monarchy. 



4<S4. Alaric H., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 

486. France : — Battle of Soissons 
gained by Clovis. 

487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by Prince 
Arthur and Ambrosius. 

490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. 

Britain : — kingdom of Sussex. 
491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia. 



493. Italy :— c onquered by Theo- 
d r i c , king of the Ostrogoths.— Odoa- 
cer put to death. 



499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with 
Theodoric in Italy. 

500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 



507. 



-Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 



510. France : — Clovis makes Paris his capital, 

511. France: — Clovis dies. 

Childebert l.^S 



512. The HERULIl settle in Thrace. 



516. The Christian Era adopted. 

517. Getae I'avages lUyricum, Macedon, &c. 



519. Britain : — Prince Arthur defeated a1 
Charford by Cerdic, wlio begins the third 
Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 

522. Spain :— Amalaric, the first Gothic king, 
who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- 
tal, Seville. 



530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 

531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 

532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber*. 



536. Vitiges,. king of the Ostogroths, surrea 
ders his possessions in Gaul to the Frer^ 
king. 

537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 



66 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Modern : Period III. — 146 years. 



Progress of Society, etc. 



The manufacture of silk introduced from 
China by the monks. 



Procopius, a Roman historian— the last of the 
classic writers. 

The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit- 
ed by the Witlenagemut. 

Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the 
servile. — 2\ial by ordeal. 



Ecclesiastical. 



540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged 
but one will in Jesus Christ. 



Christianity introduced 
Columbi. 



imong the Picts by 



The old Roman municipal system in Italy 
overthi'o wn by the invasion of the Lombards 
— and the feudal system established. 

Written laws compiled among the nations of 
German origin— first by the Visigoths in 
Spain. 

Semi- circular arches introduced in the archi- 
tecture of churches, with much grotesque 
sculpture. 

The Latin language ceases to be spoken in 
Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in 
Spain. 

The origin of fiefs. 

The Roman Catholic faith established in 
Spain. 

Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- 
tory. 



Bretwalda, king of England, converted to 
Christianity. 

Agathus, a Grecian historian. 

Glldas, the first British historian. 

Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- 
rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 
Theodoric. 

The Saxons, having conquered England, it 
relapsed, in a great measure, into the state 
of barbarism, from which it had been par- 
tially raised by the Romans. 



552. The Fifth general Council at Constant! 

nople 
555. Pope Pelagius I. 

557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, built 
at Paris. 



560. Pope .John in. 

The Tritheists acknowledge three Goda, 
and deny the resurrection. 



573. Pope Benedict L 

575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. 
Great increase of iniracles. 

578. Pope Pelagius 11. 



590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. 

The doctrine of purgatory first taught. 
Mass introduced. 



598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- 
terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 

604. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian. 

606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head 
of the church by Phocas. — The title of Uni- 
versal Bishop assumed. 

The Waldenses refuse submission to 
Rom«» 



•—From Odoacer to Mahoviet.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



67 



Eastern Empire. 



Vitiges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor- 
sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern 
empire. 

Plague at Constantinople — during three 
months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. 
54S The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The 
Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. 

Siege of Petra. 



Narses defeats and kills Totila. 
Italy governed by Greek exarchs. 



A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 
and lasting nearly 50 years. 



Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 

" restored : — he quells a conspiracy. 
Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly 

destroyed. 
Justinian dies. 

Justin II. ^m 



Belisarius dies in prison. 



The TURKS first mentioned in history. — 
They send embassies to Justin, and form 
an alliance. 

Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- 
ernment. 

Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. 



■Tiberius 11.^ 



Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his 
reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 
almost to the Caspian Sea. 



The Avars flourish under Baian — invade the 
Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, 
Poland, and Prussia. 



— P h o c a s, ^^ — a centurion, elected king. 
The empire invadoi by the Persians. 



Europe, generally. 



539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. 

The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 



542. Britain: 
Cornwall. 



-Prince Arthur murdered in 



550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first 
duke and legislator. His brother, Zech, 
first duke of Bohemia. 

The Greeks form settlements on the 
Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 

556. Civil wars in France. 

558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . ^^ 

559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar- 
cliy commences. 

560. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbria, 
formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. 
— Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues most of 
the Saxon kings. 

561. France :— C haribert I. @ 



565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 



568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under 
Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 



57L Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 



575. " East Anglia formed into a king- 
dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- 
gin of the name England. 



583. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi- 
goths. 

France :— C lotaire II. ^^ 
586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. 
Spain : — Recared, king. 

588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 

589. P..ome inundated by the Tiber. 

591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains 
the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda 

Italy: — the Lombards, under Authans, 
successful againsi the Greeks and Franks. 

595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by 
the Sclavonians. 

596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgundy. 

597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. 
Ausustine. 

600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 

607. Britain :— Supremacy of the Pope ao 
knowledged. 



68 



THE world's progress. [Modem : Period III— UQ years 



Progress of Society, etc. 



The aristocracy acquire great power in 
France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 
of the palace. 

Rites and superstitions increase in all Europe. 
— Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- 
nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning 
of candles by day. — Exorcis'ins, &c. 

Hereditary fiefs. — Aristocratic class. 



Sucundus, historian of the Lombards. 
Elhelbert publislies the _^7'sf cooJe of laws in 
England. 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and 
philosopher. 



Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta- 
blished in the East. In the Caliphs were 
united the highest spiritual and regal autho- 
rity. 



Christianity introduced into China. 

In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- 
cal architecture; circular arches intro- 
duced; churches built at Canterbury, Olas- 
tonbury, St- Albans, Winchester, &c. 

In civil architecture, forts and castles — Conis- 
borough Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown 
in Derbyshire, &c. 

University of Cambridge founded. 



Some of the monasteries of Europe continue 
to be the repositories of learning and the 
a^ts. 

Celbacy if the clergy enjoined. 



Ecclesiastical. 



606. Pope Boniface IIL 

607. Pope Boniface IV. 

The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to God, 
the Virgin, and the Saints. 
609. The Christians massacred by the Jews »t 
Antioch. 



618. Pope Boniface V. 



MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 years. 



Ecclesiastical. 



625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for 
splendid cathedrals and processions. 
Monks and monasteries Increase. 



Africa and Asia, with the churches of 
Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to 
the Christian world by the progress of Mo- 
hammedanism. 



640. Pope Severinua. 
640. Pope John IV. 



642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title 

of " Sovereign Pontiff." 
644. Pope Martin I. He oi'dalns celibacy of 

the clergy. 

Separation between the Greek and 

Roman churches. 

654. Pope Eugenius. 

657. Pope Vitalian. He established tha uni- 
versal use of the Latin language in the 
service of the church. 



672. Pope Adeodatus. 



-From Odoacer to Mahomet.] 



THE world's PHOGRESS. 



69 



A.D. 


Eastern Empire. 


Europe, generally. 






604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by 






Elheiberi, king of Kent. 


610 


Ileraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, 
and makes himself king. 




612 


MAHOMET publishes his Koran. 


612. Britain:— Ethelfrith, king of Noithum- 




Svna ravaged by tiie Arabs. 


bria, defeats the Britons, and destroys the 


614 


Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 


monastery of Bangor. 
615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 
617. Britain: — St. Peter's (now Westminster 


618 


Constantinople taken and pillaged by the 


Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. 




Avari. 


Britain :— Bretwald IV. 









— From Mahomet to Charlema2:ne. 



[Dark Ages, contvmied.\ 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from 

Mecca to Medina. 
Era of the Mahometans. 
Heraclius defeats the Persians under Clios- 

roes. 



Death of Mahomet. 

Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the 

Saracens. 



Omar, caliph. 

" takes .Jerusalem, which is held 

by the Saracens 463 years. 
Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys 

another famous library. 



Constantine III 



-C o n s t a n s 1 1 . ,| 
(11 years of age.) 



The Saracens become masters of Africa and 
Cyprus. 

The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the 

Colossus. 
Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 

Caliphs. 

The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by 
agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 

Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the 
Treasury. 

Moawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 
tal. 

Constantine IV. ^g invades Sicily. 

Grand Cairo founded. 

Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, 
whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of 
Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- 
chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a 
yearly tribute. 



Europe, generally. 



628. France :--Dagobert I. ^g He 

builds the church of St. Deny, the burial 

place of the French kings. 
6-31. Samo, a mercliant of France, makes 

himself king of Bohemia. 
633. Britain: — Bretwald V.; he embraces 

Christianity. 



634. Britain :— Bretwald VI. 



638. France — C 1 o v i s II .^^5 years old. 
The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years 
old,) being king of Austrasia. 

642. Britain:— Bretwald VII. 

644. Britain : — The University of Cambridge 
founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 



Mercia converted to Chris- 
656. France : — C lotaire III. ^m 



650. Britain 
tianity. 



660. France :— C h i I d e r i c II, 



663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke 
of Beneventura. 



672. The Saracens driven from Spain, b/ 
Wamba king of the Goths. 



70 



THE world's progress. 



[Modern : Period IV. 178 years. 



A.D. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


674 


Stone buildings and glass come into use in 
England. 








676. Pope Domnus. 




The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of 


The popes become independent of tho 




Gilling founded. 


Greek emperoi-. 




The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 


679. Pope Ag.uho. 




and power, by the introduction of Chris- 


680 Tlie sixHi general Council at Constantino- 




tianity. 


pie, called by the emperor Constantine, whc 




In France, the Teutonic language supersedes 


presides. 




the Laiin. — National assemblies established, 


682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of in- 




tliough confined to the aristocracy. 


vestiture. 






684. Pope Benedict II. 




In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 


685. " John V. 




the jNIohammedan. 


686. « Conon. 


687 


Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 


687. " Sergius. 


691 


Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 




697 


The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 




698 


A king lirst elected in Poland. 

Adhelm, the first British writer in prose and 






verse. 


701. Pope John V„ 




Sclavonian republics in Bohemia. 


704. The first province ^iven to the pope. 

705. Pope John VII. 

708. " Sissinius (20 days). 




Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 


708. " Constantine. 




man nations and other people in the north 






of Europe; but almost exterminated in 






Africa, by tlie progress of Mohammedan- 






ism 




709 




711. Custom of kissing the Pope's fcot intro 

duced. 

714. Pope Gregory IL 


716 


The art of making paper brought from Sa- 

marcand by the Arabs. 
George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 




718 


Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. 


Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to f/ro- 
cure the assassination of the Pope. The 
Romans delend him. 



— From Mahomet to Charlemagne.'] 



THE world's progress. 



7i 



680 



683 

681 



685 



C95 
697 

698 

705 



709 



711 



713 



714 



716 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. 
Yezid, caliph of the Saracens. 



Moawiah II., caliph. 
Abdallah, caliph. 

Justinian II. ^ 



Abdulmelek, caliph. He discoiiiinues the 
tribute to the Greek emperor 



.lustinian II. deposed, and his nuse cut off by 

Leonitius, who is also deposed by 

Absimerus Tiberius. 

Armenia and the provinces between the Black 
and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- 
melek. 

Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa 
completely subjugated. 



Justinian II. restored. 

Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. 



Africa subdued by the Saracens. 



Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes, 
who reigns under the name of Philippicus. 



-Anastasius II. w 



Theodosius III. 



-_ pro- 
claimed by the revolted army ot Anastasius. 



Leo III., (the Isaurian,) 

of a shoemaker. 



Europe, generally. 



673. France :— T h i e r r y I . ^ 

675. Spain: — Wamba gains a naval victory 
over the Arabs, who attempt to invade hia 
kingdom. 



682. Spain: — Wamba abdicates and tuna 
monk. 



690. France : — P epin d'Heristel ,^^ 
mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia, 
Qel'eats Thierry, and becomes king. 



691. France :—C 1 o V i s 1 11.*^ 

695. " — Childebert 11.^ 

698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective 
monarchy established. 

Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge. 

700. Britain :— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. 

France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- 
vence become separate dukedoms. 

705. Britain :— Alfred the Wise, in North- 
umbria. 



710. Spain : — R o d e r i c , king, 
last of the Goths.) 



711. France :— D agobert II, 



(the 



713. Spain conquered by the 
Saracens under Muca. By the mar- 
riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow 
of the Gothic king, the two nations are 
united in interest. 

714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aus- 
trasia. 

715. France :— C h i 1 d e r i c II. ^M — 

716. Britain :— Ethelbald, king of Mercia. 



718. Spain :— Pelagius founds the kingdom rf 

Asturias. 



720. FraiQce :— T h i e r r y 11.^ 



72 



THE world's progress. 



[Modern: Period IV. — 178 years. 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Increasing 


Dark 


power, 


period 


spiritual 


of 


and 


European 


temporal 


literaiure. 


of the 




Popes. 





Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- 
pel to the Prisons, 

The venerable Bede dies — a grammarian, phi- 
losopher, historian, and theologian. 

The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- 
courage learning. 



Fredegaire, a French historian. 

VirgiHus, a priest, is condemned as a heretic, 
for believing in the existence of antipodes. ' 



An organ sent by Const antine to France. 

John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- 
tic philosophy. 

Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory 
of Tours. 

The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, 
Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 
sidae caliphs. 



Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character- 
ized the age preceding Charlemagne. 



The first palm-tree planted in Spain. 



Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the 
caliph Haroun al Raschid, 



Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. 
Foundation of schools in monasteries and 

cathedrals, by (./'harlemagne. 
The Gregorian chant. 
The Synod of Frankfort. 
George, the monk. 



Ecclesiastical. 



726. Image worship being forbidden by th« 
emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 

727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 

728. Leo orders the pope to be seized. 

730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. 
The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 

731. Pope Gregory III. 



736. The images throughout the empire de- 
stroyed by order of the emperor. 
Monks persecuted. 
741. Pope Zachary 



752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of 
France, by a papal decree. 

752. Pope Stephen III, at war with the Lom- 
bards, assisted by Pepin. 



754. — he journeys to Pepin to implore his 
protection. 

755. Commencement of the Pope's 
temporal power under the auspices 
of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- 
archate of Ravenna. 

757. Pope Paul I. 



768.- 



Stephen IV. 



769. Council of the Lateran, 

770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the 
emperor. 

772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- 
tical state is conferred by Charlemagne, 



779. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- 
lemagne, for the support of the clergy, 
churches, schools, and the poor. 

785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by 
Charlemagne. 



787. The seventh general Council at Nice, in 
which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was 
condemned. 



791. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemague for 
confirmation. 

Masses said for money. 



•From MakoTiiet to Charlemagne.] 



THE world's progress. 



73 



AD. 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



741 
74G 



The Arabs invest Constantinople by land with 
120,000 men, and by sea with ISOO ships. 
The city is saved by the Greek fire — the 
Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 

Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. 

The Greek possessions in Italy are lost in con- 
sequence of the edict forbidding image wor- 
ship. 



Constantine V. (Copronymus). 



The Arabs defeated by Constantine. — Rhodes, 
Cyprus, and Antioch captured. 



EuROPK, generally. 



762 Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes 

it his capital. 
766 Asia Minor ravaged by the Turks. 



774 
775 



781 
785 
786 

788 
793 



725. France : — Charles Martel crosses the 
Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 

727. Britain : — Ina, king of Wessex, begins the 
tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- 
lege at Rome. 



732. France : — Charles Martel gains a great 
victory over the Saracens near Tours. 

740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re. 
covered by the Pope. 

742. France :— C h i 1 d o r i c III. W 



752. France :— End of the Merovingian line 
of French kings. 

-Pepin le Bref ,^5 



Great victory over the Bulgarians. 
L e o I y . W 



Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus).^g 
Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. 
The empire is invaded by H a f o u n a 1 

R a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad. 
Constantine imprisons his mother, Irene, for 

her cruelty. 



•Irene 



and assumes the sole power 
— proposes to marry Charlemagne 
— is dethroned by Nicephorus. 
The Saracens ravage Thrace.. 



puts him to death. 



first of the Carlovingian line. 
753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large 
army against the Lombards. 
Italy : — Ravenna a dukedom. 



756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate : 
Abderhama. 



761. Spain :— Froila, grandson of Pelagius, 
builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of hia 
kingdom. 

768. France :— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles 
the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- 
man, until 771. 



774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats 
Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes 
Italy to his empire. 

End of the Lombard king- 
dom. 

778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated 
at Roncesvalles. 

779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, 
and the Saxons. 

Charlemagne conquers the Avari. 
—attempts to unite the Rhine and the 
Danube. 

787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of the 
Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings. 



794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. 
Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo. 



74 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD, v.— TAe Middle Ages.—2^(S yeary 



A.D. 



PRoaREss OP Society. 



Ecclesiastical. 



800 Agriculture and horticul- 
ture encouraged by Charle- 
magne ; both flourish in 
Spain under the caliphs. 



Gold mines worked in Spain. 

Paul Warefredus (Diaconus) 
the historian. 

Haroun al Raschid, courting 
his alliance, presents Charle- 
magne with a. striking clock. 
This clock was adorned with 
automaton figures, which 
moved and played on va- 
rious musical instruments. 



801 
802 



804 



813 



Fine Arabian breed ojf horses 
introduced into Spain. 

Alcuin, of York, a pupil of 
Bede, forms schools at Tours 
—patronized by Charle- 
magne. 

Transient revival of learning 
under Charlemagne. 

Eginhard, historian, secre- 
tary to Charlemagne. 

The reign of Mamun (caliph) 
is regarded as the Augustine 
age of Arabian literature. 



800. The Pope separates from 
the Eastern Empire., and 
becoines supi-eine Bishop of 
the Western. 



Charlemagne reforms the 
church. 



Many bishoprics founded. 
— Great increase of monastic 
institutions. 



813. Insurrection at 
against the pope. 



Rome 



828 St. Mark's Church at Venice 
built. 

829 Turpin, archbishop, to whom 
is attributed the famous 
" De Vila Caroli Magni et 
Rolandi." 



816. Pope Stephen V. 

817. " Paschal I. 

The College of Cardinals 
founded. 



824. Pope Eugenius II. 

Christianity in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

827. Pope Valentine. 

828. " Gregory IV. 
Missionaries sent from 

France to Sweden. 

831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 
monk of Corbey, father of 
the doctrine of transub- 
stantiation. This doctrine 
disowned by the English 
Church. 

Ratramus and Scotus Eri- 
gena, theologians, holding 
much the same opinions as 
Luther. 



New Western Empire. 



800. NEW EMPIRE of the 

WEST founded by Charle- 
magne, who is crowned at 
Rome, by the pope, king of 
Italy, Germany, and France. 



802. Charlemagne receives an 
embassy from Nicephorus, 
and from Haroun al Ras- 
chid. 



806. Charlemagne dl 
vides the empire be- 
tween his three sons. 
6. First descent of the NOR 
MANS upon France. 



813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 

28. 

814. L o u i s I . '^m • 

(Debonaire) an ingwrioua 
and turbulent reign. 

817. Louis divides the empire 

between his three sons. 
820. Invasion of the Normana. 



^ 



833. Lothaire, a fourth son of 
Louis, associated in the gov- 
ernment. 

840. — L o t h a i r e .^M — 

841. —defeated by his brothers, 
Louis and Charles, in the 
battle of Fontenoy. 

Division of the empire^ 

France: — Charles I.' 
(the Bald). 

Ger. :— L o u i s I . 
— — surnamed the Ger- 



Italy :— L o t h a i r e ^g 
with imperial dignity. 

The Normans plunder 
Rouen, and advance to Paris. 



THE world's progress, 
(a.d, 800-1056.) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 



75 



802 
803 



Eastern Empire. 



England. 



— N icephorus .^^ — 

The Saracens I'avage Asia 

Minor, capture Cyprus, and 

compel Nicephorus to pay a 

tribute. 



811 



813 



816 



821 
822 



829 



842 



— Michael I . ^^ 

(Caropaltes) ; at war with 
the Bulgari. 



-(the 



Leo V 

Armenian). 



Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. 
ravage the empire. 



Michael 11.^^ 

(Balbus or the Stammerer). 

Constantinople beeieged by 
the Saracens. The Bulga- 
rians raise the siege. The 
Saracens obtain possession 
of Crete, and name it Can- 
dia. 

— T heophilus. ^^ — 



— M i c h a e 1 III, 
(the Drunkard). 



The WoRiD, elsevvhere 



801. DENMARK becoma a 
kingdom under Gotricus 



813. Egbert, king of Wessex, 
defeats the Britons. 



827. The seven king- 
doms of the Hep- 
tarchy united by Eg- 
bert , k i n g o f W e's s e X , 
under the name of ENG- 
LAND, or the Land of the 
Angles. 

E g b e r t . ^ 

Invasion of the Danes. 

838. — E t h e 1 w o 1 f , ^— 
a weak prince. 

Scotland : — Kenneth, king 
of the Scots, defeats and ex- 
tirpates the Picts. and be- 
comes sole monarch. 

The Danes return, and 
ravage the country unmo- 
lested, and burn the city of 
London. 

Ethelwolf makes a pilgri- 
mage to Rome. I 



818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- 
tron of learning. 

820. First dismemberment of 
the Arabian monarchy. The 
dynasty of the Ta'herites 
founded at Khorassan. 

826. The Danish prince, Ha- 
rold, is baptized at Ingel- 
heim. 



833. Motassim, caliph. He 
builds Saumora, which ha 
makes the seat cf govera- 
ment. 



76 THE world's progress. [Period v.— {a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



^ 



872 



Progress of Society. 



The aristocratic Feudal sys- 
tem in all its power. Here- 
ditary nobility, which, with 
the ciergy, was the domi- 
nant order in the state. 

The barons independent of 
the king. Gradual intro- 
duction of the Roman and 
common law. 



First inc'iosure of lands at 
Spalding, where Richard de 
Rules does much to improve 
asricuUure. 



Clocks brought to Constanti- 
nople from Venice. 



The Faroe Isles, and Iceland 
discovered in this century. 



Ecclesiastical. 



844. Pope Sergius III. (Bitcca 
Porci). 

Ignatius, patriarch of 
Constantinople. 

Persecution of the Chris- 
tians in Spain. 
S47. Pope Leo IV. 

850. Christianity propagated 
by Auscharius in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

855. Pope Benedict III. 



858. Pope Nicholas I. 

First coronation of a pope. 

859. Eulogius, archbishop of 
Cordova, martyred. 

860. The schism of the Greeks 
begins. 



854. The Bible translated into 
Slavonian. 

S67. Pope Adrian II. 

8th Council at Constan- 
tinople. — Phoiius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, deposed. 

872. Pope John Vm. 



^2. Pope Martin II. 
834. « Adrian III. 

885. « Stephen VL 



France, Spain, Germany. | 



n 

i 

m 



855. Lothario retires to a mo- 
nastery and dies. 

New division of the em- 
pire at Mersen. 

856. Germ. : — Louis II. ^^ 
has Italy with the im- 
perial dignity. 

— establishes his court at 
Pavia. 
858. France invaded by Louia 
the German, who is finally 
compelled to retire. 



58. Lorraine annexed to 
France. 



877. Fr. :— L o u i a II .^— 
(the Stammerer). 



879.- 



-Louis III. and 



C & rl a man 
reign jointly. 



884. France :— C h a r 1 e s^^ 
the Fat, an usurper. 

885. Paris besieged by the 
Normans; gallantly defend- 
ed by archbishop Goslin. 

886. Charles makes a disgrace- 
ful peace with the Normans. 

887. Germany : — A mold. 



-(the im- 



emperor, ^g^ 

penal dignity transferred 

from France to Germany). 

888. France :— E u d e 9 ^^— 



1 



•—Charlemagne to William /.] 



THE world's progress. 



77 



&14 



851 



Eastern Empire. 



Decline of the Caliphate be- 
gins. — .Jews and ClinstiHiis 
persecmeii. — Frequent wars 
between the Greeks and Sa- 
racens. 



11,NGLAND. 



The World, elsewhere. 



B a z i 1 I . ^ 

(the Macedonian;, defeats 
the Saracens. 



Crete and the Sicilies reco- 
vered from the Arabs. 



867 



Basil commences the Mace- 
donian dynasty. 
Publication of the Basilica. 



849. Alfred the Great, born. 



852. Ethelwolf defeats the 
Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 



857. E the lb aid and Ethel- 

b e r t ^m — reign jointly : — 
increase die influence of the 
clergy. 



845. The Normans plunder 
Hamburg, and penetrate into 
Germany. 

846. The Saracens destroy the 
Venetian fleet, and besiege 
Rome. 

819. — defeated by the Pope's 
allies. 

851. Sardinia and Corsica ra- 
vaged by the Sai-acens. 



856. The coasts of Holland 
plundered by the Normans. 



(tiic 



Loo VI. 

philosopher 



865. — E t h e 1 r e d .^ 

867. The Danes conquer Nor- 
thumberland. 



872. Alfred the Great; 
defeats the Danes. 



879. Alfred abandoned by his 
subjects, retires to the Isle of 
Athelney, but soon draws 
together his friends and con- 
quers the Danes. 



860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- 
ed from Oihn.) unites Jut- 
land and the Danish Isles, 
and becomes king of Den- 
mark. 

861. Iceland discovered by the 
Nornian.s. 

862. RUSSIA: — Ruric, first 
grand Prince, builds the city 
of Lagoda. 



868. Egypt throws off its de- 
pendence on the caliphs, un- 
der Ahmed. 

874. Iceland, a republic, found- 
ed by the Normans. 

875. NORWAY: — Harold 
Harfrage, first king. 



886. The Scythians seize Cro- 
atia. 



889. Hungary: — Arpad lays 
tlie foundation of the king- 
dom. 



78 THE world's PROGRESS. [Pmo^ F.— (a. D. 800-1066.)— 266 T/mrs. 1 



A.D. PKoauEss OF Society. 



Oxford University/ found- 
ed. — Alfred the Great esta- 
blishes a regular militia 
and navy, and the mode of 
trial by jury ; institutes_/airs 
and markets. — Johannes 
Scotus Erigena, a learned 
philosophical writer. 

England divided into coun- 
ties, hundreds, and tithings. 
The county courts, held 
monthly, become the great 
safeguard of the civil rights 
of Englishmen. 

Hired troops substituted for 
the feudal. 



The University of Cam- 
bridge founded. 



The Anglo Saxon monarchy 
rises into importance. 



Azophi, Arabian astronomer. 



Printing invented among 
Chinese (7) 



the 



Cordova, in Spain, becomes 
the seat of Arab learning, 
science, industry, and com- 
merce. Its celebrated schools 
of geometry.astrnnomy, che- 
mistry and medicine, toge- 
ther with its equally cele- 
brated poets and philoso- 
phers, render it lamous 
throughout the world. 

Luitprand, the historian. 

Mints established in Kent or 
Wessex. 



Ecclesiastical. 



891. Pope Formosus. 
896. " Boniface VI. 
" Stephen VII. 
898. " John IX. 

Veneration for saints and 
a passion for relics prevail. 



900. Pope Benedict IV. 
903. " Leo V. 
905. " Sergius III. 



912. The Normans in France 
embrace Christianity. 



914. Pope John X. 



9:21. The Bohemians embrace 
Christianity. 



928. Pope Leo VI 

929. " Stephen VIII. 
Eudes, monk of Cluni. 

931. Pope John XI. 

Mere children elevated to 
the highest offices in the 
church. 



936. Pope Leo VII. 



939. 



Stephen IX. 



943. Pope Martin III. 



France, Gekmanv, &c. 



X). Arnold, emperor of Ger- 
many, takes Home. 



898.Fr.:— Charles III. 
(the Simple). 

899. Ger. :— L u i s III.' 

Invasion of the Hunga- 
rians. 

Contests between the no- 
bles and bishops 



912. France :— R o b e r t , duke 

of Normandy. 

The Normans, under 
R 1 1 o , establish them- 
selves in Normandy. 

Ger.: — Conrad I.^^' 

(the empire becomea 

elective). 



919 Ger. :— Henry I.^— 
(the Fowler), fii-st ol the 
Saxon line. 

921. France :— Robert L de- 
feated and killed by his 
brother at Soi.=:sons. 

923. France :— Rudolph elect- 
ed duke. 

Italy: — Hugo, count of 
Provence, oppresses the aris- 
tocracy, who call to their aid 
Berenger. 

France : — Civil wars. 

929. " —Charles dies a 
prisoner at Peronne. 



936. Ger. :— O t h o I . W— 
(the Great). 

Fr. :— L o n i a IV, 

(the Stranger). 



940. Burgundy, a fief of tb« 
empire. 



— Charlepiagne to William I.] 



THE world's progress. 



79 



Eastern Empire. 



Southern Italy subject to the 

Greek empire. 
War with the Bulgarians, 

Lombards, and Saracens — 

the latter take the island of 

Samos. 



Russian expedition under 
Oleg, against Constantino- 
ple. 



-Constantine VII.^^- 
associates his four sons, so 
that there are five emperors. 



Constantinople besieged by the 
Bulgarians. 

Romanus, general of the fleet, 
usurps the empire, with his 
three sons, Christopher, Ste- 
phen, and 

-Constantine VIII. ^^- 



Romanus gains a naval victory 
over the Russians, who, led 
by Igor, enter the Black 
Sea with 10,000 ships or ca- 
noes. 



942 Naples annexed to the empire. 



945 



England. 



891. Invasion of the Danes. 
The first land tax. 



901. 



-Edward" 



(the Elder), the first who 
takes the title of " Rex An- 
glorum." 

War with the Danes. 



The World, elsewhere. 



924. —A t h e 1 s t a n . W— 



934. —by the victory of Bru- 
nanbureh, he becomes king 
of all Britain. 



900. Scotland : — Constantine 
III. 

901 . Italy :— The republics 
of Venice and Genoa 
founded. 



908. The race of Fatimites in 
Egvpt. 

910. Spain :— Kingdom of Leon 
founded by Garcia. 

912. Spain :— Abderrahman III. 
the greatest Arab prince of 
Spain— builds the splendid 
city and palace of Zehra. 

914. Spain :— OrdognoII.,king 
of Oviedo, makes Leon his 
capital. 

Commencement of the 
heroic age in Spain. 



921. Poland :—Lesko IV. 
" — Zemorraysl. 

923. Spain:— Fruela, king of 
Leon. 

924. " — Alphonzo IV. 
927. " — Ramiro II. 



930. Denmark :— Harold VI,, 
firs- Christian king. 

932. A.rnolf of Bavaria, de- 
feated near Verona. 

933. Norway :— Eric, kmg— 
his cruelty leads the people 
to revolt. 



The empress Helen usurps the 
throne. 



940. — E d m u n d I .' 
brother of Athelstan. 



940. Spain :— Ramiro, king of 
Leon, defeats the Moors, un- 
der Abderrahman, in the bat. 
tie of Siraa acus. 



80 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



A.I>. 



Progress of Society. 



941 



The mercantile character 
raised by a law of Athelstan, 
that a merchant who made 
three voyages over the high 
seas with a ship and cargo 
of his own, should enjoy the 
rank and privileges of a 
thane. 

The figures of arithmetic 
brought into Europe ky the 
Saracens. 

Silver mines in the Hartz 
Mountains. 

Manufactories of linens and 
woollens in Flanders, which 
becomes the seat of western 
commerce. 



Ecclesiastical. 



946. Pope Agapetus II. 



96] 



978 

931 

982 



Geber, Arabian astronomer. 
Suidas, grammarian and lexi- 
cographer. 
Rhazes, Arabian physician. 



The Saxon fleet, consisting of 
360 sail, in three squadrons, 
makes the circuit of the 
island, under the command 
of king Edgar. 



955. Baptism of Olga, and con- 
version of Russia to Chris- 
tianity. 

958. Pope John XII. 
Quarrel with the emper- 
ors respecting investiture. 

959. St. Dunstan, archbishop 
of Canterbury, attempts to 
reform the church— enforc- 
ing clerical celibacy. 

The influence of the 
monks greatly increased. 



963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by 
Roman citizens. 



964. Benedict V. elected by a 
council. 

965. JohnXIIL 

Poland receives Christianity 
under Miecislus. 



972. Pope Benedict VI. 

973. Boniface VII. : deposed 
and banished for his crimes. 

974. Domnus II. 

975. Benedict VII. 



France, Germany, &c. 



950. Germany :— Bohemia be- 
comes tributary to Otho. 

953- The Hungarians sub- 
dued. 

954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.^ 
— confers the O'lkedoms of 
Burgundy ar.d Aquitaine on 
Hugh the Great. 

957. Germany :— Otho defeat^ 
the Slavonians in Saxony, 



Abba, monk and astronomeJ. 



Albirunius, Arabian geogra- 
pher. 

Greenland discovered by the 
Norwesians. 



Aimoin, historian. 

Dublin much frequented for 
trade, also many places on 
the Baltic. 



964. Italy united to the empira 
of Germany. 

Tuscany becomes a duke- 
dom. 



973. Ger. :— Otho 11.^ 
subdues the Bohemians. 



984. Pope John XIV. 

985. " John XV. 



989. Christianity propagated 
in Russia by Waldimir— 
they hold to the Greek 
church. 



979. Otho at war with Lo 
thaire. 



983. — O t h o III 
(3 years of age). 

986. Fr.:— Louis V.,\^ 
(" the Slothful,") lastoltha 
Carlovingian race. 

988. Fr. : H u gh Capet ,@ 
—founder of the third or 
Capetian line of French 
kings. 




■Charlemagne to William I.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



959 

963 

9G7 
969 

975 



980 



Eastern Empire. 



Constantine III. retires into 
cloister. 



— R omanus II .^g — 
poisoned by his wife, Theo- 
phano. 



-Nicephorug II. 



-he recovers Cyprus and An- 
tioch from the Saracens. 

-is murdered by 

-John Zimisces.^§ — 



Basil and Constantine 

vm. W — 



Apulia and Calabria recover- 
ed and united to the empire. 



England, &,c. 



946. E I d r e d@ 

governed by Dimsian, abbot 
of Glastonbury. 

952. Scotland : — Malcolm I., 
kins. 



955. Scotland :—Indulf, king. 



955. E d w y ^ 

insulted by Dunstan, and 
deposed — his queen, Elgiva, 
put to death. 

959. E d g a r ^- 

marries the beautiful El- 
frida, after the violenl; death 
of Athelwold, her lover. 

960. Scotland :— Duff, king. 
Wolves expelled I'rom 
England and Wales, in con- 
sequence of a reward being 
offered for the purpose by 
the king. 

Violent disputes between 
tlie monks and the clergy. 



975. 



-Edward^ 



(the martyr), murdered by 
his stepmother, Elfrida. 



97S. —E their ed II.,W- 
(" the Unready.")— Dunstan 
still minister.— The people 
become discontented. 



985. Danish invasion, under 
Sweyn. . 

The king purchases their 
retreat. 



The World, elsewhere. 



950. Spain : 
of Leon. 



-Ordono III., king 



955. Spain : — Sancho I. , king 
of Leon. 



958. Italy ;-- War between thi 
Normans and Saracens. 



951. Candia recovered fror.i 
the Saracens. 

962. Poland : — Miecislas esta- 
blishes Christianity. 



967. Spain:— Ramiro III., king 
of Leon. 

968. The Northmen devastate 
Galicia, but are defeated and 
almost exterminated. 



973. Hungary: — St. Stephen, 
first hereditary king, extends 
the kingdom eastward ; gives 
it a constitution and written 
laws. 

976. Spain :— Hixem, caliph 
of Cordova. 

Almansor, regent, obtains 
many victories" over the 
Christians. 

980. Russia: —Waldimir I; 
marries Anna, sister of the 
emperor Basil 11. 

983. Italy : — Venice distracted 
by violent commotions. 

985. Sweyn L, or Sweno, king 
of Denmark, invades Eng- 
land. 



82 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



A.D. Phoguess of Society. 



Venice and Genoa carry on a 
flourishing trade between 
Asia tnd Westei-n Europe. 

Siephsj, duke of Hunga- 
ry, propagates Christianity 
among his subjects. 



10(K Paper made of cotton rags. 



Spain, the seat of Arabian and 
Jewish learning. 



Churches first built in the 
Gothic style. 

Foundation of the House of 
Wisdom at Cairo. 

The French language first be- 
gins to be written. 

Leo, the grammarian. 

The arts faintly revive in Italy 
— paintings in fresco and 
mosaic. 

Literature, the arts and sci- 
ences,and commerce flourish 
at Ghizni. 

Musical scale, consisting of six 
notes, invented by Guido 
Aretino. 

Avicenna, a famous Arabian 
chemist and physician. 

Glaber Rad, historian. 

Cam}mnes, of Navarro, astro- 
nomer. 

Hermannus Contr actus, m.O'cik 
and mathematician. 



Ecclesiastical. 



993. First canonization of 
saints. 



996. Pope Gregory V. 

997, " Jolin XVI. 



999. Pope Sylvester IL 



Hungary a fief of the 
Romish church. 



1003. Pope John XVIII. 



1009. Pope Sergius. 
1012. " Benedict VIII. 



Persecution of the Albi- 
genses in Languedoc. 



1024. Pope John XIX. He 
gained his election by bribe- 
ry. He was not of the clergy, 
but consul and senator of 
Rome. 



1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten 
years old). 

"Peace of God," pub- 
lished by the bishops. 



France, Germany, «fcc. 



995. Fr. : —Robert 11.,^ 
— (the Wise,) succeeds hia 
father Hugh. 



993. — is excommunicated by 
the pope for marrying his 
cousin Bertha. 



1002. Ger. :— H e n r y 1 1 . ,^ 
— (duke of Bavaria). 

Italy : — Ardoin, margrave 
of Ivrea, elected king. 



1004. Italy :— Henry invited by 
the German party —Ardoin 
loses most of Italy and re- 
signs. — Pavia burnt in a 
quarrel between the troops 
and people. 



1015. Germany :— The empe- 
ror receives an annual tri- 
bute from Poland. 



1024. Ger. :-Conrad 11.^^ 
—(the Salic,) first of the 
Franconian line. 

1025. Expedition into Italy. 



1029. War with the Poles. 

1031. Fr.:— Henry I.^^— 

1032. Burgundy annexed to 
the empire. 



—Charlemagne to William /.] 



THE world's progress. 



83 



A.P. 



iOOO 



1018 



1028 



1031 



1034 



Eastern Empire. 



Basil drives the 
from Thessaly. 



Bulgarians 



Bulgaria again redursd to a 
Grecian province. 



— Rom an us III..^g — 
(Argyrus). 

-expels the Saracens from 
Syria, 
-poisoned by his wife Zoe. 



--Michael IV 



England, •&c. 



994. Scotland : — Constantine 
IV. slain by 

995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 



1002. Dreadful massacre of 
all the Danes in England — 
upon which Sweyn lands a 
large armament, and brings 
war and all its miseries upon 
the country. 

1003. Scotland :— Malcolm II., 
an able, renowned prince. 



1012. An annual tribute pro- 
mised to the Danes. 

1013. The Danes, under Sweyn, 
become masters of England. 



1016.— Edmund II.,W— 
(Ironsides.) fights six baules 
with Canute, king of Den- 
mark, with whom he finally 
divides the kingdom. 



1016. 



Canute 



the Great, patronizes litera- 
ture and the church. 



1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru, 
sole monarch. 



1031. Canute penetrates into 
Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 

1032. —performs a pilgrimage 
to Rome. 

1034. Scotl'd :— Duncan, kin; 

1035. — H a r 1 d I . 

(Harefootr) cruel anc 
popular — ruled by 
Godwin. 



The World, elsewhere. 



995. Norway :— Olaf I. 

Christianity introduced. 

997. Drontheim founded. 
Mahmud Sultan of Ghiz^ 

ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- 
bul, and part of India to his 
dominions; patronizes litera- 
ture. 

998. Spain : — Division of the 
Mohammedan kingdom of 
Cordova. 

1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) 
king of Navarre, lakes the 
title of emperor. 

1000. Savoy : — independent un- 
der Bervald, its first count. 

Poland : — Boleslas I., 
(the Lion-hearted). 



1006. Pestilence in Europe for 
three years. 

1012. Spain: — Suleiman, ca- 
liph. 



1014. Denmark :— Harold III., 
king. 

1015. >Iorway :— Olaf II. 

1016. Denmark: — Canute XL, 
(the Great). 



1019. Norway conquered by 

Canute. 

Venice, Genoa, and Pisa 

rise into importance. 
1025. Poland :— Miecislas IL 



1035. Spain :— Ramiro 1 _ king 
of Arragon. 

1037. Ferdinand L, of Castile, 
in right of his wife succeeds 
to Leon ; successful against 
the Mohammedaas. 

1036. Denmark : — Hardica- 
nute HI. 

1037. Norway : — Magnus Lf 
(the Good). 



84 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 



1055 



Fe'dusi, the Persian Homer. 
Franco, mathematician. 
George Cedrenus, historian. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Michael Psellus, a celebrated 
Greek philosopher and his- 
torian. 



English parents prohibited by 
law from selling their chil- 
dren. 



First age of scholastic philoso- 
phy. 



1038. The Pope, for his scan- 
dalous conduct, driven from 
Rome, but re-established by 
the emperor, Conrad. 



1044. —again driven from the 
throne, and succeeded by 
Sylvester III. After three 
months Benedict is restored 
by the Counts of Tusculum. 
But finding the people will 
not tolerate his crimes, he 
sells the papal chair to Gre- 
gory. 

— deposed for simony, by 
a council called by Henry 
HI. 

1046. Pope Clement H. 

1048. Damascus II., 23 days. 
" Leo IX., the first who 
kept a regular army. 



1053. — is defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Normans. 

1054. The papal chair vacant 
one year. 

Excommunication ofthe 
Patriarch of Constantinople, 
and the Greeks. 



1055. Pope Victor 11. 

Hildebrand, the real 
head ofthe church from the 
time of Leo IX. The church 
improving in piety and dis- 
cipline. 

1057. Pope Stephen IX. 

1058. Nicholas IL 
Benedict X., (antipope). 
The election of pope 

transferred to a conclave of 
cardinals. 

1059. Quarrel between the 
popes and the German em- 
perors, respecting investi- 
tures and nomination to the 
Holy See. 

1061. Pope Alexander II. 

1062. Berenger, a celebrated 
Fi'ench ecclesiastic. 

Alexander forbids the 
massacre of the Jews. 

1066. Alexander deposes Ha- 
rold, and gives England to 
William the Conqueror, 
duke of Normandy. 



France, Germany. &c. 



1039. Ger. :-H e n r y 1 1 1 .^ 

— defeats the Bohemiana 
and Hungarians — claims the 
right of nominating to the 
papal chair. 



1046. France :— Dispute be- 
tween William the Con- 
queror and William of 
Arques, for the duchy oJ 
Normandy. 



1053. Germany: — Henry III. 
causes his son, Henry, to be 
proclaimed king of the Ro- 
mans. This tiile was ap- 
plied, for several centuries, 
to the king's eldest son. 



Ger. :-Henry IV. ^^ 
— (the Great), aged six years, 
under the tutelage of his 
mother. 
1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, 
becomes a vassal of the 
pope. 



1060. Fr. .---Philip l.W- 



^^Charlemasne to William I. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



85 



A.D. 

1G38 
1011 

1042 
1042 

1043 



1054 
1054 
1056 
1057 



3059 



Eastern Empire. 



Earthquakes and famine at 
Constantinople. 

M i c h a 8 1 V , 

(Calaphaies). 

— Z oe&Theodora. 

— C onstantine X., 

(Monomarchusy. 
First invasion of the Seljuk 

Turks. 
The Russians invade Thrace 

with 100,000 men, and are 

repeatedly defeated by the 

Greeks. 




-Theodora,! 



the last of Macedonian dy- 
nasty. 
The Greek church becoines 
independent. 

Michael VI. ,^ 

(Stra iotichus). 



-I s a a cl 



(Comnenus). 



— C onstantine XI. 
— (Ducas). 



England, &c. 



1039. -H ardicanute .^g- 
Scot'd. : — Macbeth mur- 
ders Duncan, and usurps the 
throne. 

The Saxon line restored 
under ^^ 

1042. E d w a r d® 

(the Confessor). The coun- 
try prospers under his mild 
sway. 



1051. Rebellion of Earl God- 
win and his sons. 

William, duke of Nor- 
mandy, visits Edward. 

1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. 

Earl Godwin dies 
The Welch and the Irish 
several times invade Eng- 
land, but are repressed by 
Harold, son of Godwin. 

1054. Macbeth defeated and 
killed at Langfanan, by 
Siward, earl of Northum- 
berland. 



1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 



1066. —Harold 11.,^— 
elected king ; killed at the 
BATTLE of HASTINGS. 

WILLIAM I , W 

duke of Normandy, styled 
"the Conqueror." 

End of the Anglo- 
Saxon dynasty. 

Edgar Atheling flies to 
Scotland. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1042. Denmark : — Magnus, 
(the Good,) of Norway, king. 



1047. Denmark : — Sweyn Es- 
tritson, or Suenon IJ. 



1050. The Pisans and Genoese 
take Sardinia and Corsica 
from the Saracens. 



1055. The Turks reduce Bag- 
dad, and overturn the em- 
pire of the caliphs. 



1059. Sweden : — Ingeldus or 
Ingo I., the first Christian 
king. 

1060. Robert Guiscard, the 
Norman, is created by the 
pope, duke of Apulia. 

1062. 70,000 Europeans are 
killed, or made prisoners by 
the Turks in Palestine. 

1065. Jerusalem taken by ths 
Saracens. 

1065. Castile and Leon:— Al 
phonzo, king. 



86 



THE world's progress. 
• PERIOD-. YL— The Middle Ages.— {Contirmed.)^- 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Feudal System introduced in 
England by the Normans. 



U*S 



Surnames first used among 
the English nobility. 



lOrJ! Knights errant in Spain. 



Tngulphus, historian, secre- 
tary to William the Con- 
aueror. 



Marianus Scotus. 
Booksellers iirst heard of. 



London B.Jdgs and Westmin- 
ster Hal) fev Jli 



1081 



1034 



1090 
1092 



Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 

Doomsday Book fowipJItxJ by 
order of Williaui Ju Con- 
queror. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Popery at the height 
of its power, claiming 
supreme dominion, teTn- 
poral and spiritual, over 
all the states of Christen- 
dom. 



William of Spires, mathep»a- 

tician. 
A rigid police established in 

England. — The curfew. 
Norman French taught in All 

the schools, and made use of 

in all legal proceedings. 
Literature patronized in the 

East by Melek Shah. 



Fortress of Newcastle, and of 
Carlisle built. 



France, Germany, «fc Spain. 



1066. William, Duke of Nor- 
mandy, claims the crown of 
England, and makes war 
upon Harold to obtain it 



1071. Philip engages in a 
war with Robert, count of 
Holland. 



1072. Henry IV. of Germany, 
summoned before the pope, 
for selling the investiture of 
bishops. Treats the man- 
date with contempt. 

1073. — summoned again by 
Gregory VII. 



1073. Pope GregoryVII., 
(Hildebrand,) who attempts 
to free all the clergy from 
the civil jurisdiction. He 
quarrels with the emperor. 

1074. Simony and celibacy 
forbidden. 

1075. Tiie pope sends legates 
to the various courts of Eu- 
rope. 

1076. — sends an ambassador to 
to depose the pope— is excom municated by Gregory. Goes 
barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses 
his feet. 

1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by 
the Empress Matilda. 

1076. Spain :— The Cid. 

1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- 
emperor. Rudolph dies in 
1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- 
grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes 
an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be 
elected. The war continues till 

1084, when Henry triumphs 
over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085. 



10^4. The order of the Carthu- 
sians instituted by Bruno. 



1086 Pope Victor III. 



1088. « Urban II. 



1085. Spain :— Toledo taken 
from the Moors, by Don 
Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by 
Raymond, count of Tou- 
louse. 

1086. Spain:— The battle of 
Zalaca. 

1087. France : — War with 
England : Robert, duke ol 
Normandy, opposes Wil- 
liam Rufus. 



THE world's progress. 
1066-1299. — William the Conqueror, to Olhman I. 



Eastern Empire. 



-- Eudocia.^^ — 



She maiTies 



Romanus III., ^^ 

(Diogenes.)- He valiantly 
but vainly opposes the 
Turks — is defeated and 
taken prisoner by Alp Ars- 
lan, Emir of Omrah 



—Michael VII, 
(Parapinaces). 



Andronicus I 




-Constantine XII. 



Syria and Palestine subdued 
by Melek Shah. 



• Nicephorus, 



(Botoniates). 

— Alexius I.^^ (Com- 

nenus). The empire in- 
vaded by Robert Guiscard, 
the Norman, who defeats 
Alexius at Durazzo. 



After the capture of Jerusa- 
lem, by the Turks, the Chris- 
tian' pilgrims are insulted, 
robbed and oppressed; v/hich 
gives rise to the crusades. 
— Great struggle between 
Christianity and Mohamme- 
danism. 



England «fc Scotland. 



1066. —William I.,W 

" THE Conqueror," tirstof 
the Norman line. 



1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of 
the Saxon line, takes refuge 
in Scotland. His sister, 
Margaret, marries Malcolm 
III. 

1070. The feudal system in- 
troduced by the king. All 
the offices o{ the government 
placed in the hands of Nor- 
mans. The Norman lan- 
guage introduced. 

Malcolm III. of Scotland, 
ravages Durham. 

1072. Peace between the Nor- 
mans and the Scots 



1076. Robert, the king's son, 
raises a rebellion in Nor- 
mandy. 



1087. William invades France, 
and is killed at Mantes. 

1037. —William II. ,@ 
(Rufus). 

Revolt of the Norman 
nobles. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1067. Poland : — Boleslas II., 
— he conquers Russia. 



1068. Poland :- 
genes. 



-Romanus Dio 



1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 



1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, 
(Emir,) extends his domin- 
ions from the Jaxartes to the 
Mediterranean. 

1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. 

Palestine invaded and 
subdued by Melek Shah.— 
Jerusalem taken. 



1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 

1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- 
shop of Cracow, murdered. 
The king excommunicated 
and dethroned. 

1079. Poland :— Uladislas I, 



1083. Italy : — Rome taken 
after a siege of two years, 
by Henry IV. 

1084. BOHEMIA erected into 
a kingdom by the empereor 
Henry IV. 



1090. Sicily conquered by 
Roger the Norman, after a 
war of thirty years with itf 
masters, the Saracens. 



88 



THE WORLDS PR,OG-S.ESS. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D. PRoanEss of Society, etc. 



1095 



1096 



1099 



1100 



1118 



1120 



Ecclesiastical. 



Francs. Germany & Spain 



1093. Conrad, son of the em- 
peror, rebels. 

The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 

1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. 
— of Navarre and Arragon. 

The Crusades : — Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countriss of 
Christendom. . I 

I The Council op Clermont. 

The FIRST Cr».USADE ;— Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, set 
out vviih a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start. 



Nathan Ben Jechiel, learned 
Jew. 



Knights of St. John insti- 
tuted. 

An7ia Comnena, daughter of 
Alexius I., Eastern emperor, 
historian. 

William of Poitou, first trou- 
badour. 



AbeJard, French scholastic. 
Jeffrey of Moninouih, histo- 
rian. 



The Knights Templars. 



Tograi., Hairi, and Abdallah 
Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. 

Scholastic Philosophy attains 
its highest pomt by the 
writings of Peter Abelard. 

Peter, the Lovibard, (master 
of sentences). 



The chieftains of the 



1099. Pope Paschal 11. 



1118. Pope Gelasius II. 

1119. " Calistus II. 



1123. First Lateran, or ninth 
general council. 

1124. Honorius II. 



first crusade were, 

1. G d f r e y of Bcuillor 
or Boulogne. 

2. Hugh of Vermandois. 

3. R b e r t of Normandy 

4. Robert of Flanders. 
.5. Stephen of Chartrcs. 

6. Raymond of Toulouse. 

7. Bohemond. 

600,000 warriors, 100,000 
cavalry. 



1104. Spain : — Alfonzo I., king 
of Navarre and Arragon. 

1106. Ger.:— Henry V .^ 
— maintains the right of in- 
vestiture. 



1108. Fr.:— Louis VI.,^ 
— I<e Gros. Abbe Sugar, 
minister. 

llOy. Germany: — Henry en- 
ters Italy, takes the pope 
prisoner, and compels him 
to crown him. 

1114. Henry V. marries Ma 
tilda, of England. 



11 iS. Spain:— A:f:nso I. cap« 
tures Saragossa. 



1120. Rivalry between Eng- 
land and France com- 
mences. 



1 125. Germany : — L o t h a i r e 

Il.^g opposed by Fre- 
deric, and Conrad, duke of 
Suabia. 



1066-1229.— Continued.] 



THE world's progress. 



m 



Eastern Empire. 



Order, learning, and com- 
merce revive. 

By the courage and talents of 
the Comneni, the empire is 
feared or respected by the 
nations of Asia and Europe. 

Invasion by the crusaders : 
great numbers pass through 
Constantinople. 



Battle of Dorylaeum, which 
secures the march of the 
crusaders through Asia Mi- 
nor. 



Acre taken by the crusaders. 



Tripolis taken by crusaders. 



Bery tus and Sidon taken by the 
crusaders. 



— John I., ^^ (Comne- 

nus),a noble prince ; reforms 
the manners of his people. 



Tyre taken by the crusaders. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere 



1093. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 
invades England, and is 
slain near Alnwick Castle by 
Roger de Mowbray. 

1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, 
king. 

William again invades 
Normandy. 

SctM. : — Duncan usui-ps 
the crown. 

William quarrels with 
Anselm, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 



1098. Scotland :— Edgar puts 
out Donald's eyes and de- 
thrones him. 



1100. William II. accidentally 
shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. 

— H e n r y I . , W — 

(Beauclerc,) grants the Eng- 
lish a charter, and marries 
Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting 
■ the Norman and Saxon in- 

tfirGSLS 

1101. Robert, duke of Nor- 
mandy, invades England. 



1105. Henry invades Norm.an- 

dy ; takes Robert prisoner 

at the battle of Tinchebrai. 

Scotland : — Alexander I. 

1107. Henry quarrels with An- 
selm. 



1120. Shipwreck and death oi 
Prince William and 140 no- 
blemen. 

1124. Insurrection in Norman- 
dy suppressed. 

Scotland :— David I. pro- 
motes civilization. 



1095. Hungary : — Coloman. 



1096. Egypt : — Mustali, tha 
eighth Fatimite caliph. Ho 
takes .Jerusalem. 

1097. Baldwin founds the 
principality of Edessa. 



1099. Jerusalem taken by tha 
crusaders, under Godfrey 
who is elected king. 



1L02. Poland :—Boleslas III. 

1 1 05. I) enm ark : — N icholas. 

1106. Italy :— Venice, Genoa, 
and Pisa greatly enriched 
by the crusades. 



1109. Norway :—Segurd's ex- 
pedition to Palestine. 



1117. Persia:— Sanjar subdues 
Khorasan and Samarkand. 

1119. War between Pisa and 
Genoa. 

1120, Italy : — Rise of the 
house of Guelph. 

Zengi, govei'nor of M 
sul, a great prince. 



90 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.- 



pROGREsa OF Society, etc. 



Aristotle's logic comes into 
repute. 



Pandects of the Roman law, 
(Justinian,) discovei-ed at 
Amalii, and the study of ihe 
civil law revived. 



Gratian collects the canon law. 

William of Malmsbury, Eng- 
lish historian. 

Vacarius teaches civil law at 
Oxford. 

Otho, bishop of Friesengen, 
historian, introduces the pe- 
ripatetic philosophy into 
Germany. 

Benjatnin of Tudela, a Jew, 
travels from Spain to India, 
by Constantinople, and re- 
turns through Egypt. 



The magnetic needle known 

in Italy. 
Suidas, lexicographer. 
Uben Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish 

historian. 



Aj-nold, of Brescia, condemn- 
ed and burnt. 

Eustathius, ccnmentator on 
Homer and Dionysius Per. 



Bank tf Venice established. — 
Fairs at Leipsic. 

London contains 40,000 inha- 
bitants 



Poem of the Cid. 



Colleges: of theology, philoso- 
phy and law at Paris. 

English commerce confined to 
the exportation of wool. — A 
woollen manufactory esta- 
blished at Worsted, and soon 
after at Norwich. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1127. — makes war against 
Roger, king of Sicily. 

1130. Innocent II. and Anacle- 
tus, rival popes. 



1137. A pretended Messiah in 
France. 

1138. — another in Persia. 



1139. Second Lai eran, or tenth 
general council. 



1143. Pope Celestinll. 

1144. " Lucius II. 

1145. " Eugenius III. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1112. Spain: — Alfonzo VIL, 
king, Leon and Castile. 



1134. Spain :— Garcia IV.. king 
of Navarre. 

Ramiro II., king of Arra- 
gon. 

1135. Lothaire in Italy — ^cap- 
ture of Amalfi. 

1137. Fr.:— Louis VII. ^ 

— (le Jeune). 
1133. Germany : — House 

of S u a b i a : 

— Conrad I.^^ 

11-39. Portugal becomes a king- 
dom. — Henry of Besancon, 
king. 
1141. Germany and Italy: — 
Dissensions of the G u e J f s 
and Ghibelines. 



1147.The Second C ru s ade excited by St. Bernard, 
and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- 
deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. 

1149. France : — Louis divorces 
his queen, Eleanor, who 
marries Henry of Anjou, af- 
terwards king of England ; 
thus Guienne and Poitou are 
lost to France. 

1150. Spain :— Sancho V., king 
of Navarre. 

1152. Germany and Italy : — 



1 1,53. Pope Anastasius IV. 

1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- 
lishman, Nicholas Breaks- 
peare). 



1159. Pope Alexander III. 
Victor IV., antipope. 

1160. Order of the Carmelites 
instituted. 

The Waldenses and 
Albigenses begin to ap- 
pear. 
1164. Pascal III., antipope. 



1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa. 



1168. Calistus III., antipope. 



Frederic I 
(Barbarossa). 



1157. Spain : — Castile and 
Leon divided under Ferdi- 
nand II. and Sancho II. 

1158. Germany: — The empe- 
ror Frederic receives the 
title of king of Bohemia a! 
the diet of Ratisbon : — con- 
quers Poland, and makes it 
tributary. 



1]^. Frederic destroys Mi'an 
Spain : — Alfonzc 11., 
king of Arragon. 



« 



1066-1229.— Continued.] 



THE world's progress 



91 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. 



1143 



114S 



1155 

il56 



— Manuel Coinmenus. ^m — 



Edessa being retaken by the 
Turks, gives rise to the 
second crusade. 

The Normans, under Roger, 
arrive before Constantino 
pie ; are repulsed by Manuel 



The Greeks reduce Apulia 
and Calabria. 

Manuel forms the desim of 
conquering Italy and the 
western empire, but fails. 



Kelso, Melrose, and Holy- 
rood house founded. 
1127. Matilda, the king's 
daughter, marries Geoffrey 
Plantagenet. 



1135. Stephen^ 

of Bloi.s. 

1136. Matilda asserts her right 
to the throne ; 

David, king of Scotland, 
assists her. 
1138. — is defeated in the " bat- 
tle of the Standard." 



1141. Stephen made prisoner 
at the battle of Lincoln. 



Civil war : Stephen and 
Matilda. 



1149. Henry Plantagenet in- 
vades England. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald L 
1133. " Magnus I. 



1154. —Henry II. 
(Plantagenet). 



1139. PORTUGAL becomes a 
kingdom, un.der Alfonso I.^g 

Sweden : — Suercher II. 



1147. Russia: — the city of 
Moscow founded. 



1150. Denmark :— The coasts 

infested with pirates. 
1150. Sweden:— EdfeX- 



11 58' Thomas a Becket intro- 
duced to the king's notice by 
Theobold, archbishop of 
Canterbury — becomes chan- 
cellor and preceptor of the 
prince. 

1159. Becket sent as ambassa- 
dor to France. 



1162. — made archbishop of 

Canterbury — opposes the 

king. 
1164. — resists the constitutions 

of Clarendon — flies to 

France. 
1166. Scotland :— William. 



1157. Denmark : Waldemar I. 

1158. Venice a great maritime 
power. 



1162. Sweden :— Charles VII. 



1167. Italy :— League of the 
Italian cities to preserr^ 
their liberties. 



92 



THE world's PROGE.ESS. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



1175 
1177 

'178 



Progress of Society, etc 



Ecclesiastical. 



Foundation of the military 
order of Santiago. 

Circuit Judges appointed in 
Eiisfland. 

117S. /n/iocenHII., antipope. 

The .pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy 
of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks 
during his visitation. 

The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They 
circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- 
nmners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- 
ral Council, and severely per secuted. 

1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- 
venLh General Council. 
Robert TFace, first French 
poet. Translation of his 
Hist, des Rois d'Angieterre, 
by Layamon, the first Eng- 
lish composition. 



1189 
1190 



119Q 



John Tzetes, Greek gramma- 
rian. 

Maimonides, of Cordova, one 
of the most learned of the 
Jews. 

Henry., of Huntington, and 
William, of Newbury, liis- 
torians. 

Rainulph de Glanville makes 
a digest of laws and customs 
of England. 



Dreadful massacre of the Jews 
at the coronation of Richard 
I. 

Teutonic order instituted. 

Boahod'h Ibu Shadad, author 
of a/.ife of Saladin, in Ara- 
bic. 



The Jews become the princi- 
pal bankers of the world. 

Order of the Holy Trinity in- 
stituted in Germany. 



IISI. Pope Lucius III. 



1185. Pope Urban III. 



1187. Pope Gregory VIII. 
1187. " Clement III. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



L170. Frnnce:— The Walden- 
ses. They derived their 
name from Peter Waldo, a 
merchant of Lyons. 



1 171. Frederick's fourth expe- 
dition into Italy. 



1176. Frederick defeated at the 
battle of Legnano. 



1178. Henry, the Lion, duke 
of Saxony, deposed, and 
Saxony divided. 



1180. Fr.:— Philip II., 1 
(Auguste). 



1183. The Peace of Constance 
re-establishes tne indepcnd 
ence of Italian republics. 



1188. Spain: — Alfonzo IX, 
king of Leon. 



1190. Third C r u s a d e led by Philip Augustus, of 
France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- 
rossa. ^L 

1 190. Ger. :— II e n r y V I ,^ 
emperor and king of Italy 
and the Sicilies. 



1191. Pope Celestine III. 



1198. Pope Innocent III. 



1196. Richard Coeur do Lion 
seized and retained in cap 
tivitv. 

1198. Philip, of Suabia, and 
Otho, of Saxony, dispute the 
crown ; the former sup- 
ported by the Ghibelines, 
and the latter by the Gutlfs, 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE world's progress. 



93 



1130 



1183 



1185 



1190 



1195 



Eastern Empiri 



England & Scotland. 



-Alexius II. W 



Andronicus I. 



-Isaac 11.^ 



(Angelus). 



The empire invaded by the 
Bulsaiians. 



Iconium taken by Frederick 
Barbarossa, but. afterwards 
restored. 



— Alexius Angel lis,' 
usurper and tyrant. 



1170. Becket returns to Eng- 
land, and is murdered at the 
aitar. 

1172. Henry conquers 
Ireland. 



1174. Treaty of Falaise, in 
which William agrees to do 
homage lor Scotland. 

Henry makes a pilgri- 
mage to the shrine of Becket. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1189.— Richard I.W 

(C-'ceur de Lion). He en- 
gages in the third crusade. 



1171. Egypt :—Saladin, sul 
tan. 

— He extends his domi- 
nions in Egypt, and con- 
quers Syria, Assyria, Meso- 
potamia, and Arabia. 

1174. Poland :— Miecislaus III. 

1175. Portugal— a fief of the 
Holy See. 



1178. Poland :~Casimir, (the 
Just' 



1182. Denmark :— Canute. 
1133. Saladin takes Aleppo, 

and deposes the sultan of 

Mosul. 



1185. Portugal :—Sancho I. 

1186. Saladin directs all hia 
efforts against the crusaders. 



1187. — gains the victory of 
Tiberias, and takes Jerusa- 
lem, which leads to 

1190. The third crusade. 



1191. Kingdom of Cyprus 
founded. 

1191. Acre taken by the cru- 
saders. 



1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon ; but, 
abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce ot iiies 
years. 



1193. John attempts to seize 
the crown in the absence of 
Richard. 



1193. Saladin dies. 



94 THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



1200 



1203 



1206 



1209 



1222 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France. Germany & Spain. 



The power of the pope supre me — Rome mistress of the world, and kings her rassals 



The University of Bologna 
contains 10,000 students. 



Ville Hardouin, historian. 
Saxo GravimaticuSfhistQiian, 



University of Paris founded. 



The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted. 



1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France. 

1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and 
Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. Tiiey take 
Constantinople. 



1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce. 



The works of Aristotle, im- 
ported from Constantinople, 
condemned by the council 
of Paris. 



Period of the Troubadours in 
France ; the Minstrels in 
England; and the Minne- 
singers in Germany. 



University of Padua founded. 



Stephen Langton, archbishop 
of Canterbury. 



Bitter persecution of the 

Albigenses. 



The doctrine of transub- 
stantiation and auricular 
confession established. 



1215. Fourth Lateran, and 
twelfth General Council 
against the Albigenses, and 
all heretics. 

1216. Pope Honorius III. 

1217. The fifth crusade by 
Andrew II., king of Hun- 
gary. 



1227. Pope Gregory IX. 



1229. The Inquisition at Tou- 
louse. 

The Scriptures forbid- 
den to all laymen. 



Normandy reunited to 
France. 



1210. Germany :— Otho placai 
under the ban of the pope. 



1212. — Frederick II J 



Spain :— The Christians 
gain the battle of Navas de 
Tolosa. 



1215. Otho loses the battle of 
Bovines. 



1217. Spam-.— Ferdinand, king 
of Castile. 



1223. Fr.: Louis VIII. ^ 

(The Lion). 

Crusade against the Al- 
bigenses. 

1226. Fr. : L u 1 s I X . ft 
(Saint). 

1227. Germany :— Crusade of 
the emperor after being ex- 
communicated. 

1230. S|)ain : — Castile and 
Leon united by Ferdinand 
III., who talr-es Cordova Se- 
ville, radiz. Ice. from the 
Moors. 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE world's progress. 



95 



i2a4 



1206 



Eastern Empire. 



-Alexius IV. 



The crusaders plunder Con- 
stantinople. 
Baldwin, count of Flanders. 

Henry H. ^§ 



1216 



1221 



1228 



1237 



— Peter 



— Robert 



— John of Brienne,^^ 

king of Jerusalem, and em- 
peror. 



-Baldwin II. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere 



Richard, returning home 
in disguise, through Ger- 
many, is imprisoned. Is 
ransomed by ins subjects for 
10,000 marks. 

— declares war against 
France. 
1199. Richard dies. 



1200. John, 

(Lackland.) 



1201. Prince Arthur supported 
by France. 



1207. The kingdom laid under 
an interdict. 

1208. John excommunicated. 
London obtains the right 

to elect its own Lord Mayor. 



1213. The pope declares John 
a usurper. John submits to 
hold his crown as a vassal of 
the pope. 

1214. Scotland : — Alexander II 



1215. Magna Charta signed at 
Runnymede. 



1216. —Henry III.^ 
(4ih Plantagenet.) 

Earl of Pembroke, 
tector. 



pro- 



1224. Henry's province of 
Poitou seized by the king of 
France. 



1229. First expedition of Henry 
into France for the recovery 
of his estates. 

1233. First discovery of coal 
at Newcastle. 



1202. Denmark : — Waldemar 

n. 

Poland : — Lesco, (the 
white). 

Livonia : — Institution of 
the order of short swords lo 
conquer the Prussians. 



1206. Genghis Khan 
subdues the north of China. 



1210. Italy :— First war of Ve- 
nice and Genoa. 



1213. Russia:— JurjelL 



1214. Frederick cedes to Den- 
mark all the provinces be- 
yond the Elbe and Eiser. 



1216. Tartary :— Overrun by 
the hordes of Genghis Khan. 

1217. Norway :—Haco V. 



1222. Two Greek kingdoms in 
Asia, Nice and Trebizond. 

John Ducas, emperor of 
Nice. 

Hungary : — Charter of 
Andrew II. Foundation of 
the national liberty. 



1234. Italy :— War of the Lom- 
bard cities with Frederick of 
Germany. 

1235. Dreadful invasion o( 
Europe by the Mongols, un- 
der Batu Khan. 



96 



THE WOP^LD'S progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D, Progrhss op SoctETY, etc. 



Robert, of Gloucester, the first 
English writer in rliyme. 



First war fleet in Spain at the 
conquest of Seville. 

Foundation of the Alhanibra 
near Granada. 

St. Edmund, of Caiaterbury, 
dies. 

The University of Salaman- 
ca founded. 



Silk manufactory in Lucca ; 

woollen in Milan and Tus- 

cany. 
Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 

physician, and naturalist. 
Rubruquis travels among the 

Mongols. 



Private war and judicial com- 
bats suppressed in France 
by the laws of St. Louis. 



Parliament in England. 



The monastic orders, by their 
wealth, rigid discipline, 
and popular influence, be- 
come powerful aids to pon- 
tifical amdiiio7i. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1241. Pope Celestine IV. 



124.3. Pope Innocent IV. 

Continual struggles with 
the emperor Frederic. 



Sect of the Flagellants. 



1254. Pope Alexander IV. 

The Jews every where 
persecuted. 



1261. Pope Urban IV. 

The popes claim the 
right of presenting t.o every 
benefice in the world. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



123S. Germany : — Frederic 
again excommunicated. 



1243. The Ilanseatic 
1 e a g u e — the chief towns 
are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns- 
wick, and Dantzic. 

1246. Henry of Thuringia set 
up for emperor by the pope, 
and 

1247. William, of Holland. 

1248. France :— Louis sets out 
on the seventh crusade. 



1250. Germany: 

Conrad IV. @— 

1252. Spain: — Alfonso X. 
king of Castile and Leon. 



1261. France :— Burgundy falls 

to the crown. 



1265. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do- 
minion of Italy, and places CharlesofAnjou on the throne 

of Naples. 

126.5. Pope Clement IV. 

1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator. 



1268. Pragmatic sanction- 
foundation of the liberties of 
the Galilean church. 



1268. No pope for about three 
years. 

1271. Pope Gregory X. 



1270. France :— Louis IX. seta 
out on the eighth and last 
crusade, and dies before 
Tunis — succeeded by 

— Philip III.W — 
(The Hardy). 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WOR.LD's progress. 



97 



1260 
1261 



12E8 



Eastern Empire. 



— Michael Palgeologus.^g 
— recovers Constantinople. 



The Mongols in Asia Minor. 



The Mongols take Antioch. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere, 



1240. Richard, earl of Corn- 
wall, heads the sixth cru- 
sade, and redeems Jerusa- 
lem. 



1^42. Second expedition into 
France — defeated and com- 
pelled to make peace. 



1246. Henry marries Eleanor, 
of Provence. 



1249. Scot. : Alexander El. 

— Repulses Haco, king 
of Norway — obtains the 
Scottish Isles. 



1258. Famous parliament at 

Oxford. Simon d e 

M n t f r t . 

1259. Peace with France. 



1265. First regular parlia- 
ment. — Civil war — tlie king 
made prisoner at Lewes— is 
released, and gains the bat- 
tle of Evesham. 



1270. Prince Edward joins the 1270. Hungai7 :- 
eighth crusade. 

Stephen V, 



1241. Denmark :— Eric VI. 



1249. The Hanse towns cap- 
ture Copenhagen. 

1250. Egypt .-—the M a m e . 
1 u k e s rule — take Damas> 
cus and Aleppo. 



1255. Nice : — Theodore Lasca- 
ris, emperor. 

1256. Hulaku enters Persia, 
becomes sultan — takes Bag- 
dad, and puts an end to 
the caliphate. 

1258. Italy :— Dreadful naval 
war between Venice and 
Genoa. 

1259. China :—Kublai Khan 
builds Pekin, and makes it 
his capital. 



1261. Norway :— Iceland sub- 
jected. 

Italy : — Charles I. 

1262. — becomes a papal fief. 
Greenland iributaiy to 

Norway. 

Norway : 



1265. 



-Magnus 11.^^ 

Abaka Khan of Persia. 



1266. Magnus, of Norway, 
cedes to Scotland the He 
brides and the Isle crf Man. 



98 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages,— 



1272 



1273 



1276 



1279 



S85 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Marco Polo travels in the 
East as far as Pekin. 



First patent of nobility grant- 
ed to his goldsmith by the 
kii?f? of France. This was 
designed as an attack upon 
the feudal barons, and all 
tlie landed and hereditary 
aristocracy. 



Literature and science flourish 
in Spain, under Alfonzo, the 
learned. 



Chivalry and the tournaments 
introduced into Sweden. 



University of Lisbon founded. 



Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the 
most learned man of the 
middle ages. 



Institution of the three great 
courts of law in England. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany, & Spaim 



1272. Languedoc falls to tho 
crown. 



1273. Ger. :— Rodolph.^ 

founds the house o i 
H a p s b u r g . 



1274. I4th General Council at Lyons; first re-union of 
the Eastern and Western Churches. 



1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos. 
" Adrian V., 1 mo. 
" John XXL, 8 mos. 



1277. Nicholas III., enriching 
his family at the expense of 
the church — he introduces 
Nepotism. 



1281. Pope Martin IV. 



1285. Pope Honorius IV. 



1288. Pope Nicholas IV, 



Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, and 
improves and embellishes Rome. 



AWeit, the mathematician, and 
Provencal poet. 



1276 France at war with Ca* 

tile. 



1283. Germany Rodc.ph 

makes his son, Albert, duke 
of Austria. 



1285. Fr.:— Philip IV. 
(the Fair.) 



1286. Spain :— Alfonzo 111. 

king of ArragoG. 



1066-1299.— Continued.J 



THE world's progress. 



99 



A.D. I Eastern Empire. 



1273 



1274 



1277 



' Andronicas, 



(the Elder.) 



Union with the Latin church. 



Persecution of the Greeks. 



•esi 



Ochman establishes an inde- 
pendent rule, as chief of 
400 families, in the north of 
A.s-'a Minor. 



England & Scotland. 



1272. — Edward JM 



1276. War between England 
and Wales. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1272 Hungary: — 



— Vladislas VI. W — 



12S3. Edward has a son born 
at Caernarvon, from which 
the title, Prince of Wales, 
descends to the eldest son of 
the king. 

Scotland :— Robert Bruce and 
John Balliol contend for the 
crown. 



1289. Last payment of ti ibute 
to the pope. 



1276. Sweden : — Magnus L 



Russia : — Hanseatic set- 
tlement at Novogorod. 

1279. China :-Kublia Khan 
subdues the southern king- 
dom, and becomes the Great 
Khan. 

China visited by Marco 
Polo. 

1279. Poland :— Lesco II. 

1279. Portugal :— Dennis,^_ 
the farther of his coun- 
try. 

1280. Norway :— Eric 11.^-— 



1982. /Sicilian vespers. 
1282. Denmark :— Parliament 
at Wurtemburg. 
Fu-st Handveste. 



1285. Denmark :— Eric VI. 



1289. The Mongols mvade 
Hungary and Poland. 

1290. Hungary : —Andrew III. 



the Venetian. 

Poland : Wenceslas, 

king of Bohemia, takes Cra- 
cow, and becomes duke o 
Lesser Poland. 



100 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



?99 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
physician, and naturalist. 



Joh7i HolyiDood. of England 
astronomer. 



Richard Middleton. 



Cimabue, the first of modern 
painters at Florence. 



Arnolf di Lapo, the father of 
modern Italian architecture. 



The Inf luence of the 
crusades was great 

expanding the 

mind of Eur op e — r e - 
fi ning the g eneral 
manner s — e xciti ng 
a spirit of geogra- 
phical research and 
adventur e — a nd pr o- 
'm,oting impr ov ement 
in the arts and sci- 
ences — thus under 

First letters of marque grant- 
ed by Edward III. against 
the Portuguese. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1292. Celestine V.— he abdi- 
cates. 

1292. The papal chair vacant 
two years and three months. 
Institution of the order 
of the Celestines. 



1294. Pope Boniface VIII. 



1296. Strusgles with France. 



1297. Canonization of Louis 
IX. 



mining instead of 
stre7igthening the 
power ofp apal Ro'tne, 
by advanciyig libe- 
ral ideas and fr e e - 
dom of thought. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1291. Germany: 

— Adolphus 
of Nassau. 



Spain: — James II. k, of 

Arragon. 



1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV. 
in Castile ar d Leon. 



Philip successfully in- 
vades Flanders. 



1298. Germany : — Adolphua 
deposed by a Diet, which 

elects 

— Albert I.^ — 
son of Rodolph. — Adolphus 
slain in the struggle which 
ensues. 






1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



101 



1291 



1292 



1299 



Eastern Empire. 



Capture of Acre by the 5Ia- 
melukes — end of the king- 
dom of Jerusalem. 

The Mongols drive the last 
sultan of Iconium from his 
throne. 



The Genoese obtain the trade 
of the Black Sea, and rise to 
great power 



Othman mvades Nicomedia, 
and establishes the Ottoman 
empire. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1291. Edward decides the 
Scottish dispute in favor of 
Baliol. 

1292. A piratical warfare be- 
tween England and France. 
— Philip gets possession of 
Guienne. 



1296. Ball.- 1 defeated; sub- 
mits to Edward. 



1297. Scotland :— S i r Wil- 
liam Wallace . — S i r 
William Douglas, 
Robert Bruce, and 
other chiefs head a rebellion 
against the English. 



1292. Hungary : — The pope 
sets up Charles Martel, 
crown prince ot Naples, as 
king. 



1294. China:— Tymui Khan. 



1295. Poland: 



— Premislas II.' 



1296. Poland:— Less 11.^— 



1299. —they are defeated at "1299. Foundation of the 
Falkirk by king Edward I. I OTTOMAN or TURKISH 
I EMPIRE in Bythinia, ua- 
<j'Q* ")thman I. 



.i)2 



THE world's progress. 



PERIOD VII.— TAs Middle ^^es.— 1299 to 1453.— 



A.D. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


1300 


University at Lyons founded. 
—Rapid advances in civili- 
zation. — Revival of ancient 
learning.— Improvements in 
the arts and sciences— and 
progress of liberty. 




1302 


The Mariner's Com- 
pass invented at Naples, 
by Gioia, native of Amain. 




1303 


University at Avignon. 


1303. Pope Boniface VIII. 




Dante ,\\\& father of modern 


Council of Paris. 




Italian poetry, flourishes. 


Bull unam sanctum. 




Amid tlie struggles of the 


Pope Benedict XI. 




Guelfs and Ghibelines, 


Vacancy in the papal 




Italy becomes the cradle of 


chair nearly eleven monihs. 




modern literature and im- 


— The papal power de- 




proving civilization. 


clines. 


1305 


University at Orleans. 


1305. Pope Clement V. 






Seat of the popes 


1307 


University at Perugia. 




130S 


University at Coimbra. 


' 


1310 


Knights of St. John at 

Rhodes. 
Order of Knights Templar 




311 


1311. General Council at Vien- 




abolished. — The barons in 


na. 




England extort from Ed- 


Another vacancy in the 




ward II. a reformation of 


papal chair of more than 




abuses. Parliaments are to 


two years. 




be held every year, and to 






appoint to all important 






offices. 


1316. Pope John XXII. 

Taxes imposed upon all 
the countries of Europe, to 
enrich the treasury of the 
church. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1302. First convocation of the 
States-General in France. 

Guienne restored to Eng- 
land. 



1304. France at war with 

Flanders. 

Germany: — The Swiss 
towns rise into importance 
— oppressed by the House of 
Hapsburg. 



n n . 
1306. Persecution of the Jews 
in France. 

Germany • — Rudolf 



of Austria. 



the 



1307. Persecution of 
Knights Templar. 

Ger. : — William Tell 
shoots Gesler. 

1308- Germany : H e n r y 



of Luxemburg, ^g^ — 

General insurrection in 
Switzerland. 
130D. Spain:— Ferdinand IV. 
takes Gibraltar. 



1311. Lyons united to France. 

1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XI. 
of Castile and Leon. 



1314. Fr.:— Louis X.^— 
(Hutin.) 

Ger. : — Louis of Bava- 
ria, and Frederick of Aus- 
tria, contend for the crown. 

1315. Fr. :— Edict for the en- 
franchisement of slaves. 

Battle of Morgarten— the 
Austrians defeated by the 
Swiss. 

1316. Fr.:— Philip V.^— 
(the Long.) He succce is by 
virtue of the Salique .kw 
now first established. 



THE world's progress. 

154 years. — Othmcin to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. 



103 



1303 



Eastern Empire. 



War of the Catalans, under 
Roger de Flor. 

Othman increases his posses- 
sions ; abandons the pasto- 
ral life, and fortifies towns 
and castles. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1303. Edward invades Scot- 
land. Wallace betrayed 

and beheaded. — Scotland 
submits. 

Edward recovers Gui- 
enne. 



1310 



The Knights of St. John of 
Jerusalem, established at 
Rhodes. 



1306. Scotland : — R o b e r t 
Bruce proclaimed king 
— is obliged to flee ; but, 
Edward dying, resumes his 
position. 

1307. Eng. .-Edward II .@ 

Scot. : — Bruce strength- 
ens himself by repeated ad- 
va.i^ges and prudent con- 
du :-■.. 



1314. Edward invades Scot- 
land, aftd is defeated at the 
Battle of Bannock- 
burn. 

The Scots invade Eng- 
land and Ireland. 



1301. Hungary : — Andrew, the 



Venetian.^ 



Extinction of the house 
of Arpad. 

— Wenceslas III. of Bo- 

hemia.^^ 



1304. — Otto v.. of Bava- 
ria. ^P 



1305. Polai il :— Vladislas IV., 
in Little Poland, and 

Duke Henry, of Glogau, 
in Great Poland. 

Russia subject to the 
Khan of Tartary. 



1307. Switzerland: 

W m . Tell escapes from 

SWISS Republics 

founded, Nov. 7. 

1308. Hungary :— Carobert, of 



Anjou.^^ 

1309. Poland united into one 
monarchy under VJadislaa 
IV. 

Naples : — Robert, the 
Good. He aspires to the 
dominion of Italy. 

1310. Italy :— The Council of 
Ten established at Venice. 



1313. Italy;— MatteoVisconti. 

1314. Tunis made tributary to 
Spain. 



1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord 
of Lucca and Pisa. 

1317. Robert, the Good, a sena- 
tor of Rome, and 

13)8. —lord of Genoa. 
1319. Final establishmeii of 
the oligarchy at Venicfc 



104 



THE world's progress 



[Period VIL— The Middle Ages.— 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Dante, dies. 



John de Muris introduces 
notes of different length into 
music — and the method of 
distinguishing them. 

Romance poetry of the middle 
ages flourishes. 

Mayronis commences the cele- 
brated disputations in the 
Sorbonne. 

Clock constructed on mathe- 
matical principles, by Rich- 
ard Valigforc. 

Linna, a monk, and astrono- 
mer of Oxford, constructs a 
map of the northern seas. 

Thomas,of Bradwardine, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, 



Giotto, a shepherd boy, the 
first who drew portraits 
from life. 

Greek literature revives. — 
Barlaam teaches Petrarch. 
— Leontius lectures on Ho- 
mer at Florence. 

First comet, whose course has 
been accurately described. 

GUNPOWDER in use at 

the battle of Cressy. 
Lippo Memmi Giotino. Flo- 
rentine painter. 

First hank at Genoa. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1324. Contest of the popes 
with Louis of Bavaria. 



1328. Crusade preached agains; 
Louis, who sets up Nicholas 
V. as anti-pope. 



1334. Pope Benedict xn. 



1339. Struggles in Rome be- 
tween the Colonna and the 
Ursini. 



1342. Pope Clement VL 



Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri- 
bunes. 



Manufactures improve in 
England. — Coimnerce in- 
crease=!. 

Bartolus and Baldus, cele- 
brated j urists 



Merino sheep introduced into 
Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- 
gon. 

Sir John Mandeville's Tra- 
vels, the first English book 
in prose. 



1352. Pope Innocent VI. 

1354. Rienzi killed.— Albemoz, 
cardinal legate, restores the 
papal dominion. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1322. France : — Charles 

I V.@— (the Fair.) 

Germany :— Frederic, of 
Austria defeated and taken 
prisoner. 
1324. Germany : — Louis ex- 
communicated by John XII. 
— appeals to a general coun- 
cil. 



1328. France :— P h i 1 i p V I 
of Valois.^P — 



1332. France :— The Flemings 
revolt and acknowledge Ed- 
ward III. as king oi France. 



1338. France :— War with Eng- 
land. 

Germany : — Declaration 
of the Diet of Frankfort, 
that the pope had no tempo- 
ral power in the empire. 

Louis sides with the 
English against France. 



1346. France: — Normandy 
overrun by Edward, with 
his son, the Black Prince- 
French defeated at Cressy. 

Germany : — C h a r 1 e s 
IV., king of Bohemia. 

The empire offered to 
Edward III., who declines. 



1350. France :- 
(the Good.) 



-John ^^M — 



1355. Germany : — Promulga- 
tion of the gulden Bull. 

1356. France :— King John de- 
feated and taken prisoner at 
Piitiers. — Charles the dau- 
phin regent. 

Insurrection in Pans. 



1360. France : — John regains 
his liberty — cedes much ter- 
ritory to England. 



1299-1453— 154 T/mr.v. — Continued.] THE world's progress. 105 



1320 



Eastern Empire. 



Disputes and civil war be- 
tween the emperor and his 
son, Michael. 



1326 Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, 
makes Prusa his capital. 



J328 



1341 



1348 



1355 



1360 



Andronicus, 



(the younger.) 



— John Cantacuzene. ^M — 



War with the Genoese, defeat 
of the Greeks and Venetians. 



^John Paleeologus. 



England & Scotland, j The World, elsewhere 



1322. Lancaster executed. 

1323. Conspiracy against the 
king. 



Amurath 
Turks. 



I., Sultan of the 



1327. Peace between Scotland 
and England. — The inde- 
pendence ol" Scotland ac- 
knowledged. 

— E dward tit .^^ — 
1329. Scotland :— David 11. 

1332. Edward invades Scot- 
land. — Balliol crowned, but 
soon expelled. 

1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. 
— Balliol restored — does ho- 
mage to Edward. 



1338. Struggle for the French 
crown,which lasts 120 years. 



1340. The victory of Helvoet 
Sluys — gives spirit to the 
English navy. 

David, of Scotland, in- 
vades England. 

1346. Battle of Cressy. 

n47. Siege and capture of 
.Calais. 



1350. Viclory over the Spanish 
fleet. — Parliament divided 
into two chambers, lords 
spiritual and temporal. 



1356. Edward, the 
Black Prince, 
gains the battle of 
Poitiers. — John made 
prisoner.— Two years' truce. 
— Edward again invades 
Scotland — is obliged to re- 
treat. 

1358. — again invades France. 

1360. Peace of Breligni. 



1320. Russia : — The grand 
duchy of Wladimir confer- 
red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 



1326. Tartary : — T a m e r • 
lane born at Kesh. 

1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis, 
emperor of Germany. 



1333. Poland: 
Great. ^^- 



Casimir the 



1339. Italy;— Simon Bocane- 
gra, doge of Genoa. 

1340. Denmark : — Waldemar 
IV. restorer of the kingdom 

1342. Hungary : — Louis the 
Great. 

1343. Italy : Commercial 

treaty between Venice and 
the sultan of Egypt and 
Syria. 

1347. Italy : — R i e n z i , the 
last of the Tribunes, rules 
at Rome. 



1350. Italy : — Naval war be- 
tween Venice and Genoa. 

1353. Establishment of the Ot- 
tomans in Europe. 

1354. Italy :—Rienzi killed— 
papal fower restored. 

1356. First war between Hun- 
gary and Venice. 



1359. Hungary :— Conquest of 
the principalities lying en 
the Danube. 



5* 



106 



THE world's progress. [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D. PaOGliiSS OF SOCIETI', StC. 



1364 



1355 



138(1 



1383 



1386 



1390 



1392 



Petrarch ayid Boccacio. 



Charles V. founds a college of 
medicine and asti-ology at 
Paris. 



Foundation of the University 
of Vienna. 



Geof. Chaucer, fath er 
of English poetry. 



1400 



1402 



Mysteries played in France. 



Wickliffe's translation of the 
Bible. 



University of Heidelberg 

founded. 
Froissarfs Chronicles. 
John Van Eyck, invented oil 

painting — founder of the 

Fleinish school. 



The first mill in Germany for 
the manufacture of linen 
paper. 

Chaucer's Astrolabe written. 



Revival of Greek literature in 
Italy, 



Chaucer dies. 



John Goiter, English poet. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig- 
non — beauiifies the city of 
Rome — presents the right 
arm of Thomas Aquinas to 
Charles V. of France, as an 
object of worship. 



1370. Pope Gregory IX. 



1378. " Schis7n of the West:" 
Pope Urban VI. ac- 
knowledged in the empire 
and England. 

Clement VII. acknow- 
ledged in France, Spain, and 
Scotland. 



1389. Pope Boniface IX. at 
Rome. 

1391. The English clergy for- 
bidden to cross the sea for 
benefices. 

1 1394. yope Benedict XIII. 



Francs. Germany <t Spain, 



1354. Fr. :— Charles V, 
(the Wise.) 



1365. War with Navarre~bat- 
tie of Amoy. 



1378. Germany: — Wences- 
1 a s , (king of Bohemia), 
emperor. 



1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^ 
(the Maniac). 

1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the 
Flemings defeated — Arte- 
velde killed. 



1386. France : — Fruitless at- 
tempt to invade England. 



1392. —Charles seized with 
madness. 

1394. Germany :— The emper- 
or imprisoned by the people 
of Prague. 



1400. Ger. :— R o b e r t j1 
(Count Palatine). 



1299-li5S.—15i years.— Continned.] THE world's PROGRESS. 



107 



1373 



1389 



1391 



1396 



1402 



Eastern Empire. 



Treaty with Murad, the Otto- 
man emperor. 



Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks. 



Manuel II. 



emperor. 



Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- 
mond, of Hungary, defeated 
by Bajazet I. 



Bajazet defeated and made 



England &, Scotland. 



1362. The Black Prince aids 
Peter the Cruel, of Castile, 
to recover his throne. 



1369. A new war with France ; 
unsuccessful. 



1371. Scotland :— Robert II.— 

the House of Stuart. 
1376. Death of the Black 

Prince. 

1377.— Richard II. ^— 

First Speaker of the House 
of Commons. 



1378. Fruitless invasion of 
France. 

Insurrection of Wat Ty- 
ler. 



1382. The king marries Anne, 
daughter of Charles IV. 

1384. The Scots, assisted by 
France, invade England. 

1385. The English bum Edin- 
burgh. 



/ ■ 
1388, Battle of Otterbourne. 

1390, Scotland : Robert III. 
Persecution of the Wick- 
\ifites. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Lancaster, 



1352. Italy : — War between 
Pisa and Florence. 



1369. Tartary : — Tamerlane 
makes Saniarcand the capi- 
tal of his new empire. 

1370. Poland :— Extinction oi 
the royal race of Piasts. 



1398. Henry, of 
banished. 

House of Lancas- 

1399. —Henry IV.^ — 
Richard II. deposed. 

1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- 
dower, and 
prisoner by Tamerlane, at 1 1403. of the Percys, who are 
the battle of Angora. defeated at the battle of 

I Shrewsbury. 



1378. Italy .-—Silvester de Me- 
dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- 
rence. 



1380. Russia :— Dimitri Ivano- 
vitsch victorious over the 
Tartars, near the Don. 

1382. The Tartars sack Mos- 
cow. 

1384. Persia: — Invaded by 
Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. 
— Pyramids of human heads. 

1385. War between Austria 
and Switzerland. 

1386. Battle of Sempach : — 
the Austrians defeated, 

1387. Denmark ifc Norway :— 

Margaret, ^g the Semi- 

ramis of the north. 
1391. Italy:— Pisa fails under 
the yoke of the Visconti. 



1395. Tamerlane overruns 
Kipchak and Russia. 

1397. Union of Calmar, form- 
ing Denmark, Sweden, and 
Norway into a single mo- 
narchy. 

1399. Invasion of India by 
Tamerlane. 



108 



THE world's progress. [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Rodrigo, of Zarnora, Spanish 
historian. 

University of Leipsic found- 
ed. 



Thomas a Kempis. 
John Huss. 
Jerame, of Prague. 



First Portuguese colonies on 
the coast of Africa, Madei- 
ra, &c. 



George of Peurbach, astrono- 
mer at Vienna. 



Peter d'Ailly, theologian. 



The arts promoted in Italy by 
Cosmo de Medici. 



England increases her trade 
with the Mediterranean. 



Michael Walhgemuth, Ger- 
man painter, (teacher of 
Durer). 

Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter. 



INVENTION OF PRINT- 
ING at Mayence. 

John Mailer Regiomontanus, 
German astronomer and 
mathematician. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1404. Pope Innocent VII. 
1406. '• Gregory XII. 



1409. The council of Pisa de- 
poses Gregory and Bene- 
dict, and elects Alexander 
V. ; — neither will yield, so 
that there are three popes at 
once. 

1410. Pope John XXIII. 



1414. Council of Constance. 



1416. John Huss, and Jerome, 
of Prague, burnt by the 
Council of Constance. 

1417. Pope Martin V. 



1429. Pope Clement VIII. at 
Avignon, resigns, and ends 
the "Schism of the West." 



1431. Pope Eugenius IV. 
Council of Basle. 



France, Germany. & Spain. 



1407. France : — Murder of 
Louis, Duke of Orleans. 

Spain: — John II., king 
of Castile. 



1410. Spain :— Ferdinand, king 
of Arragon. — Yusief III., 
king of Granada. 

1410. Fr. : — Civil war between 
the parties of Orleans and 
Burgundy. 

Gerniany : — Death of 
Robert. 

1411. S i g i s m u n d , (king 

of Hungary),^^ empe- 
ror. 
1413. France: — The French 
defeated by Henry V., of 
England, at Agincourt. 

1416. Spain :— Alfonzo V., king" 
of Arragon and Sicily. 



1419. Sigismund succeeds to 
the Bohemian crown. 



1422. France :— Death of Char- 
les VI — Henry VI. pro- 
claimed at Paris king of 
France and England. 

— C h a r 1 e s VII. @ — 
at Poitiers. 

1427. Orleans besieged by cho 
English. 

1429. — saved by J o a n of 
Arc. 

Charles crowned at 
Rheims ; makes a vain at- 
tempt to gain Paris. 

1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- 
soner and burnt as a witch. 

1431. Germany : — Sigismund 
visits Italy, and is crowned 
emperor by Pope Eugeniua 
IV. 

143.5. Peace of Arras, between 
France and Burgundy. 



1436. France :— Recovery of 
Paris. 

1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, estab'ishes the liber- 
ties of the French church> 



r299>1453 :— 154 ygr^?-5.— Continued.] the world's progress. 



109 



1403 



1413 



1421 



1425' 



Eastern Empire. 



Solyinan I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



Mohammed I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



Amui-ath II., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



John VII. 

peror. 



1438 



The emperor visits Italy to 
obtain help against the 
Turks — submits to the pope. 



England & Scotland. 



1406. Scotland :— James I. 



1413. 



-Henry V 



1414. — claims the French 
crown. 

1415. — gains the battle 
of Agincourt. 



1420.Treaty of Troyes.-Henry 
marries Catharine, daughter 
of Charles VI., and is de- 
clared heir to the French 
crown. 

1422. Death of Henry V. 

— Henry V I .^M — 

1424. The Duke of Bedford 
defeats the French at Ver- 
neuil. 



1427. — besieges Orleans. 

1429. The siege raised by the 
Maid of Orleans. 



1431. — she is taken prisoner 
and burnt. 



1435. Death of the Duke of 
Bedford, followed by the 
loss of all the English pos- 
sessions in France, except 
Calais 

1436. W^ar with Scotland. 

1437. Scotland : — James II. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1406. Italy : — Pisa conquered 
by Florence. — Subjugation 
of Padua and Verona by 
Venice. 



1412. Italy:— Sack of Roma 
byLadislas, king of Naples, 
Denmark, Norway, &c. : 

Eric VII., of Pomerania.^g 
1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by 

the Portuguese. 
1419. Bohemia : — Hussite war. 



1420. Discovery of Madeira 
by the Portuguese. 



1424. Bohemia :-Death of John 
Ziska, the Hussite leader. 

Italy : — War of the Duke 
of Milan against Florence. 



1429. Florence:— Cosmo di 
Medici, patron of the 
arts and sciences. 



1431. Italy :— Second war of 
Venice and Milan. 



1434. Poland:— Vladislas III. 



1436. Italy :— Third war be- 
tween Venice and Milan. 

1437. Portugal : — Expedition 
into Africa. 

1433. Portugal: — Alfonso V., 



110 



THE world's progress. 



{Period VII.— The Middle Ages. -^ 



Progress of Society, etc. 



1444 Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, 
architect, and painter — dis- 
covers perspective. 



1446 Pet. Perugino, founder of the 
Roman school of painting, 
teacher of Raphael. 



1147 library of the Vatican, found- 
ed. 



1448 



1450 



The Azores discovered, 
Alain Chartica. French poet. 



Flourishing period of Flan- 
ders' trade.— All European 
nations have warehouses at 
Bruges and Ghent. — Book 
trade at Mayence. 



ler. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1447. Pope Nicholas V. 



1448. Concordat of AschafTen- 
berg, by which the liberties 
of the German church are 
compromised. 



France: Germany & Spain, 



1438. Germany : — House 
of Austria: 

— Albert II.W — 
(king of Bohemia anoHun- 
gary.) 



1440. Ger. :-F r e d e r i c III, 



France :— The dauphin, 
(Louis XL), rebels— but is 
pardoned. 



1444. — establishment of the 
companies of Archers, the 
first national standing army. 



1446. Germany : — War with 
Hungary, for refusing to 
give up the young prince, 
Vladislas. 



1451. Expedition of Frederic 
to Rome. 



1453. Austria made an hersdi- 
tary duchy by Frederic. 

End of the French aod 
English wars. 



1 



1299-1453— 154 y^ars— Continued.] the world's progress. ill 



1U3 



1444 



Eastern Empire. 



Insurrection of Scandeberg — 
victory over the Turks near 

Nissa. 



Battle of Varna — Vladislas, 
king of Poland, defeated and 
killed by the Turks. 



England & Scotland. 



1448 



1451 



1453 



— Constantino XIT. ^^ 

(Palaeologus,) the last of the 
Greek emperors. 



Mohammed II., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



Siege and capture 
of Constantinople 
by the Turks: 

END OF THE EAST- 
ERN EMPIRE. 



1444. Truce with France.— 
Marriage of Henry to Mar- 
garet, of Anjou. 



Ths World, elsewhere. 



1440. Hungary ; 
chosen king.i 



• V.'adislaj 



1447. Gloucester arrested for 
treason— dies suddenly. 



1450. Insurrection of Jack 
Cac/e— calling himself Mor- 
timer. 

Civil Wars of 
"tlie Roses:" 

Richard, duke of York, 
claims the throne. 



Scotland :— Struf 
tween the king and 
cracy for power. 



gles be- 
aristo- 



1441. Italy :— Peace of Marti- 

nego. 
1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon, 

unites the crown of the Two 

Sicilies. 



1445. Poland : Casimir IV. ^^ 

1446. Tartary : — Ulugh Beg, 
patron of astronomy and 
geography. 



1448. Denmark :— Christian L 
of Odenburg.^^ 

Sweden :— Charles VIII.^ 

1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor- 
za, duke of Milan. 

Norway : Christian 

crowned at Drontheim.^^ 

Delhi :— Behol Lodi en- 
larges the kingdom. 
1453. Poland : — Coniirmation 
of the national liberty in the 
Diet of Petrikan. 



112 



THE world's progress. 

PERIOD VIIL— 1453-1598. 



A,D. Progress op Society, etc. 



1460 



U64 



1466 



1470 



1471 



Philip de Comines, French 
historian. 



Wood engraving invented. 



Post- Offices in France and 
England. 



Faust dies at Paris, whither 
he journeys ticice to sell his 
Latin Bible. 



Beerhard invents the pedal to 
the organ. 



Printing in England— Cax- 
ton. 



England. 



1455. Battle of 
St. Albans. 

House 
of York: 
1461. — Ed- 
ward IV. 

^g— gains 
the battle of 
Towton. 



Scotland. 



1460. 
III. 



James 



France. 



1461. Louis 



XI. 



1473 Printed musical notes. 

Hungary :— Mathias patroni- 
zes literature and the arts. 
Large library at O fen— 300 
copyists of manuscripts. 



1476 German ballads— war songs of 
Veil Weber. 



1477 



1481 



1484 



Watches first made at Nurem- 

burg. 
Mikrond and Rondemir, great 

Persian historians. 



Lady Juliana Berners, one of 
the earliest female writers 
of England. 



Hans Holbein, painter. 



Franchino Gafuvid, teacher in 
the first public school of 
music at Milan. 



Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- 
sical genius of his age. 



l469.Warwick 
banished. 



1471. Battle of 
Barnet :— 
Warwick 
slain. — Hen- 
ry VI. dies in 
the Tower 



1483. Ed 

ward V 



Richard, 
Protector. — 
The king & 
his brother 
murdered in 
the Tower. 

— R i c h - 
ard III. 



1479. War with 
England . — 
Conspiracy 
of the no- 
bles ; — they 
take the king 
prisoner. 



1485. -Henry, 
earl of Rich- 
mond, lands 
at Mil ford 
Haven. 

Battle 
o f B o s - 
worth 
Field 

Richard 

defeated and 
slain. 



Spain ani> 
Portugal. 



1454. Spain: — 
Henry IV. of 

Castile. ^M. 



1469. Marriage 
ofFerdinand, 



Civil war.— ; of Arragon, 



— Peace of 
Conflans. 



1475. War be- 
tween Louis 
and Charles 
of Burgun 

dy, 

1476. — who is 
defeated at 
Granson and 
Morat, and 

1477. —slain at 

Nancy. 

Artois and 
Burgundy 
united to the 

French 
crown. 



1483.— Char- 
les Vlll. 



with Isabel- 
la, of Cas- 
tile. 



1479. Union 
of Castil e 
and Arra- 
gon under 

Ferdinand 
1 1 . and Isa- 
bella. 

1480. The I n- 

qu isi tion . 
— X i m e - 
n e s , bishop 
of Toledo. 

1481. Port. :— 
John 11.® 

1484. First au- 
da-fe at Se« 
ville. 



THE world's PROt^RESS. 

Othvian to the Edict of Nantes. 



113 



1462 



1469 



1472 



.477 



Germany. 




The emperor besieged in his 
court at Vienna — delivered 
by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe- 
mia. 



Invasions of the Turks. 



University of Ingoldstodt. 



Marriage of Maximilian and 
Maria of Burgundy. 



1454. Struggle 
between Cos- 
mod da Me- 
dici and the 
aristocracy. 

1458. The 
French rule 
in Genoa. 

Pope Pi- 
us II. 

1463. War of 
Venice with 

1464. Pietro de 
Medici at 
Florence. 

Pope Paul 
11. 

1466. Galeaz- 
zo, duke of 
Milan. 

1469. L r e n - 
z o de Me- 
dici, suc- 
ceeds Pietro. 

1471. Sixtus 
IV. pope. 

Power of 
the Medici 
increases. 

Learning 
flourishes. 



1478. Conspi 
racy of the 
Pazzi at Flo- 
rence.— Giu- 
lio, brother 
of Lorenzo 
de Medici, 
slain. 



Ottoman 

Empire. •'^he World, elsewhere. 



1455. Turks re- 
pulsed at Bel- 
grade. 



1484. Innocent 
VIII., pope. 



the Turks. 



1464. War with 
Hungary. 



of 



1454. Poland :— War with the 
Teutonic Order. 



1458. Hungary : Mathias 



Corvin,! 



:nakes hia 



country formidable to her 
neighbors. 

1462. Russia:— Ivan I.^^ — 
the Great — takes the title it 
Czar. 

1466. Peace of Thorn.— East 
Prussia a fief of Poland.— 
West Prussia ceded to Po- 
land. 

1468. Uzun Hasan, master of 
all Persia. 



1470. — forms an alliance with 
the Venetians and the duke 
Burgun dy against the Turks— con- 
quers Bagdad. 

1472. Russia : — Ivan marries 
Sophia, niece of the Greek 
emperor. 

1474. —shakes off the Tartar 
yoke, and captures Novo- 
gorod. 

1477. Hungary — War with 
Frederic III. 



1479. Fruitless 
attempt upon 
Rhodes. 



1480. -capture 
and destroy 
Otranto. 

1481. Bajazet 



the tirst un- 
warlike sul- 
tan. 



1481. Denmark:—? -^n, ^^ — 
partially ackiwwiedged in 
Sweden. 



1488. Hungary:- ^'^♦lif^ 
takes Vienna. 



114 



THE world's PROGE.ESS. 



[Period VIII.-^ 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Martini Bckaim, (Nurem- 
burg,) publishes a map of 
the toorld. 



DISCO VE R Y 
AMERICA. 



OF 



First printing press at Copen- 
hagen. 

The second voyage of Colwm- 
bus. — A Spanish colony at 
Hispaniola. 

The discoveries of John and 
Sebastian Cabot. 

Third voyage of Columbus. 
He discovers Trinidad and 
the Continent. 

Lisbon, the great seat of trade. 
— Venice declines. 

Maritime enterprises greatly 
extended. 

Sir Thomas Morels Utopia, 
published. 

Nicholas Machiavellt, states- 
man and historian. 

Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. 

Fourth voyage of Columbus. 

Raphael, Michael Angela, Ti- 
tian, Corregio, painters. 

St. Peter's, and other magni- 
ficent churches built. 



The celebrated tapestry, after 
Raphael ;— Cartoons woven 
in the Netherlands. 

L UTHER, Ersismus, 

Melancthoa , and other 
reformers. 

Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 
Elizabeth. 

Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- 
man drama. 

Copernicus, discovers 
the true system of the Uni- 
verse—his great work, De 
Orbium Coelestium Revolu- 
tionibus. 

First complete circumnavi- 
gation of the globe, by Ma- 
gellan 



England. 



House of 
T u d o r :— 
— H e n r v VII 



1486. Imposture of 
Lambert Syranel. 
The Star Cham- 
ber established. 



1493. Perkin War- 
beck, pretends to 
be Richard, duke 
of York — defeated 
on Blackheath. 



1497. Cabot makes 
discoveries in A- 
merica. 

1499. Earl of 
Warwick, last 
of the Plantage- 
nets, executed. 



1509. H e n r y 

VIII .@ 

joins the League 
of Cambray. 

1513. Invasion of the 
Scots. — Battle of 
Flodden — the king 
and chief Scots 
killed. 

1515. W o 1 s e y , 
chancellor and car- 
dinal. 

1520. The Emperor 
visits England. — 
Meeting of Henry 
and Francis at the 
"Field of the Cloth 
of Gold." 

1521. The Reformed 
doctrines opposed 
by Henry, in his 
book in the Seven 
Sacrariients — he 
receives the title 
of " Defender of 
the Faith." 



Scot- 
land. 



1487.: — 

James 

IV. 



1503.: — 
James 
marries 
Marga- 
ret, of 
Eng- 
land. 



1513.: — 

James 

V. 



France. 



1491. Bretag. 
ne united to 
the crown 
by the king's 
marriage 
with Anne. 

1494. Invasion 
of Italy. 



1498.— Louis 

xii.W— 

1499. m- 

vades Italy 
— conquers 
the Milanese 
Duchy. 



1500. Treaty 
with Ferdi- 
nand, of Ara- 
gon, for the 
conquest and 
partition of 
Naples. 



1510. The 
Council of 
Tours, to 
support the 
king against 
the Hoiy 
League. 



1515.— Fran- 
cis I.^^ — 
— invades 

Italy — victory 
of Marigna- 
no — Genoa 
and Milan 
submit. 

1516. Concor- 
dat with the 
pope, instead 
of pragma- 
tic sanction. 

1521. First war 
with Char- 
les V. 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



1492. Con- 
quest i 
Granada, 
by Gonzalo 
de Cordova. 

Discovery 

f A mer i- 
ca, by C 0- 

1 u m b us . 

1498. Vasco 
d e G a m a 
doubles the 
Cape of 
Good Hope, 
and reaches 
India. 



1506. Colum- 
bus dies at 
Valladolid. 

1507. Cardinal 
Ximenes. 

Board of 
American 
trade at Se- 
ville. 



1516.— Char- 

king oi all 
Spain, and 
the Nether- 
lands. 
1519. Con- 
quest of 
Mexico, 
by C o r t e 3 , 



•«Bi 



1453-1598.] 



THE world's progress. 



115 



Germany. 



149;j 



— M a X 1 m i I i a n I 



502 



150S 



1512 



1517 

1518 

1519 



University of Wittenburc 



Maximilian enters Italy to be 
crowned by the pope. 

— ^joins the League of Cam- 
bray. 

—divides the empire into ten 
circles. 



Commencement of 
THE Reformation. 

Luther summoned before the 
diet of Augsburg. 

— Charles V .^M — 
of Spain. 

The archduke Ferdinand, mar- 
ries Anne, sister of Louis — 
whence the accession of 
Bohemia and Hungary to 
the House of Hapsburg. 

Diet of Worms. 



1492. Pietro II. 
succeeds his 
father, Lo- 
renzo, in Flo- 
rence. 

Pope Alex- 
ander VI,, 
(Borgia.) 

1494. Expedi- 
tion of Char- 
les VIII. in- 
to Italy. 

1499. Amerigo 
Vespucius's 
voyage to 
America. 

150U. Partition 
of Naples 
between 
France and 
Spain. 

1502. Florence: 
Machiavelli, 
Secretary of 
State. 

1503. Naples 
annexed to 
the Spanish 
Crown. 

Pope Pius 
III. 

Pope Ju- 
lius 11. 
1508. League 
of Cajnbray 
against Ve- 
nice. 

1510. Holy 
League to 
expel the 
French. 

1511. Council 
of Pisa. 

1513. Pope 
Leo X . 
(de Medici,) 
patron of li- 
terature and 
arts. 

The build- 
ing of St. 
Peter's com- 
menced. 

1519. Cardinal 
de Medici 
holds rule in 
Florence. 

1522. Po.pe 
Adrian VI. 



Ottoman I „ ,,, , , 

Empire. Tn'E. World, elsewhere. 



1493. Wars 
with Egypt, 
Hungary, 
and Venice. 



1503. Peace 
with Venice. 

1505. War with 
Persia. 



1512. Selim I., 

thrones and 
puts to death 
his father. 

1514. The Per- 
sians defeat- 
ed at Kalde- 
roon. — Me- 
sopotamia 
and Kurdis- 
tan added to 
the empire. 

1516. Cairo 
taken by 
storm. — Ma- 
meluke do- 
minions an- 
nexed to the 
empire. 

1520. Soliman, 



W (the 

Magnificent.) 

1521. Belgrade 
taken by 
storm. 

1522. Rhodes 
capitulates. 



1488. India : — Sekander Lodi, 

king of Delhi. 
1492. Poland:— John Albert. 



AMERICA discovered by Co- 
lumbus. 



1493. Spanish colony at Ilia 
paniola. 



1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- 
pucius. — South American 
coast explored. 



ISOl.Poland :— Alexander.' 



1502. Ismail Shah Soofi makes 
himself sole sovereign of 
Persia. 



1506. Poland :— Sigismund I. 
^g, (the Great.) 



1509. Bohemia : — Louis,^^ — 
3 years old. 

1510. America : — Settlement 
at Darien. 

1511. America : — Cuba con- 
quered. 

1512. America : — Florida 
discovered. 

1513. South Sea first reached 
by Balboa. 

1516. Hungary and Bohemia: 



-Louis II.' 



Lodi, 



1517. India :— Ibrahim 
king of Delhi 

1 517. America :■ — First patent 
for importing Negroes— 
granted by Spain. 

1518. Corsairs in Algiers. 

1519. MEXICO conquered by 
the Spaniarr's, under Cor- 
tes. 



116 



THE world's progress 



[Period VIIL— 



1527 



1530 



1533 



1535 



1537 



1538 

15iiO 



1542 



1545 



1547 



1548 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Xavier plants Christianity in 
India. 



Ariosto^ Italian poet. 



Albert Durer. 

F.rst VY-ork on military archi' 
tecture. 



Jorgens invents the spinning 

wheel for spinning flax. 
Rabelais, French humorist. 



Botanic Gardens at Padua. 



Ignatius Loyola founds the 
order of the Jesuits. 



Papal bull declaring the Ame- 
rican natives to be rational 
beings. 

The diving bell invented. 

Calvin founds the Univer- 
sity of Geneva. 

Pins first used by Catharine 
Howard, queen'of England. 

John Knox, Scottish Refor- 
mer. 

A commercial treaty between 
Portugal and Japan. 



Needles first made. 
Vasalius's work on Anatomy. 



Revival of Stoicism, by Justus 

Lipsius. 
Palestrina, founder of Italian 

church music. 

Giacomo Carisimi. 

Orange trees introduced into 
Europe. 



England. 



1529. Sir Thomas 
More, Lord Chan- 
cellor. — Rise of 
Cranmer, archbi- 
shop of Canter- 
bury. 



1532. The king mar- 
ries Anne Boleyn. 



1535. Bishop Fisher 
and Sir Thomas 
More beheaded. 

Henry excom- 
municated by the 
Pope 

1536. — marries Jane 
Seymour. — Sup- 
pression of the 
smaller monaste- 
ries. 



1-543. Henry invades 

France takes 

Boulogne. 

1544. French fleet 
gain a victory over 
the English, off 
the Isle of \Vight. 



1.547. 



Edward 



VI. ^ . 

Somerset invades 
Scotland — defeats 
the Scots at Pin- 
kie. 

Formal esta- 
blishment of Pro- 
testantism. 



Scot- 
land. 



1536. : — 
Spread 
ot the 
Refor- 
mation. 
—Pro- 
testants 
persecu 
ted. 

1542. : — 
Mary 




France. 



1525. Francis 
defeated and 
taken pri 
soner at Pa- 
via. 

1527. Second 
war with 
Charles V. 

1529. Treaty of 
Cambray. — 
Great en- 
couragement 
given to arts 
and sciences. 
—The Lou- 
vre com- 
menced. 

1532. Calvin 
preaches. 
Third 
French war. 
— Siege of 
Marseilles. 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



1538. Truce of 
Nice— for 10 
years. 

Attempt to 
recover pow- 
er in Italy ; 
hence the 

1.542. Fourth 
French war. 



1544. Peace of 
Crespy. 
France gives 
up Italy. 

1547. Henry 

' I'he fa- 
mous Catha- 
rine d e 
Medici, 
queen. 



1536. Acquisi- 
tion of Mi- 
lan. 



1540. Portu- 
gal : — Lis- 
bon,the mar- 
ket of the 
world. 

1542. Com- 
mercial trea- 
ty between 
Portugal and 
Japan. 



1453-1598.J 



THE world's progress. 



117 



1525 



1526 



1529 



i538 



Germany. 



Geueial insurrections of the 
peasantry, under Thomas 
Miinzer. 



Charles marries Isabella, of 

Portugal. 
Death ol Frederic, of Saxony. 

The Turks invade Germany. 
— Diet of Spires. — Luther- 
ans first called Protestants. 

League of Smalcald. 



Congress of Nice between the 
Emperor, the Pope, and the 
king of France, 



1543 War m alliance with England 
against France. 



1545 

mi 



Diet of Worms. 

War of the Smalcaldists. 

Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- 
ny. 



Italy. 



1523. Clement 
VII., pope. 



1525. Spain ac- 
quires the 
ascendency 
by the victo- 
ry of Pavia. 



1527. The Me- 
dici expelled 
from Flo- 
rence. 



1530. Medici 
restored. — 
Charles V. 
crowned at 
Bologna. 



1534. Paul III., 
pope. 



1537. Cosmo 
de Medici, 
duke of Tus- 
cany. 

1540. Investi- 
ture of Mi- 
lan confer- 
red by Char- 
les V. on 
Philip. 



J.645. Council 
of Trent. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1526. Invasion 
of Hungary. 



1529. Invasion 
of Germany. 
—Siege of 
Vienna. 

The Otto- 
man navy 
formidable 
under the 
command of 
Barbarossa 



1535. —who 
seizes Tu- 
nis. — The 
emperor, 
Charles V., 
restores the 
Moorish 
king. 



1541. Destruc- 
tion of an ar- 
mament, led 
by Charles 
V. against 
Algiers. 



1547. The 
Turks in 
vade Persia, 
and capture 
Ispahan. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1523. Sweden: — Revolt under 
Gustavus Vasa . — The 
Danes expelled. — Union of 
Calmar dissolved. 

Denmark and Norway : 

— Frederic I.^§ 

1525. Albert, duke of Prussia. 



1530. Malta givec 
knights of Rhodes 



to the 



1532. Union of Norway and 
Denmark. 



1533. Conquest of Pe- 
r u , by Cortes. 



Russia :— Ivan IV., (the 
Terrible). 



1536. Cortes discovers Califor- 
nia. 



1543. First standing army ia 
Sweden. 



1545. South America :—Mmes 
of Potosi discovered. 



1548. Poland :— Sigismund 11^ 
^S (Augustus). 



118 



THE world's progress. 



[Period VIII.-' 



JL.D. 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Scaliger, Philologist. 
Montaigne, French Essayist. 



1558 



1559 



1560 



England. 



Cardan, Italian philosopher. 



Sealing wax comes into use 
in Europe. 



Foundation of Jesuit Colleges 
in opposition to Protestant 
Schools. The first at Cn- 
imbra, in Portugal. 



Only two carriages in Paris — 
horses and litters generally 
used. 



SnulTfirst brought into France. 
—Knives first made in Eng- 
land. 



1549. The English 
Liturgy comple- 
ted and establish- 
ed by act of Par- 
liament. 

1553. Northumber- 
land intrigues to 
settle the crown on 
Lady Jane Grey, 
his daughter-in- 
law. 

— Mary .^^ — 

Catholicism re- 
stored. 

1554. The queen 
marries Philip, of 

Spain.— Lord Dud- 
ley and Lady Jane 
Grey executed. 

1555. Bloody perse- 
cution of Protes- 
tants. 

1557. War with 
France to support 
Spain. — Calais 
lost. 

1558. — Eliza- 
beth. ^M 



Cecil, Lord 
Burleigh, Secreta- 
tary of State. 

Protestantism 
established. 

The Puritans 
begin to rise. 



Torquato Tasso Guarini, 
poets. 



Camoens, Portuguese poet. 



Thomas Tallis, English mu- 
Bician. 



Scot. 

LAND. 



France. 



1552. Fifth war 
with Char- 
les V. 



1560. Ca- 
tholic- 
ism abo- 
lished 
by par- 
liament. 
1.565. : — 
Mary 
marries 
Lord 
Darn- 
ley. 

1565. : — 
Revolt 
ol' Pro- 
testants . 
1567. : — 
Darnley 
murder- 
ed — the 
queen 
marries 
earl of 
Both- 
well — is 
dethron- 
ed and 
impri- 
soned at 
Lochle- 
ven. 

James 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



^ 



1568. —Mary, queen 
of Scots, takes re- 
fuge in England — 
and is imprisoned. 

1570. Civil wars of 
the Desmonds in 
in Ireland. 



VI. 



1.570. :— 
Lennox, 
regent. 



1557. The 

French defeat- 
ed at St. 

Quentin. 

1558. — at Gra- 
velines. 

15.59. Peace of 

Chateau — 

Cambresis. 

F r a n c i I 

Duke of 
Guise, min- 
ister. 
1560.— Char- 

lesIX.® 

1562. Religious 
liberty grant- 
ed 10 the Hu- 
guenots. 

First civil 
religious war 
— Huguenots 
supported by 
England — de 

feated at 
Dreux. 

1567. The se- 
cond war. — 
Huguenots 
defeated at 
St. Denys. 



1569. —routed 
at Jarnac. — 
C o n d e 
killed. 



1554. CcTCar^ 
in India, lost. 
15-56. Charles 
abdicates — 

Philip II. 4 

1557. Portu- 
gal : — Sebas- 
tian, ^m — 



1564. Acquisi- 
tion of the 
Philippines. 



1567. Duke of 
Alva, gover- 
nor of tha 
Netherlands. 



1570. War 
with the 
Turks.— Na- 
val victory 
at Lepanta 



1453-1598.] 



THE world's progress. 



119 



A.D. 



1551 



1556 



1558 



1564 



Germany. 



Ottoman 

Empire. 



1550. Julius 
Treaty of Passau secures reli- III., pope, 
gious liberty to the Protes- 
tants. 
Fruitless siege of Mentz. 



Charles abdicates. 



— F erdinand I .^g — 

king of Hungary and Bohe- 
mia. 
Coronation by the pope relin- 
quished. 



-Maximilian II. ^M — 



1555. Marcel- 
lusll.jpope. 
Paul IV., 
(Caraffa) 
pope. 



1551 . Tripoli 
taken from 
the Maltese 
knights. 

1552. Invasion 
of Hungary. 

1553. War with 
Persia. 

Building of 
the mosque 
of Solyman- 
yah, at Con- 
stantinople. 



1559. Pius IV. 
(xMedici) 
pope. 

Peace of 
Chateau — 
Cambresis 
terminates 
the French 
wars in Italy. 
Tranquil- 
lity for 66 
years. 

1562. Council 
of Trent re- 
assembled. 

1556. Pius v., 
pope. 

1569. Florence, 
a grand du- 
chy. 

Cosmo 
d e Medi- 
c i , declared 
grand duke 
of Tuscany, 
by Pius V, 



1570. War of Venice with 

the Porte. 

1571. Cyprus reduced by the 

, Turks. 
I Battle of 

Lepanto. 



1559. Naval 
victory of 
Galves, gain- 
ed by Dra- 
gut. 

Military 
power of 
the Turks at 
its greatest 
height, un 
derSoliman. 



1565. Unsuc- 
cessful siege 
of Malta. 

1566. Death of 
Soliman at 
the siege of 
Sigeth. 

Selim II. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1553. New Mexico discevftrad 
by the Spaniards. 



1456. India :—Jelaleddin Ak- 
bai', a patron of science and 
literature, aided by his min- 
isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh 
Faizi. 

— raises the Mogul em- 
pire to its greatest splendor. 



1559. Denmark and Norway: 

— Frederic II.^J • 

Decrease of the influence 
of the Hanse townts. 

1560. Sweden :— Eric XIV. W 



1562. War with Russia and 
Poland.— An English am- 
bassador in Persia. 

1564. Coligny sends a colony 
of Huguenotp to Florida- 
destroyed by the Spaniards, 

1568. Prussia:— Albert Frede- 



Sweden :- John III. 



1270. Peace of Stetin, between 

Denmark, Norway, and 

Sweden. 
1571 Russia devastated by the 

khan of Crim Tartary. — 

Moscow burnt. 



(20 



THE "world's progress. 



[PeHod VIII.^ 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Cervantes, author of Don 

Quixotte. 
Titian, and Paolo Veronese, 

painters. 



Sir Francis Drake's voyage 
round the world. 



Sir Philip Sydney^ s Arcadia. 



Gregorian Reformation of the 
Calendar. 



Greenland discovered by Sir 
Francis Drake. 

Tobacco first brought to Eu- 
rope. 



First newspaper in England. 



England. 



Telescopes invented by Jan- 
sen, a German. 

Tasso, Italian poet. 
The Carracci, celebrated pain- 
ters. 

In England : — Spenser, 
Shakspeare, Beau- 
mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- 
son.— Napier invents loga- 
rithms. 



Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- 
losopher. 

Lope de Vega, dramas and 
novels, 

Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro- 
nomers. 



Scot- 
land. 



1578. The queen 
sends help to the 
revolted Nether- 
lands. 



1583. Levant Com- 
pany chartered. 

1534. Raleigh's co- 
lony in Virginia. 

1585. War with 
Spain. 

1586. Sir Philip 
Sidney killed at 
Zutphen. 

1587. The Queen of 
Scots beheaded. 

1588. The Spanish 
armada destroyed. 

1589. Alliance with 
Henry II. in aid 
of Protestantism. 
— Troops seat to 
France. 



1593. Act for reli- 
gious conformity. 

I59i. Sir John Haw- 
kins's Vovages. 



1596. Cadiz taken, 
and the Spanish 
fleet burnt, by the 
earl of Essex. 

Sir Robert Cecil, 
minister. 



1599. Troubles in 
Ireland : — Revolt 
of O'Neill, earl of 
Tyrone. 



1581. :— 
Gow- 
rie's 
conspi- 
racy 
against 
the king, 



1590. :— 
The 
king 
marries 
Anne, of 
Den- 
mark. 



France. 



1572. Massacre 
of Sc. Bar- 
tholomew. 

1573. Peace of 
Rochelle. 

1574. — H e n - 

rylll.® 
Fifth war 
with the Hu- 
guenots. 

1576. The Ca- 
tholic 
League. 

1577. Sixth re- 
ligious war. 



Spain and 
Portugal. 



1578. Port. :— 

Henry, ^g- 

1580. Portugal 
falls under 
Spanish do- 
minion. 



1588. Revolt of 
Paris. 

1589. House 
of Bour 
bon : 

— H E N R Y 

1590. Siege of 
Paris, raised 
by the Spa 
niards. 

1593. Henry 
abjures Pro- 
testantism. 

1594. Jesuits 
banished. 

1595. War with 
Spain con- 
tinued. 

1598. Peace of 
Vervius. 

Ministry of 
Sully: — 
restoration 
of order. 
Edict op 
Nantes 
— granting 
toleration to 
Protestants. 



1588. Defeat of 
the Spanish 
armada. 

1589. English 
volunteers 
under Drake 
and Norris, 
repulsed 
from Lisbon. 



1598. Philip 

in. w — 



1453-1598.] 



THE world's progress 



121 



▲.D. 



1576 



Germany. 



Rodolph 11.^ — 

king of Bohemia and Hun- 
gary. 



15^ 



The imperial authority disre- 
garded by the princes of the 
empire, who wage war 
among tlia xiselves. 



Union of Protestants at Heil- 
bronn. 



Italy. 



1572. Gregory 
XIII., pope. 

1573. Cyprus 
yielded to 
the Porte ; 

1574. Florence: 
— Frances Ma- 
ria succeeds 
Cosmo. 



1580. Charles 
Emmanuel, 
duke of Sa- 
voy. 



1585. Sixtus 
v., pope, 
active and 
energetic — 
corrects 
abuses in 
the church ; 
restores the 
Vatican li- 
brary. 



1590. Urban 
VII., pope. 

Gregory 
XIV., pope. 

1591. Innocent 
IX., pope, 
two months. 

Clement 
VIII. , pope. 

1592. The Ri- 
alto and Pi- 
azza di San 
Marco built 
at Venice. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



peace with Ve- 
nice. 
1574. — Mui-ad 



1576. War with 
Persia. 



1580. War with 
the Druses 
in Syria. 

15S3. First 
trade with 
England. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1589. Predato- 
I'y incur- 
sions of the 
Cossacks. 

Revolt of 
the Janiza- 
ries. 

1593. War with 
the Empire 
in Hungary. 

1594. The 
Grand Vi- 
zier takes 
Raab. 

1595. Moham- 
med m.^ 

Turkibh 
power in 
Hungary de- 
clines ; de- 
feated at 
Gran — re- 
volt of Wal- 
lachia. 
1597. Moham- 
med leads his 
troops, and 
defeats the 
Germans at 
Agria. 



1574 Poland:— Henry, of Va 

1575 Poland :— Stephen Ua- 



1578. Alliance of Sweden and 
Poland against Russia. 

Iy79. Cornmencement 
f t h e Republic of 
HOLLAND, by the union 
at Utrecht : 

William, Prince 
of Orange, stadthol- 
der. 

1584. North America: 
—First English colony found- 
ed in Vii^ginia, by Sir W. 
Raleigh. 

1585. Persia acquires power 
under Abbas the Great. 

Holland : — Maurice, of 
Orange, stadtholder. 

1586. Battle of Zntphen: death 
of Sir Philip Sidney. 



1588. Denmark: 



-Christian 



1592. Sweden : — Sigismund 
king of Poland. 

India:— Mizam Shah, re 
pulsed from Choul, by the 
Portuguese. 

1594. The Falkland Isles dif 
covered by Hawkins. 

1595. The Dutch first in Indii 
Sweden :— The regent as- 
sumes independent auth:> 
rity. 



1598. Russia : —Boris Godu- 



-begins a nijw 



nov,^g^ 
dynasty. 

Sigismund lands in Swe 
den, to re-establish his pow- 
er — but is defeated, and re- 
turns to Poland. 



a 



122 



THE world's progress. 

PERIOD IX.— 120 years. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



English East India Compa- 
ny founded. 



Ezportation of Engash wool 
prohibited. 

Conference at Hampton Court. 

New Translation of the Bi- 
ble begun; (published 1611). 

Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- 
er of electricity, and of con- 
ductors and non-conductors. 



Telescopes invented by Gali- 
leo. 



Coffee at Venice. 
Tobacco in Virginia. 

Bacon's Inductive Philoso- 
phy. 

Harvey discovers the circvJxi- 
tion of the blood. 

Thermometers invented by 
Drebel. 

Inigo Jones, celebrated archi- 
tect. 

Martin Opitz, German poet. 

Negro Slavery co 'ismenced in 
Virginia. 



Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 

Massinger, the dramatist. 

Kepler's " Astronomia Nova 
Celestis." 

Torricelli invents tlie barome- 
ter. 

The Parian marbles brought 
to England by the earl of 
Ar andei. 



Gazettes first published in 
Venice. 



America. 



1604. — Acadia co- 
lonized by the 
French. 



1606. — Discovery 
of Hudson's Bay. 

1607.— E n g I i s h 
settlement at 
Jamestown, 
(1st permanent 
one in N. Ame- 
rica.) 

1608. — Quebec 
founded. 

1609. — .Jesuit mis- 
sions in Para- 
guay, 



1616.— The Tobac- 
co plant introdu- 
ced into Virgi- 
nia. 



1620.— Negro 
slaves first im- 
ported to Virgi- 
ni.H. 

Emigra- 
tion of Pu- 
ritans to 
New Eng- 
land. 

1621. —.John Car- 
ver, 1st Gover- 
nor of N. E. 

1624. New Am- 
sterdam set- 
tled by the Dutch. 



1627. Boston found- 
ed. 



1629. Wouter Van 
Twiller, gover- 
nor of New Am- 
sterdam. 



England. 



1601. Earl of Essex be- 
headed. 

1603. — James I.^^ — 
Union of ihe 
English and 
Scotch crowns. 

1605. The Gunpowder 

Plot. 



1612. English factories at 
Surat. 



1615. Ministry of Villiers, 
duke of Buckingham. 

1617. Sir Francis Bacon. 
lord chancellor. 

1618. Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh's unsuccessful 
voyage to America — 
he is beheaded on his 
return. 



1625.— C h a r 1 e s l.^ 

Buckingham, prime 
minister. 



France. 



1510. Assassi- 
nation of 
Henry IV., 
by Ravail- 
lac. 

Louis 



XIII, .W 

(9 years old). 

Mary de Me- 
dici, regent. 

1614. Last as- 
sembly of the 
States-gene- 

1615.'Theking 
marries 
Anne, of 

Austria. 

Civil war : — 
C o n d e 
heads the 
Hugue- 
nots. 



1624. Ministry 
of Cardinal 
Riche- 
lieu. 



1627. War with France, in support of 
the Hugue- 
nots. 

Rochclle 

1629. No parliament for reduced by 
eleven years. famine — af- 

1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of 
ten raoji'.his. 



THE world's progress. 

W98-1718.~Edict of Nantes to the death of Charks XII., of Sweden. 



123 



Spain 

AND 

^•°' Portu- 
gal. 



Germany. 



1609 



1613 



Italy. 



Ottobian 

Empire. 



1606. Truce of Co- 
morra, for twenty 
years, with the 
Porte. 



1621 



1625 



IG25 



1630 



Expul- 
sion of 

the 
Moors. 

War of 

the 
Mont- 
ferrat 
succes- 
sion in 
Italy. 



Dutch 
war. — 
Spain 
sup- 
ports 
Austria. 
Philip 

Defeat 
o I Span- 
fleet off 
Lima, 
l)y the 
Duich. 
Naval 
war 
with 
Eng- 
land. 
Peace 
with 
Eng- 
land. 



1608. Protestant 
union, under Fre- 
deric, the elector 
palatine. 

1610. The Catholic _,^ . 

League, under thej —Cosmo II. 
duke ol Bavaria. 



1612. Matthias. 



1605. Leo XL, 
pope. 

Paul v., 
pope. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1609.Tuscany: 



1615. Truce of Co- 
morra confirmed. 

1618. The Thirty 
Years' W a "r 
begins. 

1619.— Ferdinand 

1620. Victory of the 
White Mountain, 

near Prague. 

Massacre of 
Prague. —The Pro- 
testant religion to- 
tally suppressed. 



1626. Victory of Til- 
ly over Christian 
IV., of Denmark, 
at Lutter. 

1628.WalIenstein 
recovers all the 
shores of the Bal- 
tic, except Stral- 
sund. 

1629. Gustavus Adol- 
phus lands in Ger- 
many. — Diet of 
Ratisbon. — Wal- 
lenstein dismissed, 
succeeded by Til- 
ly- 



1605. Revolt in 
Syria and 
Caramania, 
under the 
pasha of 
Aleppo. 

1606. Com- 
mercial 
treaty with 
France and 
Holland. 

Tobacco 
first brought 
to Turkey. 



1604. Sweden : Charles IX. 



1605. India : —Jehangir, stai- 
tan. 



Leghorn, 

the etiipori- 

um of the 

Levant trade. 



1618. Conspi- 
racy of Bed- 
mar, the 
Spanish en- 
voy, to re- 
duce Venice 
under sub- 
jection to 
Spain. 

1621. Gregory 
XV., pope. 
Tuscany : — 
Ferdinand II 

1623. The fa- 
mous library 
of the Pala- 
tine at Hei- 
delberg, sent 
to Rome. 

1628. General 
Italian war 
on the death 
of the duke 
ofMantua. 



1617. — Musta- 
pha I.^^— 

1618. — Osman 

Great Per- 
sian victory 
at Shibli. 
1620 War with 
Poland, and 
unsuccess- 
ful invasion 
of Poland. 

1623. Murad 

restores tran- 
quillity. 

1625. Truce 
witli the em- 
pire renew- 
ed. 



1609. India :— Arrival of Haw- 
kins, first English envoy 
from the East India Com- 
pany. 
Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3 

A d o 1 p h u s . ^§ ■ 

1611. Sweden : — War with 
Denmark.— Calmar and Ris- 
by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, 
minister. — Russia devasta- 
ted by Poles and Tartars. 

Russia : — Michael Ro- 
manoff, czar. 

1515. Denmark: — First stand- 
ing army. 

1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe. 
ambassador from .lames I., 
of England. 

Sweden predominates in 
the north. 

1618. The Synod of Dorl— 
Arniinius condenmed. 

Settlement of Tanquebar, 
in Coromandel. 

1621. Dutch West India Com- 
pany incorporated. 

1622. Persia : — Ormuz gained 
from the Ponusuese by t.^e 
help of the English. 

1625. Netherlands : — Hcrxy 
Frederic. — Breda, taken bj 
Spinola. 

1627. Persia :— Shah Soofi I. 
1629. Peace of Lubeck. 



124 



THE world's progress. 



[Period IX.^ 



Progress of 'Society, etc. 



Lotteries for money first men- 
tioned. 

Calico first imported into Eng- 
land. 



Edward Corce, the great ju- 
rist. 

Pedro Calderon de la Barca, 
Spanish dramatist. 

Flourishing period of flower 
trade in the Dutch cities. 



Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- 
ters. 



The Jansenists, founded by 
.lansenius, bishop of Ypres. 
Printing in America. 

First Swedish manufactories. 
Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and 

Claude Lorraine, French 

painters. 



Coffee brought to England by 
Nat. Conopius. 



Conde and Turenne, the great- 
est generals of the age. 



America. 



The Dutch sole 
masters of Bra- 
zil. 
1632. Maryland 
settled by a colo- 
ny under Lord 
Baltimore. 



1635. Connecticut 
.settled. — Guada- 
loupe and Mar- 
tinique, by the 
French. 



1637. Maine and 
New Hampshire 
colonized. 

Harvai'd Col- 
lege founded. 



1639. First print- 
ing office in Ame- 
rica, at Cam- 
bridge, by Sam. 
Green. 

1640. Whole num- 
ber of emigrants 
to New England 
previous to this, 
21,000. 



1643. Confedera- 
tion of the colo- 
nies of New 
England, for 
mutual defence. 



England. 



16.30. Wentworth, earl of 

Strafford, minister. 
Laud, archbishop of 

Canterbury. 
1633. The king visits 

Scotland — is crowned 

at Edinburgh. 



1637. Trcibles in Scot- 
land, caused by Char- 
les's plan to overilirow 
the Scotch presbyterian 
church, and enforce 
episcopacy. 

1639. War with Scotland. 

1640. Parliament assem- 
bled — dissolved with- 
out effecting any thing. 

The Scotch invade 
England— take posses- 
sion of Newcastle. 

The Long Parlia- 
ment, Nov. 3. 
Impeachment of Straf- 
ford and Laud. 



1641. Strafford beheaded. 
— Courts ofStar Cham- 
ber and High Commis- 
sion abolished. — Rebel- 
lion of Roger Moore in 
Ireland. — "Massacre of 
Protestants by Irish Ca- 
tholics. 

1642. Civil W a 1 and 

Revolution . 

Rise of Roundheads 
and Cavaliers, totli of 
the popular party. — 
Battle of Edgehill, inde- 
cisive. 

1643. Royalists victorious 
at Curlsgrane — defeated 
at Newbury.— Solemn 
league and covenant be- 
twe'en the Scotch and 
English parliaments. 



France. 



1631. Treaty 
with Svvo. 
den and the 
popular prin- 
ces against 
the emper- 
or. 

1635. Alliance 
with Holland 

against Spain, 
for the par- 
tition of the 
Austrian Ne- 
therlands. 

16-36. Alliance 
with Sweden 
against Aus- 
tria. 

Invasion of 
Gascony by 
the Span- 
iards, and of 
Picardy, by 
the Impe- 
rialists, who 
threaten Pa- 
ris. 

1638. Invasion 
of Spain, 
siege of Fon- 
tarabira. 

1640. Turin ta- 
ken by the 
F'rench. 

The first 
Louis d'ors 
struck. 

1641. Alliance 
with Portu- 
gal against 
Spain. — Ca- 
talonia and 
Rousillon re- 
volt, and sub- 
mit to France. 

1642. Cinq 
IMars and de 
Thou be- 
headed. 

1643.-L u I a 

XIV. ^— 
(the Great.) 

An7ie, of 
Austria, re- 
gent. 

Victory of 
Roscroi over 
I he Span- 
iards, by 
Conde. 

Ministry o 
Cardinal Ma» 
zarine. 



1598-1718.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



.25 



1639 



1640 



Spain 

A:>tD 

Portu- 
gal. 



Loss of 
the Ja- 
panese 
irade. 




Germany. 



163L Sack of Mag- 
deburg, by Tilly. 
— G ustavus Adol- 
phus takes May- 

1632. Defeat and 
death of Tilly, at 
Lech. — G ustavus 

takes Munich. 

Wallensiein again 
in command. — Bat- 
tle of Lutzen. — 
Victory and death 
of G ustavus Adol- 
phus. 

1635.Peace of Prague 
with Saxony. 

1636. Swedes victo- 
rious at Wittslock. 

1637.— Ferdinand 

Galas successful 
against the Swedes. 

1638. Bernhard. of 
Saxe Weimar, de- 
feats the Imperial- 
ists at Bheinfield — 
lake.^ Brisac. 

1639. Battles of Ol- 
iiitz and Brandiez, 
gained by the Swe- 
dish general, Bau- 
ner. 

164U. Prussia-— Fre- 
deric William. 



1642. The Swedes de- 
feat the Austrians 
at Leipsic. 



1643. —invade Hol- 
stein, and compel 
the Danes to desert 
Austria. 



Italy. 



1631. Peace of 
Chierasco. — 
The influ- 
ence of France 
increases. 



Ottoman 

EllPIRE. 



1634.Murart ir 
vades Pei- 
sia — takes 
Falreeze. 



1636. Peace 
Avith Poland 
renewed. 

1637. Troubles 
on the Tar- 
tar iVontier; 
Azoph taken 
by the Cos- 
sacks. 

Bagdad ta- 
ken by the 
Turks. 
All the con- 
questsof Ab- 
bas recover- 
ed. 



1640. Ibrahim. 



1642. Recap- 
ture of Azoph 
from the Cos- 
sacks. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1632. Sweden : — Christina, 

queen. ^^ 

1632. Sweden : — Oxenstiem, 
regent. 

Russia: — War with Po- 
land; twc years' siege of 
Smolensko.— Russian army 
capitulates, and the Polish 
king advances to Moscow. 

1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- 
vantageous to Russia. 



1639. Holland. —Great naval 
victory by Va7i Troinp, over 
the Spanish fleet in the 
Downs. 



1640. India :— Madras fouided 
by the EnglLsh. 



.26 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period IX.— 120 yeai s.-' 



1646 



1548 



1650 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Des Caries, French philoso- 
pher. 



Air guns invented. 



Engraving in mezzotinto, im- 
proved by Prince Rupert. 



654 



(655 



Railroads toith wooden rails, 
near Newcastle. 



Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- 
ney, English writers. 



Le Seur and Le Brun, French 
painters. 



America. 



Great Britain. 



1646. Thomas 
lilayhew, preach- 
er io the Indians, 
shipwrecked. 

1647. Peter Stuy- 
vesant, governor 
of New Amster- 
dam. 



1648. Cambridge 
platform adopt- 
ed. 



1649. J. Witithrop, 
governor of Coii- 
necticut. 



1650. Settlement of 
North Carolina- 



1652. John Cotton 
died. 



Air pumps invented. 



About this time flourish Mo- 
liere, La Fontaine, Cor- 
neille. Madame de Sevig- 
ne, Rochefoucault, Racine, 
Boileau, and Pascal, in 
France. 

Velasquez and Murillo, Span- 
ish painters. 



1655. E. Winslou; 
died. 



1644. Battle of Marston 
Moor — royalists defeat- 
ed. 

1645. Battle of Naseby. 

1646. The king seeks re- 
fuge in the Scottish 
camp. 

1647. —is delivered up to 
parliament for .£400,000. 



1648. Cromwell routs the 
Scotch, under Hamil- 
ton. The Presbyte- 
rians expelled from 
parliament, which re- 
ceives the name of" the 
Rump." 

1649. Trial and execution 
of the king. 

The CoarMONWEALTH. 

1650. Cromwell subdues 
Ireland. 

The Scots proclaim 
Charles II. He 

1651. enters England — is 
defeated at Worcester, 
and escapes to France. 

16.52. Naval war with 

Holland. Blake, 

A s c o u g h , and 
P e n n , English ad- 
mirals. 

1653. Long parliament 
dissolved by Crom- 
well. — " Barebone's par- 
liament " summoned. 

Oliver Crom- 
y^E LL,Lord Pro- 
tector. 

Milton, private secre- 
tary to Cromwell. 

1654. Peace of Westmin- 
ster. Alliance with 

Holland. 



1655. War with Spain. — 
.Jamaica conquered by 
Penn. 

1658. Death of Cromwell. 
— R ichard Crom- 
well, Protector. 



Francs. 



1645. : — Mar. 
shalTurenntt 
takes Treves. 



1648. Factious 
of the Fron- 
de ; . dissen- 
sions foment- 
ed by Cardi- 
nal d e R e t z . 

1649. Court re- 
moves to St. 
Germains. — 
Siege of Pa- 
ris. 

1650. C nde , 
C o n t i , and 
L o n g u e - 
V i 1 1 e , im- 
prisoned. — 
Turenne 
flees to tlie 
Spaniards. 

1652. Maza- 
rine retires 
to Sedan. 
Conde flies 
to Spain. 

16.53. Mazarine 
enters Paris 
in triumph. 



1659. Peace of 
the P y re- 
nees. — Mar- 
riage of Lou- 
is XIV. to 
Maria The- 
resa, of Spain. 



1598-1718.] 



THE world's PFwOGRESS 



127 





Spain 










A.D. 


AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


Germany. 


Italy. 


Ottoman 

Empire. 


The World, elsewhere. 






1644. Invasion of 


1644. Innocent 




1644. Naval victory of the 






Hungary, by Ra- 


X., pope. 




Swedes over the Danish 






coezi — the empe- 






fleet. 






ror forced to yield 




1645. War with 


1645. Sweden :— Peace of 






to the demands of 




Venice. 


Bromsebro with Denmark. 






the protestants. 


1646. Revolt of 
Naples, un- 
der M a s - 
saniello. 


Candia, the 
theatre of 
war. 


1647. Netherlands:— William 
II. 

China: — The Tartars 
place a prince of their own 
on the throne— the first of 
the present dynasty of Tsing. 






1648. Peace op 




164S. Moham- 


1648. Poland:— The Ukraine 






Westpha- 




med IV. 


Cossacks revolt, and cut the 






lia, signed at 






Polish army to pieces. 






Munster, between 






tM^ 






France, the em- 






— John Cassimir.^g — ■ 






pire, and Sweden. 












— The principle of 












a balance of pow- 












er in Europe first 












recognized. 


•• 


1650. Moham- 
med Riopri- 
li, grand vi- 
zier. 

1653.Naval de- 
feat by the 
Venetians in 
the Archipe- 
lago. 


1653. Holland : — J o h n d e 
Witt, Grand Pensionary ; 
D e R u y t e I , admiral. 

1654. Defeat and death of 


1654 


Brazil 
recover- 
ed from 
the 








Trom p. 

Sweden :— Christina re- 
signs.— Charles X., 1st of 




Dutch. 




1655. Alexan- 




the House of Deux Ponts.'^* 


1655 


War 




der VII., 




Poland :— War with Rus- 




with 


1657. —Leopold 


pof.e. 


1657. War with 


sia. 




Eng- 




Racoezi, for 


1657. Denmark :— War against 




land. 






aiding Swe- 
den against 
Poland. 


the Swedes, v/ho overrun 
Denmark, and menace Co 
penhagen. 
1658. Denmark : — Naval vic- 
tory over the Swedes. 
Denmark : — Peace of Ros 












kilde. 



128 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period JA.— 120 7/ears.— 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Logwood first cut in the bay 
of Honduras. 



Salvator Rosa, landscape 
painter. 

HuT/gens, Dutch astronomer. 

Persecution of Jansenists in 
France. 

Chain shot invented by De 
Witt. 

Canal of Languedoc, from the 
Mediterranean to the Atlan- 
tic. 



Gobelin tapestry manufactory 
in Paris. 



Bayonets invented at Bay- 
onne. 

Orrery invented. 

Foundation of the Acade'rny 
of Architecture.^ and the 
Hotel des Invalides. at Pa- 
ris. 

Cassini, Italian astronomer 
and mathematician. 

D^Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- 
daloue, La Bruy'.re, Mai- 
branche, French Writers. 

Christopher Wren,, architect, 
commences St. Paul's. 

Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch 
painter. 

William Temple, historian. 

Butler, Waller, and Dryden, 
English poets; Henry 
More, Leighton, Baxter, 
Boyle. 

Mansart, architect ; Giradon, 
sculptor, of France. 



America. 



1653. Canada made 
a royal colony. 



1663. ElLioVs In- 
dian Bible prin- 
ted. 

1664. New York 
occupied by the 
English. 



1667. —ceded to 
them by the 
peace of Breda. 



167r). Conclusion of 
the ' American 
treat} ' between 
England and 
Spain. 



1675. King Phi- 
lip's War in 

New Enaland. 



1677. Maine pur- 
chased by Massa- 
chusetts. 



England. 



1659. Richard resigns. — 
Rump parliament call- 
ed, but soon expelled. 

Restoration of 
the Stuarts. 

1660.— Charles 11.^ 
Hyde, earl uf 
Clarendon, chancellor 
and prime minister. 

1661. New parliament. — 
Alliance with Portugal. 

1662. Marriage with Ca- 
therine, of Portugal. 

Act ot Uniformity. 
Dunkirk sold to 
France. 

1664. War with Holland. 

1665. Naval victory by the 
duke of York. 

Great Plague in 
London. 

1666. Great Fire in Lon- 
don. 



1667. Peace of Breda.— 
New York ceded to 
England. 

Banishment of the 
earl of Clarendon. 

1668.Triple league— Eng- 
land, Sweden, and Hol- 
land, against France. 

1670. The Cabal min- 
istry. — Secret treaty 
with France. 



1672. War with Holland 
in conjunction with 
France. 

1673. Ministry of Danby. 
Test Act passed. 

1674. Peace with Holland. 



1678. The Popish Plot. 



France. 



1661. Death oi 
Mazarine. 

Colbert, 
comptroller- 
general of 
finance. 

Lvonno, 
Le Tellier. 

1662. Disputes 
with the pope. 

— 6000 troops 
sent against 
the Turks in 
Hungary. 
1664. French 
East India 
Company. 

1666. Acade- 
mie des Sci 

encesLouvois 

1667. War with 
Spain. Lou- 
is claims 
Spanish Ne- 
therlands for 
his wife — in- 
vades Bel- 
gium. 

1668. Peace o 
Aix la Cha 
pelle with 
Spain. 

1672. War with 
Holland. 

1673. French 
ambassador 
at Ispahan. 

1674. The 
Dutch de- 
feated at the 
battles of 
Sinsheim 
and Mulhau- 
sen.— Tu- 
renne rava- 
ges the Pala- 
tinate. 

1675. Death of 
Turenne at 
Sasbacli. 

Inliuenca 
of Peie la 
Chaise, the 
king's con- 
fessor. 

1677. Victory 
over the 
Prince ot 
Orange at 
Mont-Cassel. 

167S. Peace 
of N i m e ■ 
g u e n with 
Holland and 
Spain — re- 
stoi'es tiar' 
quillity to 
Europe. 



1598-1718.] 



THE world's progress. 



129 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Invasion 
of Por- 

tugual. 




Portu- 
gal:— 
Revolu- 
tion at 
Lisbon. 
King de- 
posed. 
— Pedro 

Peace of 
Lisbon 
with 
Spain. 
Nitard, 
the Je- 
suit, dri- 
ven 
from 
Spain. 
War 
with 
France 
to pro- 
tect Hol- 
land. 



Germany. 



1663. The Diet per- 
manent at Ratis- 
bon. 

1664. Montecuculi 
victorious over the 
Turks at St. Go- 
ihard. 



1665. The Tyrol uni- 
ted to Austria. 



1673. War of Austria 
nnd France. 

1675. Tarenne and 
Montecuculi op- 
posed on the 
Rhine. — Victory 
of Consarbruck 
over the French, 
under Crequi. — 
Treves taken. 

1676. General revolt 
of Hungarians un- 
der Emeric. 



Italy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1661. War 
with Aus- 
tria. 



1662. Invasion 
of Hungary. 



1667. Clement 
IX., pope. 

1659. Candia taken from Ve- 
nice by Kio- 
prili. 

Peace with the Porte. 



1670. Cosmo 
III., grand 
duke of Tus- 
cany. — War 
betv/een Ge- 
noa and Sa- 
voy. 

Clement X., 
pope. 

1674. Revolt of 
Messina in 
favor of 
France. 

1676. Messina 
blockaded by 
the Dutch 
and Spanish 
fleets. 

Death of De 
Iluyter. 
Innocent XI. 
pope. 

Death of the 
atheist, Spi- 
noza. 



1672. The Sul- 
tan invades 
Poland. 

1673. —defeat- 
ed by Zo- 
briski, at 
Choezim. 



1676. Peace of 
Zurawno 
with Poland. 



1678. First war 
with Russia, 
on account 
of the Cos- 
sacks. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1660. Demark :— Peace of Co 

penhagen. The Swedes 

restore Bornholm, and Dron- 
theim. 
Revolution in Denmark. 

Sweden :— Charles XI. ^^ 

Peace of Oliva. 

Prussia acknowledged in- 
dependent. 
1660. Poland :— Great victory 
of Marshal John So 
b i e s t i over the Tartars 



1657. Holland :— Peace of Bre- 
da : loss of New Nether- 
lands. 

1668. First embassies from 

Russia to France and Spain. 

India:— Rise of the Mah- 

ratta power.— Sevajee takes 

and sacks Surat. 

^. 

1670. Den. :— Christian V.^ 



1672. Sea fight between the 
Dutch fleet, under De Witt 
and De Ruyter, and the 
English and French fleets- 
Dutch defeated. 

Den. :— William III.^ 

1674. Poland:— John Sobies- 



1675. The Swedes invade 

Brandenburs. 
1677. Battle of the Lund. 53e- 
tween the Swedes and Danes. 



130 



THE "WOE,LD S PP^OGRESS. 



[Period IX. — 120 years.-' 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Bernini, Italian sculptor. 

Museum for Natural History, 
at London. 

Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. 

Penny post established in Lon- 
don. 

Kempfer^s travels in Japan. 

John Bunyaiis " Pilgrim's 
Progress." 



Otto Von Guericks, inven- 
tor of the air-pump and 
electrical machine, died. 

Telegraphs invenled. 

Newton's Frincipia, publish- 
ed. 

G. Batt. Lully, fiom Flo- 
rence, founder of French 
opera music. 

Arch. Corelii, celebrated vio- 
I inist and composer at Rome. 

White paper first made in 
England. 

Leibnitz, German philoso- 
plier, founds the Academy of 
Sciences at Berlin. 

First opera in London. 

Purcell, English musician. 

Bank of England. 

Telescopes, first reflecting 
one made on the principles 
of Sir Isaac Newton. 



America. 



1686. Sir Edmund 
Andros, governor 
of New England. 

1688- General sup- 
pression of char- 
ter governments. 

1689. Montreal de- 
stroyed by the 
Five nations. 

Leisler usurps the 
government of 
New York. 

1690. The English 
settlements of 
Schenectady, N. 
York',Ca.sco, Me. 

and Salmon Falls, 
N. H., destroyed 
by a party of 
French. 

Port Royal, No- 
va Scotia, redu- 
ced by Sir Wil- 
liam Phipps. — 
Expedition against 
Canada, unsuc- 
cessful. 

1691. Schuyler 
defeats the French 

at La Prairie. 



Witchcraft superstition in New- England. 



John Locke and Sir Isaac 

Newton in England. 
Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, 

in France. 
Bank of England. 



Phosphorus discovered. 



1692. New Hamp- 
shire purchased 
by Allen. 

N. York : Leis- 
ler executed. 

1693. N. York :— 
Episcopacy in- 
troduced. 

William and 
Mary's College 
founded. 
1697. Kidd's pira- 
cies. 



1699. French colo- 
ny in Louisiana. 
— Gold mines in 
Brazil. 



Great Britain. 



Rise of the names of 
Wliigs and Tories. 



1683. "RyehnusePlot." 
Execution of Lord 
Russel and Algernon 
Sydney. 

In this reign the Roy- 
al Society of London 
was instiiuted by Wil- 
kins, bishop of Chester. 
— Bombay ceded to 
England. 

1685.— J a m e s II .^§ 

Rebellion of Mon- 
mouth, in England, and 
Argyle, in Scoiland, 
both defeated and exe- 
cuted. 
Judge .lefFries. 

1635. The king favors the 
Catholics. 

1687. — re-establishes the 
Court of High Com- 
mission. 

16aS. "Revolution 
OF 1688."— The Whigs 
and Tories unite in ap- 
plying to ihe Prince of 
Orange, who lands in 
England v/ith L5,0U0 
men — the king flees to 
France. 

1639.— William III. 

and Mary II .^^— 
War with France. 
James 11. laids in 
Ireland— besieges Lon- 
donderry. 

1690. William in Ireland. 
— Battle of the Boyne. 
James deieated, returns 
to France. 

1691. Limerick taken, and 
William acknowledged. 

1692. Invasion of Eng- 
land undertaken by the 
French in favor of 
James. — Naval victory 
by the Dutch and Eng- 
lish. 

1693. Bank of England in- 
corporated. 

1694. Death of queen 
Mary. 

1697. General peace 

1 698. Fi rst partition treaty, 
between France, Eng 
land, and the Empire to 
dispose of tlie crown of 
Spain. 

1699. Visit of Peter the 
Great. 



France. 



France, the 
most formi- 
dable power 
in Europe. 

1633. Invasion 
of the Span- 
ish Neiher- 
liinds. 

1634. Truce of 
Ratisbon for 
twenty years 
with Spain. 



1685. Revo- 
cation of 
the Edict 

of Nantes. 



1688. War ol 
Spain — the 

Empire, Hol- 
land, Sivoy, 
and England 
against 
France. 

1689. Grand al- 
liance against 
France, head- 
ed by Wil. 
liam in. 

1690 Naval 
victory over 
the Dutch 
and English 
off Dieppe. 
Victory of 
Luxemburg^ 
at Fleurus. 

1692. Marshal 
Luxem- 
burg de- 
feats William 

at Steenkirk, 
and 

1693. —at Ne- 
uvinden. 
Institution of 
the order of 
St. Louis. 

f Ry s wick 
— between 
France and 
the allies. 



1598-1718.J 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



131 



^.D. 



1689 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1691 



1697 



Revolt 
of Cata- 
lonia in 
favor of 
France. 



Germany. 



1680. Great part of 
Alsace seized by 
France. 

1683. Turkish war, 
siege of Vienna by 
the Turks — victory 
of the Germans 
and Poles, under 
Charles, of Lor- 
raine, and John 
Sobieski. 

Treaty of the 
Hague against 
France. 



1686. League of 
Augsburg against 
France. 

1686. Buda taken af- 
ter being held by 
the Turks 145 
years. 

1687. Decisive victo- 
ry of Mohaez : 
Croatia and Tran- 
sylvania subdued. 

Joseph I. crown- 
ed king of Hun- 
gary. 
1689. Grand alliance 
ratified at Vienna. 
The Palatinate 
desolated by the 
French. 



1690 Joseph I. elect- 
ed king of the Ro- 
mans by the Diet 
of Augsburg. — 
Victori'-s over the 
Turks. 



Incur- 
sion of 

the 
French 

into 
Aragon. 



Peace of Ryswick 

In- 
trigues 1697. Victory over 
for the the SuUan Musta- 
succes- pha at Zenta, by 
sion. the Prince Eugene. 



Italy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1682. War with 
Austria. 

1683. Total 
rout before 
Vienna. 



1684. Alliance of Venice with 
Poland, and the Empire 
against the Porte. 



1689, Alexan- 
der VIU., 
pope. 



1691. Innocent 
XII., pope. 



1693. Battle of 
Marsaglia — 
the allies in 
Italy defeat- 
ed by the 
Marshal Ca- 
tinat. 



1686. Russia 
declares war. 

1687. Revolu- 
tion in Con- 
stantinople, 
Mohammed 
dethroned. 

Solyman 



1689. Defeat at 
Nisa. 

1690. Musta- 
pha Kiopri- 
li drives the 
Austrians 
across the 
Danube — re- 
covers Bel- 
grade. 

1691. Ahmud 

Deleat and 
death of Kio- 
prili. 

1694. Chio ta- 
ken by the 
Venetians. 

1695. Musta- 

phall.W— 

1696. — leads 
his own ar- 
my. — Victo- 
ry of Olach. 

1699. Peace of 
Carlowitz. 

The Otto- 
man power 
broken. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock- 
holm. 

1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe- 
ter, ^^ their sister, So- 
phia, regent. 

1683. Denmark :— The Code of 
king Christian published. 



1686. India : — The Deickin cort 
quered. 
Golconda and Besapore. 



1687. —The English factories 
in Bengal suppressed— after- 
wards restored. 

Prussia : — Frederic III. 



Russia : — Ivan resigns — 
Sophia is confined in a con- 
vent : 
1689. Peter the 

Great __ 

1692. Russia: — First trade 
with China. 

India : — Height of the Mo- 
gul power, annual revenue 
£32,000,000. 

China:— Great influence 
of Jesuits. 

1693. Sweden :— The king de- 
clared absolute. 

1695. Holland : Bombard- 
ment of Brussels by the 
French, under Villeroi. 

1696. Poland :— Death ot So- 
bieski — succeeded by 

1697. —Frederic Augu.^tus I. 
Sweden ;— C h a r l e s 



XII.^P 



-(15 years old.) 



Russia :— •IrJrndnction ol 
various maiuifaciures — 
equipment of a fleet, etc. 

1699. Den. :— Frederic IV ^J 

Alliance of Denmark, Rus- 
sia, and Poland, againsi 
Charles XII. of Sweden. 



132 



THE world's PROGHLSS. 



[Period IX.— 120 years.- 



Progress of Society, etc. 



First manufactories in Russia 
and Denmark. 

Fenelon, Bossuet, Masillon, 
in France. 

National Debt of England 
commenced. 

Godfrey Kneller, English 
painter. 

First Russian newspaper. — 
St. Petersburg!! founded. 



Flourishing period of French 
literature. — Great splendor 
in the French court. 

A newspaper in America. 



Incorporation of the United 
British Sast India Com- 
pany. 

Prussic acid discovered by 
Diesbach. 

A post-office 171 A?nerica. 



The famous bull " Unigeni- 
tus " against the French Jan- 
senists. 

Rise of commerce in Austria ; 
first manufactories. 



Law^s bank at Paris. 



The monastery of Mafra, ' the 
wonder of Portugal,' built. 

Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- 
son, Q. lurish in England. 

First standing army in Eng- 
land. 

The coffee tree brouglit from 
■'ava to Surinam. 



America. 



1701. Yale College 
founded. 

1702. Bice intro- 
duced into Caro- 
lina from Mada- 
gascar. 

17U3. Apalachian 

Indians subdued. 

Maine ravaged 

by French and 

Indians. 

1704. Captain 
Church's expe- 
dition against the 
Indians. 

Boston News- 
Letter, first Ame- 
rican p)eriodical. 

1706. Carolina in- 
vaded by the 
French and Span- 
ish. 



1707. Unsuccessful 
expedition against 
Port Royal. 

170S.The Saybrook 
platform, form- 
ed. 

1709. First paper 
money in New- 
Jersey. 

1710. First post- 
office at New 
York. 

Fruitless expe- 
dition against Ca- 
nada. 
1713. "Queen 
Anne's War " 
closed by the 
treaty of Utrecht. 



1715. Indian war in 
South Carolina. 

1717. New- Orleans 
settled by the 
French. 



Great Britain. 



1700. A British fleet sent 
to assist Charles XII., 
of Sweden. 

Foundation of the 
national debt in this 
reign. 

1701. War of the Spanish succession. 

1702. The French nivade Holland, un- 
der Boufflers — re])ulaed by Marl- 
borough. 



France. 



Anne, ^m 

1703. Methuen ueaiy of 
commerce with Portu- 
gal. 

1704. Marlborough enters 
gains the battle of 

Gibraltar taken by 
Rooke. 
1706. T reatyofunion 
with Scotland. 

Battle of Ramillies, 
feated. 

1707. Victory of Almanza 
lish and Portuguese. 

The f i r s t United 
Parliament of 
Great 'Britain 
meets. 

1708. Battle of Oudenarde, 
feated. 

Sardinia and Minor 
the English. 

Unsuccessful attempt 
of the Pretender to land 
in Scotland. 
1710. Victory of V^endome 
Dr. Sacheverell's trial. 
—Collision of Whig 
and Tory principles. 

1713. Peace ofUt 
Perpetual separation 

of France and Spain — 
quires Newfoundland, 
Hudson's Bay, also Mi 
braltar. The Rhine is 
between Germany and 

1714. Factions at court — 
disgrace of Harley, 
chancellor of the exche- 
quer. 

Death of the queen. 
— H u s e o I H a n - 
ve r:— 

G e o r g e I .^^ — 

Pvobert Walpole, pre- 
mier. 

1715. Insurrection of Ja- 
cobites. — Battles of She- 

riffmuir and Preston. 
War against Sweden. 



1718. Quadruple al 
Emperor, England. Ho 
France against the desi 



1702. Revolt o; 
the Hugue- 
nots suppress- 
ed by Mar- 
shal Villars. 
Germany, 
Blenheim. 



Villeroi de- 
over the Eng- 



— French de- 
ca captured by 

atVillaviciosa 



r e c h t . 
of the crownr 
England ac 
AcatAa, and 
norca and Gi 
the boundary 
France. 

1714. Peace o 
Radstadt : thd 

Emperor ac 
knowledges 
Philip on 
the cession 
of Loniba)"- 
dy, Naples. 
and Sardmia.. 

1715. Louis 

DuKe o( 
Orleans re- 
gent. — Du- 
bois, minis- 
ter. 
1 i a n c e : ih* 
Hand, and 
gns of Spain. 



1598-1718.] 



THE WORLD S PPcOGRESS. 



133 



Charles 
leaves 
Spain on. 
becom 
ing Em- 
peror. 



Barcelo- 
na taken 
by Ber- 
wick. 
Albero- 

ni, 
prime 
minis- 
ter of 
Spnin 



Germany. 



1701. Grand alliance 
between England, 
the Empire, to pre 
of France and Spa 

1702. Battles of Stol- 
.hafen, Hochsiedt. 
and Spires, gained 
by the French. 



Italy. 



1710. Treaty of the 
Hague between 
England. Holland, 
and the Empire. 

1711. — Charles 

Ministry of Count 
Linzendorf. 

1713. Pragmatic 
sanctioyi, vesting 
the succession to 
Austria in the 
daughters of Char- 
les. 

1714. Peace of Ras- 
tadt and Baden 
with France. 



1718. Quadru- 
ple alliance 
against Spain. 



of the Hague, 
Holland, and 
vent the union 
in. 

1702. Victory 
of Luzzace 
gained by the 
Flench over 
the impe- 
rialists. 



1706. French 
di'iven from 
Italy by 
prince Eu- 
gene. 

1707. All the 
Spanish pos- 
sessions in 
Italy aban- 
doned to the 
allies. 



Ottoman 
Empire, 



1703. 
HI. 



Ahmed 



1709. Charles 
XII. takes 
refuge at 
Bender — 
hence war 
with Russia. 



1714. War of Venice 
the Porte. 



with 



1715. Corinth taken by the 
Turks — the Emperor joins 
Venice — sie ge of Corfu 
raised on the news of their 

1716. defeat at 
the battle of 
Peterwar- 
den. 

1717. Defeat of 
Crusca — loss 
of Belgrade. 

1718. Peace of Passarovvitz, 
between the Porte, Venice, 
and Hunga ry. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1700. Russia : — Peter the Great 
invades Ingria — defeated by 
Charles XII., at Narva. 

War of the NortherB 

Powers. 

1701. PRUSSIA erected into a 
kingdom under 

Frederic I.^^~ 

Charles XII. invades Po- 
land—is victorious at Riga 

1702. —enters Warsaw — takes 
Cracow. 

1703. Victory of Pultusk 
Poland:— The throne ds- 

clared vacant, and 

1704. Stanislas Leetzinsk) 

elected king.^^ 

1706. The Swedes victorious 
over the Saxons and Rus- 
sians at Traverstadt. 



1707. Russia :— Revolt of the 
Cossack Mazeppa. 

1708. Charles invades Russia, 
crosses the Dnieper, and is 

1709. defeated at Pultowa. 
Sweden at war with Den- 
mark. 

Poland :— Frederic Augus- 
tus re-ascends the throne. 

1712. Victory of the Swedes al 
Gadebusche. 

1713, Prussia :— Frederic Wil 

liam I.^^ 



1714. Russia :— Naval victory 
over the Swedes. — Aland and 
Finland conquered. 

1715. Netherlands Barrier 

treaty of Antwerp with Aus- 
tria. 

Sweden :— Return of Char- 
les— Prussia and England 
join the alliance against him. 



1718. Charles XII. invades 
Norway ; is killed at the 
siege of Fredericshall. 
Sweden : — Ulrica Eleo 

nora.^P 



134 



THE world's progress. 



PERIOD X.~97 years.-* 



A..D. 



1721 



1724 



1725 



1728 



1729 



1733 

1740 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Cotton Mather, " Magnalia,^^ 
and Increase Mather, Hist. 
of War with Indians. 



Inoculation introduced by 
Lady Montague. The same 
year introduced into Boston 
by Dr. Boylston. 



Academy of Sciences at Peters- 
burs. 



The " Appellants," in France, 
headed by the Cardinal de 
Noailles, appeal from the 
bull ''Unigenitus," to a ge- 
neral council ; but without 
effect. 



Behring's Strait discovered. 



Balloons invented by Gusmac. 

In England : i In France : 

Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous- 
Young, seau, Le 

Thompson, Sage, Rollin, 
Watts, Lord Montesquieu. 
Boli7i£ broke, 
Doddridge, 
Chesterjield. 

Halley, astronomer. 

First Lodge of Freemasons in 

Irish linen manufactories, 
and English steel and cutlery 
flourish. 



L. Ilolberg, Danish drama- 
tist. 



America. 



1719. First Philadelphia news- 
paper. 



1721. First New- York news- 
paper. 

1723. Vermont settled. 

Increase Mather, died. 



1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 



England. 



1727. Great earthquake in 
New-England. 



1719. Unsuccessful attempt to 
invade Scotland by the Span- 
iards. 

"The South Sea Scheme." 

1720. "Bursting of the South 
Sea bubble." 

1721. Sir Robert Walpole's 
ministry continues. 



1728. Cotton Mather, died. 

Discovery of diamond 
mines in Brazil. 



1729. The Carolinas separated, 



1732. Birth of Washington. 

1733. Savannah founded. 



Atnerica, at Boston. 

1740. Tennessee first explored. 



1742. Invasion of Florida by 
Indians and Spaniards — re- 
pulsed. 



1725. Lea§)i e of Herrenhauser., 

1727. George I. dies at Osna- 
burg. 

George 1 1 .^J 



1728. Peace of Pardo wito 
Spain 



1729. treaty of Seville, be 



1731. Treaty of Vienna with 
Holland and the Empire. 



173W. War with Spain. 

1740. Porto Bsllo taken by Ad- 
miral Vernon. — Anson's voy- 
age round the world, and 
capture of the Manilla gaL 
leon. 



THE world's progress. 

1718-1815.— Z)mi!A nj Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 



135 



h>^ 



France. 



1724 



.1726 



The Wng assumes 
tho fovemnient. 

Duke de Bouvbon, 
minister. 

i 



Congress of Cam 

bray 
between England, 

Fraac3, Prussia, 

and IlGlIand. 
Ministry oi' Cardi 

nal F 1 e u r y 



\T?B 



733 

i734 

1740 

1743 



Congress of Sois- 
sons dissolved, 
without effecting 
any thing. 

tween England, 
France, and Hol- 
land. 



War of the Polish 
succession : 
France, Spain, 
and Sardi lia. 

Conquest of Lor- 
raine. 

War of the Aus- 
trian succession 
— Marshals Belle 
isle and Broglio : 



— defeated by the 
allies at Dettin- 
gen. 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Germany. 



172.5. : 
Alliance of 



1734. :~ 
Con- 
Quest of 
Nap',"«s 
andSici 
Iv by 
l>c>n 
Cailorf. 



1739. :— 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land, for 
infrac- 
tions of 
the Asi- 
ento 
treaty. 



Vienna, Spam, 



rtnd Austria 



lf33. War of the Po- 
lish succession ; 
Austria, Russia, 
and Denmark. 

173.5. Preliminaries 
of Viennarnot con- 
cluded till 173S 

1740. War of the Aus- 
trian succession. 

Maria The- 
resa succeeds to 
the hereditary 
States. 

1741. The French, 
Saxons, and Bava- 
rians, overrun Aus- 
tria, take Prague, 
and crown Charles 

VI. emperor. ^^ 
Treaty of Bres- 
lau with Austria. 
1743. The French 
driven across the 
Rliine. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the 
Spanish. 

1720. Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity 
restored in the Bvrth. 

Sweden : — The quteri abdicates in 
favor of her husband. 

1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope. 

Frederic.^^ 

Peace of Nystadt v/uh Russia. 
Russia: — Peter assumes the title 
"Emperor of all the Russias." 
1721. Turkey : — Mahommed Effendi, am- 
bassador to Paris. 
1723. China: — Christians expelled. 
1723. Italy:— John Gaston, (de Medici), 
grand duke of Tuscany. 

1723. Turkey : — The Turks and Russians 
attempt to dismember Persia. 

1724. Italy:— Benedict XIII., pope. 

1725. Russia: — Catharine I., widow of 

Peter.® 

1725. Turkey : — Partition treaty for seiz- 
ing the north and west provinces of 
Persia. 

1726. Russia : — Alliance with Austria. 

1726. Turkey : — First printing press 
brought fx-om Paris to Turkey. 

1727. Russia: — Treaty with China. 



-Peter II. 



1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 

1728. Denmark : — Fire at Copenhagen, 
destroys the public library. 

— colony of Danes in Greenland. 

1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.^^ 

1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. 

Russia : — Anne.'^g 

1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus 11.^^ 
The diet elect Stanislaus, but are 

compelled by the Russian army to elec*. 
Frederic. 

1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- 
capes to Koningsberg. 

1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- 
sia by Nadir Shah. 

1736. —war with Russia and Austria. 

1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, grand 
duke of Tuscany. 

1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shah, 
who takes and plunders Delhi. 

1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated near 
Choezim. 

1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope. 
Turkey :— The Turks invade Persia 

— are repulsed by Ashraf 
-peace of Belgrade. 



136 



THE world's PFwOGPcEbb 



[Period X. — 97 years. — 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Frederic the Great makes 
great improvements in miti- 
tanj tactics — introduces^y- 
ing horse artillery. 

Durante and Leo. celebrated 
musicians. 

Handel, and Seb. Bach., musi- 
cal composers. 

Indigo tirst produced in Caro- 
lina, 



America. 



174.5. Louisburg and Cape 
Breton taken from France 
by the English. 



1747. David Brainerd and 
Beiijamin Coleman, died. 



Great Britain, 



Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- 
rian. 

Dr. Franklin'' s discoveries in 
electricity. 

England iniroduces the "New 
Style " Calendar. 

British Museum founded. 



British. 
A Ian Ram- 
say, 
Shenstone, 
Gray, 
Collins, 
Aksnside, 
Churchill. 



Helvetius, Fr 
Racine, Fr. 
Gellert, Ger. 
Winck'e- 
mann, Ger. 



John Rysbrach, sculptor. 
Hogarth, Wilson, ^' Joshua 

Reynolds, painters. 
Potatoes first planted in 

France, by Turgot. 
Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. 

Wesley 8f Whitejield preach. 
Philadelphia Medical School, 

first in America. 
Wallis and Carteret's voyage 

of discovery in the South 

Seas, 



1749. English 
Nova Scotia. 



settlement in 



17.52. Hostilities between En_ 

1754. Washington's mission to 
the French. 

1755. Defeat of Braddock. 

1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby 
taken by the Fi-ench. 



1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- 
tured. 

1758. Repulse of Abercrombie 
at Ticonderoga. 

Fort Du Quftsne taken. 
1751). Invasion of Canada — 
death of Wolfe — Quebec 
taken. 

Capture of Niagara, 
Crown Point, and Ticonde- 
roga. 



1763. End of the " Old French 

War." 
1765. " American Stamp Act " 

resisted in Massachusetts 

and Virginia. 
First Colonial Congress at 

New- York. 



1744. Naval victory over the 
French and Spanish fleets in 
the bay of Hieres. 

1745. Scotch rebellion — Char- 
les Edv^ard lands in Scot- 
land. 

1746. he is defeated at Cul- 
loden. 
1747. Victories over the French 
off Belle-isle and Cape 
Finisterre. 



1748. Peace ofAixIa 
mutual restitution of con 



1752. The new style intro- 
duced; the ye-ar hereafter 
commences Jan. 1. 

land and France on the boun 



1756 "Seven Years' 
Subsidiary alliance with 
Prussia. 

Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m 
Pitt, ihe elder. 
17-57. Victory of Plassey, in 
India. 



1759. Naval victories over the 
Lagros, and ofl" Brest. 

Surat, in India, taken 
from the Dutch. 

1760.— G e o r g e III .^— 

1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 

1762. War with Spain. 
Conquest of Havana, 

Trinidad, and Manilla. 

1763. Peace of Paria 



1765. Bengal ceded to the East 
India Company by the 
treaty of Allahabad. 



1718-1815.J 



THE world's progress. 



131 




1744 



1745 
1746 



;747 



War declared 
against England 
and Austria. 

Battle of Fontenoy, 
allies defeated. 

The French victo- 
rious by land, 
but unsuccessful 
by sea. 

War with Holland. 



Germany. 



The World, elsewhere. 




C h a p 6 11 e 

quests. 



daries of Nova Sco- 
tia. 
17531 Influence of Ma- 
dame de Pompa- 
I dour. 
War." 
Capture of Minor- 
ca from the Eng- 
lish. 





1745. Charles dies at 


Munich. 


PI u s e of 


Lorraine: 


—Francis I.^^ 


husband of Maria 


Theresa. 



1757 
1758 



17G0 
17bl 



1754 



Invasion of Hano- 
ver. 

Defeat at Cr^feldt. 
on the Rhine. 

French off Cape 

Attempt to invade 

. Ireland. 

Loss of all Canada. 

The Bourbon Fa- 
mily Compact. 

Siege and capture 
of Belleisle, by 
the English. 

between France, 
Spain and Eng- 
land. 

Expulsion of the 
Jesuits. 



1748 Peace of Aix la Cha- 
pelle; Spain, and Prussia 
the on ly gainers by the 
, war. 

1756. Seven Years' 
War of Austria 
and Prussia. 

Invasion and 
conquest of Saxo- 
ny, by Frederic II. 

Alliance with 
France. 

1757. Prussians vic- 
toiinus at Prague, 
Rossbach, Lessa, 
and Breslau. 

The French take 
Verdun and Bre- 
men. 
1758. French defeated 
at Crefeldt, . 

1759. and at Minden, 
Victory at Max- 
en over the Prus- 
sians. — Dresden re- 
taken. 

1760. Great victory 
at Torgan, by Fre- 
deric. 

1762.Pru3sians victo- 
rious at Freiburg. 

1763. Peace of Hu- 
bertstrug. 

1765. Joseph II. 




1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .^g 
(the Great.) Prussia increases in lay 
portance. — War with Austria. 

Russia : — Ivan V. 

1741. Sweden : — War with Russia. 
Swedes driven out of Finland. 

Russia : — Elizabeth. ^§ — - 
1743. — Peace of Abo with Sweden. 

1743. Turkey : — War with Persia. 
— Defeat near Erivan. 

1744. India :— Hostilities between Frencik 
and English. 

1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by Frencii 
and Spaniards, who take 

1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. 

— Genoa bombarded by the English. 
' 1746. — French and Spaniards driven from 
Lombardy. 

1746. Denmark: — Frederic V.^§ 

1747. Netherlands :— William IV. 
Persia: — Revolution: Nadir. 
Shah murdered. 

1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder. 
Denmark : — Ministry of Count Bern- 
storfF. 

Sweden :— House of Holstein Got- 
torp : — 

Adolphus Frederic. ^g 

1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, 
revolt against Genoa. 

1754. Turkey :— Othman III. 

1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- 
tinople. 

1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- 
bob of Bengal. 

1757. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 

1757. Prussia : — Russian invasion. 

1758. —victory of Londorf 

1758. Italy :— Clement X!II., pope. 

17.59. Prussia:— The king defeated at 

Kunnersdorf 
1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken. 
India:— Shah Ali'm I!. 
Siege and capture of Pondicherry, 
by the English. 

Kingdom of Mysore founded by 
H y d e r A 1 i . 



1762. Russia: Peter III. 

months). 



-(sis 



C a t h a r i n e 11.^ 

1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Pomatowski. 

1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. 
—Establishment of a British empire 

1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duka 
of Tuscanv- ^A^ 

1766. Denmark :— Christian VIL ^ 

1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egyp^ 

revived under Rodvan and Ali Bey. 



138 



THE world's progress. 



IPeriod X— 97 years.-' 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Fii^t summing machine in England. 

Cook's first voyage of discovery. 

Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. 

Roijal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua 
Reynolds, first president. 

Letters of Junius. 

Whitefield dies at Newburyport. 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



Captain Cook discovers New California. 

The Spinning- JENNY, invented by Robert 
Arkwright. 

The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt 
and Bolton. 



In England. 

Goldsmith, 

Warburton, 

Johnson, 

Littleton, 

Lovvih, 

Garrick, 

Hume, 

Robertson, 

Blackstone. 

Adam Smith, 

Home Tooke. 

Priestley, 

Horsley, 

Burke, 

Pitt, 

Fox, 

Cooper, 

Sheridan, 

McPherson, 

Burns. 

Kaimes, 

Reid. 



France. 
Voltaire, 
Rousseau, 
Diderot, 
Condillac, 
Jussien, 
Lavoisier, 
•La Harpe, 
Bartheleny, 
Buffon. 



Ger. Mosh- 

eim, 
Zimmerman, 
Kant, 

Klopstock, 
Lessing, 
Wieland, 
Herder, 
Goethe, 
Schiller, 
Sw. Linnasus, 
It. Metastasio. 
Rus. Kheras- 

kov, 
Kostrov. 
Deerhavin, 
Bogdanovich, 
Khemnitzee. 



1768. Boston occupied 
by the British troops. 



1769. Daniel Boone ex- 
plores Kentucky. 



yn2. Hancock, S. 
Adams, and P a - 
trick Henry, 
promote the revolu- 
tion. 

1773. Tea destroyed at 
Boston. 

1774. Continental Con- 
gress at Philadelphia. 



1775. AMERICAN 
WAR: 

April 19, Skirmish at 

Lexington. 
June 17,"Battle of Bun- 
ker's Hill 

Prescott, Put- 
nam, «feWarren. 
WASHINGTON, 
commander-in-chief. 
Montgomery 
Montreal, and falls at 

1776. The British troops 
evacuate Boston. 



Moultrie de 
Sullivan's Island. 

DECLARA- 
TION OF IN- 
DEPENDENCE, 
July 4. 

Americans (Sulli- 
van) defeated at 
Flatbush. Aug. 

Battle of White 
Plains. 

Battle of Trenton, 
Dec. 26-7. 
1777. Arrival of Lafay- 
ette. 
Capture of Ticon 



1766. American Stamp 
Act repealed. — New 
ministry under tha 
Earl of Chatham. 



1767. First war with 
Hyder Ali in My- 
sore. 



1770. Lord N j r t h , 
prime minister. 

1771. The Falkland 
Islands ceded by 
Spain to Great Bri- 
tain. 



1774. The Boston Port 
Bill passed. 

1774. Wai'ren Hastings, 
governor general ol 
India. 

REVOLUTIONARY 

1775. Lord North's 
" conciliatory mea- 
sures " rejected by 
the colonies. 



takes St. Johns and 

Quebec. 

1776. The city of Lon- 
don remonstrates 
against 'he American 
war. 

feats the English at 

The British army 

takes possessicm of 
New-York. 

Hessians hired for 
service in America. 



dcroga by the British. 
July 5. 



17] 8*1815.] 



THE world's progress. 



139 



S..D. 



1768 



1769 
770 



1773 



1774 



1 770 



France. 



Genoa ceJes Corsica to France. 



Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. 

Marriage of the dauphin with 
Marie Antoinette. 



Madame du Barri rules the 
king. 

L u i s XVI .^ 

Marie Antoinette, queen :— 
Maurepas, prim^ minister. 



N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- 
ral. 
Franklin in Paris. 



Germany. 



1772. Joseph 
II. with the 
Emperors of 
Russia and 
Prussia, dis- 
member Po- 
land, divid- 
ing it be- 
tweea them- 
selves. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Discipline of the Ottoman troops Im- 
proved by Baron de Tott. 

1767. Spain :— Jesuits expelled. 

India:— Hyder Ali resists the Eng- 
lish. 

1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman 
Empire. 



1769. Pope Clement XIV. 

The' Russian army occupies W&Jachia 
and Moldavia. 

1771. Sweden :—Gustavu3 Ill.^g 



1772. First Partitionof Poland. 



1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- 
ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi 

Pope Clement abolishes the order of 
Jesuits. 

1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British 
governor-general. 

Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- 
scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. 

Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^^— 

1775. Pope Puis VI. 

Spain .-—Able ministry of Florida Blan- 
ca. 



1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. 

East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-ge- 
neral, imprisoned by his own council. 



1777. Portugal :— Maria, queen. 



140 



THE world's progress. 



[Period X. — 97 years.—' 



I-'rogress op Society, etc. 



1781 



1782 



1783 



1784 



1785 

1786 
1787 



Herschel's discovery of the 
Georgium Sidus. 



Prussic acid obtained in a se- 
parate state, by Scheele. 

Air balloon of Montgolfier. 



First American vessel in 

China. 
Institution for the deaf and 

dumb at Paris, by the Abbe 

de I'Epee. 
S'undai/ schools established in 

England, by Robert Raikes. 
Herschel's Telescopes. 



Stenography, by Taylor. 

Panoramas in London. 
First spinning machine in 
France. 



Talma, the celebrated trage- 
dian. 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



Battles of Bennington, 
11, and S'illwater. 

Philadelphia taken by 

lis. Battle of German 

ceives B u r g o y n e ' s 
Articles of confederation, 
adopted Nov. 15. 

1778. Alliance with France. 
Battle of Monmouth, 

Washington victorious, June 
28. 

Arrival of the French 
fleet under D'Esiaing. 
Massacre of Wyoming. 

Scivannah taken by the 
English. 

1779. Wayne recovers 
Sioney Point. 

Paul Jones's Victory off 

1780. Battle near Camden: 
D e K a 1 b killed. 

Treason of Arnold. 

1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- 
ed by Morgan. 

Surrender of Co 
town, Oct. 17. 



1782. Treaty with Holland, by 
J. Adams, Jay, Frank- 
lin, and Laurens. 

1783. PEACE OF VERSA 



Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept. 

the English, under Cornwal 
town, Oct. 4.— Gates re- 
surrender, Oct. 17. 



1778. Capture of Pondicherry, 
in India. 



Scotland. 

1781}. War with Hyder All in 
India. 

War with Holland. 



rnwallis at York- 

1781. Victory off the Dogger- 
bank. 



ILLES ; 



INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac- 
knowledged by Great Bfi- 
tain. 



1784. New-York Chamber r[ 
Commerce founded. 



1785. John A d a m s , 1st 
States of America to Great 
Britain. 

1786. Shay's insurrection in 
Massachusetts. 

1787. General Convention at 
Philadelphia. 

Federal Con- 
stitution of the 
United Slates, adopted. 
1783. Cotton planted in Geor- 
gia. 
1789. George Wash- 
ington, first Presi- 
dent : 

Jefferson, Ha- 
milton, K n X , 11 a n - 
d o 1 p h , and Jay, form 
the cabinet. 

1791. First United Siates Bank. 

1792. Kentucky admitted 
to the Union. 

United States Mint esta- 
blished. 



1784. Pitt, the younger, 
premier. 

Peace with Tippoo Saib. 



ambassador from the United 
1735. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 



1783. The k\ng insane. — Deatn 
of Charles Edward, the last 
pretendet. 



Trial of Warren Hast- 
ings. 



1792. Provision for the f radua, 
abolition of the sSti » ?>'.*•. 



1718-1815.J 



THE world's progress. 



141 



1773 



Francb. 



Germany. 



A'liance witli America. 



1779 Scheme to invade England 
from Normandy. 

178C ,R c h a m b e a u sent to 
aid the Americans. 



1781 

178-2 

1783 



Necker resigns. 

Defeat of De Grasse in the 
West Indies, by Rodney. 

Peace of Versail- 
les. 



1787 



1789 



179. 



1792 



La Pe7-ouse's voyage of disco- 
very. 

Financial difficulties — New 
taxation : Colonne, Brlenne, 
and Necker, ministers suc- 
cessively. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION 

begins. — Bastile taken and 
razed, July 14.— Lafay- 
ette , commander of the 
national guards. — M i r a • 
beau, leading orator. 



1778. War of the Bavarian 
succession. — Bavaria seized 
by Germany. 



1779. Congress and Peace of 
Teschen. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1782. Punishment of death 
abolished. 

The Pope visits the em- 
peror, to dissuade him from 

hostilities against the church. 



178-5. 2,000 religious houses 
suppressed by the emperor. 



1783. The emperor attempts 
to control the Universities. 



1790. Leopold II . W— 
Congress of Reichenbach. 

1791. Conference of Pilnitz. 



Flight of the king to Varen- 
nes. — Lafayette resigns. 

■ 1792. — F r a n c i s 1 1 .'^■— 
War with Germany : — The French take Spires, Mentz, 

and Longwy— Lafaye-tte im- 
France declared a prisoned at Olmutz. 

republic. 
Girondists and Mountainists^ 



1780. Declaration of the armed 
neutrality — to protect neu- 
tral flags from ihe right ol 
search claimed by Britain. 



1782. Italy: — Pontine maithea 
drained. 

India : — Rise of Sindia — 
T i p p o , Sultan. 

1783. — alliance with th'i 
French. 



1786. Prussia — Frederic Wil- 
liam II. 

1787. Russia:— War wj'h the 
Porte. 

1788. Spain :— Charles ?V. 

1789. Ottoman Empire :— Se- 
lim II. 

1790. Tuscany : — Fev4inand 
III. 



1792. Sweden :— GustavKS IV 



142 



THE world's progress. 



[Period X. — 97 years. — 



A.n. Progress of Society, etc. United States. 



Tom Paine., 
Fisher Ames. 

HannahMore, 
Gainsboro' , 
Moreland. 



AlJieJ'i, Italian 
poet. 

Ghick, 
Haydn, 
Mozart, 
Albrechtsber- 



Bognslawski, 
Krasiki, Po- \BeetIioven. 
lish poets. ! 



1799 



ISOi 



iSU^ 



1801 



Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 
tary education. 

Mango Parkas travels in 
Africa, published. 



Iron railways in England. 
Polytechnic school in Paris. 



First book-fair in Neic- York. 



First Locomotive Steam En- 
gine used on the Merthyn 
Tydvil road in Wales. 



1793. Washington re-elected. 
Neutrality in regard to 
France. 



Great Britain. 



1793. First coalition against 
France, directed by ^Eng- 
land — all Europe, except 
Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- 
key. 



1794. Com-mercial treaty with England, 



Commencement 
of the navy— 6 fri 
gates built. 



1796. Washington resigns. 



1797. John Adams, 2d 
president. 



Difficulties with France. 

1798. Regular army organized, 
Washington commander-in- 
chief. 

1799. Death of Washington. 
Tennessee becomes 

a State. 



1800. Seat of government 
transferred to Washington, 
D. C. 



1801. Thomas ,1 e f f e r- 
s n , 3d President. 

Exports of United States, 
$93,000,000. 

1802. Ohio joins the Union ; 
it has 76,000 inhabitants. 



1803. Purchase of Louisi- 
ana, for ^15,000,000. 

U. States frigate Philadel- 
phia, taken by the Tripoli- 
tans. 

1804. Decatur i-ecaptures 
the Philadelphia. 

Preble bombards Tri- 
poli. 

Burr kills Hamilton. 

1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 
sident : G e o r g e Clin- 
ton, of New- York, Vice- 
President. 



Biitish army defeated 
near Dunkirk. 



1795. War with Holland. 



1793. Second coalition against 
France. — Irish rcbellinn. — 
Nelson's victory at 
the Battle of the 
Nile. 

Wilberforce's motion to 
abolish the slave trade, lost, 
87 to 83. 



1800. Union 
land and 
— Malta taken. 



of E n g- 
Ireland. 



1801. Battle of Alexandria.— 
Pitt resigns, succeeded by 
Addington. 

1802. Peace of Amiens. 



1803. Successful war in India. J 



I 



1804. Pitt again premier. 



1805. Nelson defeats the 
French and Spanish fleet* 
off Trafalgar. 



1718-1815.J 



THE world's progress. 



143 



1793 
1794 

1795 

1796 
1797 

1798 
1799 



France. 



The king and queen beheaded. 
Reign of Terror. 



Germany. 



The World, ekewhere. 



1793. First Coalition 
against France. 



Marat assassinated by Char- 
lotte Corday. 

Victories of P i c h e g r u ' and J o u r d a n —the allies 
every where driven back. 

Revolution of the 9th Thermi- 
dor. 

Robespiere guillotined. 

NAPOLEON BONA- 
PARTE, commander of 
the army ; quells an insur- 
rection in Paris. 

War in Italy. 
Battle of Lodi. 

Bonaparte's AustrianCampaig n— H o c h e 

and M o r e a u ' s cele- 
brated passage of the Rhine. 

Peace of Campo Formic. 



1800 



1801 



Bonaparte's expedition to 
Egypt is defeated by Nelson 
at Aboukir, Aug. 1. 

The French enter Switzerland 
under Bernadotte and 
Jotirdan. — Return of Bona- 
parte.— R evolution of 
the 18 th Brumaire 
— Bonaparte, first 
consul. 

Battle of Marengo. 



1798. Second Coalition against 
France. 



— M o r e a u ' s victory of 
Hohen linden. 



Peace of Lunevile. 



1802 Bonaparte elected president of 
the Italian republic. 
Peace of Amiens. 
Legion of Honor instituted 



1803 



1804 



1S05 



War with Er^'and. 
Bank of France. 



Duke D'Enghien shot. 

Bonaparte crowned as NA- 
POLEON I., Emperor of 
the French. 

Marshals Soult, Murat, 
N e y , &c. 

Austrian Campaign, 



Napoleon 



Peace of 
Protector of the 



1804. The emperor of Ger- 
many assumes the title of 
emperor of AUSTRIA. 



Batttle of Auster 
1 i tz . 

Presburg. 

Confederation of the Rhine. 



1793. Second Partition of Po- 
land by Russia and Prussia. 

H a y t i independent re- 
public, under T o u s s a i n t 
L'Ouverture. 

1794. Poland:— Revolt at Cra- 
cow. — K o s c i u s k o , ge- 
neral-in-chief — Russians de- 
feated at Warsaw. 



1795. Final partition 
of Poland — extinction 
of the kingdom. 

Batavian Republic :— Shi- 
melpennink. 

1796. Russia :— Paul I. 

1797. Switzerland :— General 

Revolution The French 

invade Berne —Helvetian 
Republic. 

Prussia :— Frederic Wil 

liam III.^^ 

1798. India :— Marquis Welles- 
ley, governor-general. ■ 

1799. Russians, under S u - 
w a r r w , defeated neaif 
Milan. 



1800. Armed neutrality of the 
north. 

Pope Pius VII. 
Ionian Republic founded. 

1801. Russia: Alexander. ^^ 

1802. Italian Republic— Bona- 
parte pi'esident. 



1803. India :— Great Mahratta 
War. 



1804. Russia:— War with Per 
sia. 



144 



THE world's progress. 



[Period X. — 97 years.-" 




Planet Juno discovered. 
Lewis ^' Clark's expedition 
to the Rocky Mountains. 



Fulton's first success- 
ful TRIAL OF Steam- 
boats. 

General University established 
by Napoleon, to superintend 
national education. 

Lithography invented. 



In England : 
Flaxman, 
Westinacott, 
Chantrey, 
sculptors. 



France : 

La Grange, 
Mange, 
Hauy, 
Biot, 

B. St. Pierre, 
poet. 



First steamboat built in Eu- 
rope. 



American Board of Com- 
missioners tor Foreign Mis- 
sions, founded. 

Steam, carriages in England. 
Gas used for lighting the 
streets of London. 

Safety lamp invented by Sir 
Humphrey Davy. 



In England : 

H. K. White, 

Keats., 

Reg. Heber, 

Shelley, 

Crabbe, 

Sir W. Scott, 

Byron, 

Coleridge, 

Lamb, 

Blonigomery, 

Hogg. 

France : 

Mad. de Stael, 
Mad. (leGenlis. 
Chateaubriand 
(Juvier. 

Melendez Val- 
dez, Spanish 
poet. 



Bilderdyk, 
Dutch. 

German: 
W. Schlegel, 
F Schlegel, 
Kichter, 
Ko'zebue : 
Weber and 
Spohr, mu-si- 
cal compo- 
sers. 

Russia : 
Karamsin, 
Somorokor, 
Dmitrievj 
Krilor. 



1S07. Embargo on all the 
ports of the United States. 

Trial of Aaron Burr for 
treason. 

Slave trade abolished. 



1809. James Madison, 
4th President. 

Embargo repealed ; the 
' non-intercourse act passed. 



181 L Engagement between 
the ' President ' and the 
'Little Belt.' 

Indians on the Wabash, 
defeated by Gov. Harrison. 
Population of the United 
States, 7,239,903. 



1805. Fourth Coalition against 
France. 



1807. Bill for the abolition of 
the slave trade, passed. 



1808. The English, under 
W e 1 1 e G 1 e y , enter Spain 
as allies. 



1809. Fifth Coalition. 

Walcheren expedition. 



1810. War with Sweden. 



IBll George, Prince of Wales, 
Prince Regent, (the king be- 
ing insane). 

Population of Great Bri- 
tain, 12,552,144. 



1812. 



War with Great Britain. 



Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. 

Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 

The Constitution captures the Guer- 
r i e r e : 



(First check of British 
naval supremacy.) 



Lord Liverpool, 
premier. 
Wool victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12. 
Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frolic 
Oct. 18. 



The "United States," 

The Constitution, Captain 

Louisiana admitted into 
the Union. 

1813. Perry's victory 
on Lake Erie. 

Battle of the Thames : 
TecumseJi killed. 

1814. City of Washington 
burnt by the Bix" *"sli. 



Captain Decatur, captures the 

British frigate Macedonian. 
Bainbridge, captures the Bri 
tish frigate Java. 



1813. Sixth Coalition against 
France — Prussia, Russia, 
Sweden, Great Britain, and 
Austria. 

1814. Treaty of Chaumont be- 
tween Austria, Prussia, Rus- 
sia, and Great Britain. 



Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 



1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; 
British defeated by General 
Jackson, Jan. 8. 

War against Algiers de- 
clared. 



1815. Candy and Almora cap- 
tured. 

Wellington vic- 
torious at Waterloo. June 18. 



1718-1815.J 



THE world's progress. 



145' 



France. 



Germany. 



Victcry of Jena over the Prussians. 
Berlin dectee. 



War with Russia. 

Battle of Friedland. — P e a c e 
of Tilsit. 

Invasion of Portu- 
gal. 

French in Spain defeated at 
Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- 
lesley. 



Battle ofWasram- 



Napoleon marries Maria Lou- 
ise.— Continental peace ex- 
cept with Spain. 

Birth of the emperor's son; 
created king of Rome. 

Soult victorious in Spain — 
takes Badajos ; is defeated 
by the English at Albuesa. 



Russian Campaign. 

Battles of Sinolensko and Bo- 
rodino. 

Moscow entered by Napoleon's 
army — and bun }d by the 
Russians. 



Victories of L u t z e n , 
Bautzen, and Dres- 
den, over the allies. 

Battle of Leipsic — 

The allies enter Paris. 

Napoleon abdicates, 
and retires to Elba. 

House of Bourbon 
restored: 

Louis XVIII. 

Bonaparte returns from Elba. 

The hundred days. 

Napoleon victorious at Lisny. 

BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 

The allies enter Paris. 

llonaparie banish- 
ed to St Helena. 



Peace of Vienna. 
Metternich, minis- 
ter. 



1812. Austria in alliance with 
France against Russia. 



1813. War of German inde- 
pendence. 

Austria joins the Coali- 
lion. 

Bonaparte driven to the 
Rhine, loses his whole army. 



1815. German League. 

Congress of Vien 
na. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1806. Holland :— Louis Napo- 
leon, king. 

Prussia at war with France 
in aliiance with Russ4a. 

18U7. Ottoman Empire : — Mus- 
tapha IV. 



1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VII. 

" .Joseph Napoleon. 
Naples: — Murat. 
Denmark :— Frederic VI. 
Ottoman Empire :—Mah- 
moudll. 

1809. Sweden :— Charles XIIL 



1810. South America :— VE- 
NEZUELA declared inde- 
pendent. 

1811. NEW GRENADA de- 
clared independent. 



1812. Invasion of Russia 
by Napoleon.— BURNING 
OF MOSCOW. 

K u t o s o f f pursues 
the retreating r'rench. 

Poland :— Diet of War- 
saw : the Poles declared a 
nation by Napoleon. 



1813. South America:— Bo 
1 i V a r drives the Span- 
iards from Caraccas 



1814. Union of Holland and 
Belgium. — Peace of Kiel 
Sweden, and England. 

Union of Sweden and 
Norway as two kingdoms 
under one monarch. 

1815. Nciherlands :— William 



The "Holy Al 
1 i a n c e ' '—Russia, Pni» 
sia, and Austria. 



146' 



THE WOS-LD's progress. 

PERIOD XI.— 40 years. 




1815 



1816 
1817 

1818 
1819 

1821 

1822 

1S23 
1824 
1825 



1826 



New corn law in England. 

Polytechnic institution at Vi- 
enna. 

Manufactories introduced into 
Poland. 

The I'araily of Rothschilds 
conies into notice at Fra-nk- 
fort. 

Abolition of the slave trade by 
the congress of Vienna. 

Second United States Bank 
chartered for. 20 years, capi- 
tal $35,000,000. 

Public schools established 

throughout Russia. 
Belzoni penetrates the second 

pyramid of Gheza. 

Abolition of predial bondage 
in Bavaria and Wirtemberg. 



1816. United States Bank in- 
corporated. 

Indiana admitted. 

1817. James Monroe, 
5th President. 

Mississippi ad- 
mitted. 

1818. Illinois admitted. 
War with the Serainoles. 



First passage of the Atlantic by steam, by the Savannah- 
New- York to Liverpool. 



Rise of mechanic institutions 
in England. 

Hieroglyphics deciphered : — 
Chamiollion.—Sit William 
Hei'scnel died. 

Huskisson'3y?"ee trade system 

in England. 
First manufactory in Egypt, 

established by Mehemet Ali. 

Inland navigation of the 
United States : the great 
Erie Canal opened. 



Mail-posts in Prussia. — 

Steam navigation on the 

Rhine. 
General financial panic in 

England. 
Vast increase of periodical 
literature inEngland, France, 

Germany, Amei'ica, &c. 



Alexander Volta dies, disco- 
verer of the Voltaic battery. 



1820. Maine admitted. 

1821. Monroe re-elected. 
Missouri admitted. 
Slavery compromise. 



1824. Lafayette's visit. 
Erie canal opened. 
Protective tariff. 



1825. J. Q. A d a m s , 6th 
President. 



1816. Bombardment of Algiers. 
— The Dey compelled to 
make peace and abolish 
slavery. 

1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- 
dition to Algiers, 



1820.- :jeorge IV .^— 



1823. Canning ministry. 
The Ashantees in AfiicA 
defeated. 



1825. Commercial treaty with 
Prussia. 



1827. Treaty of London it 
favor of Greece. 



1828. Wellington ministry. 
Disturbances in Ireland. 



m 



THE WORLD^S PilOORESS. 



147^ 



1815-1855. 



A.V. 


France. 


Austria, &c. 


: I 

The World, elsewhere. 




• 




1816. Portugal r-JchaVI.^ 
in Brazi. 

Union of Naples and 
Sicily. 

1817. Republic of the Ionian 
Islands. 

India :— The cholera com- 
mences its ravases. 

1818. Sweden :— Cliarles XIV. 


Ills 


Congress of Aix la Chapelle. 




(Bernadotte.) 




—France joins the " Holy 




India:— The Mahratta 




Alliance." 




power completely over- 




• 




thrown, and the British suc- 
ceeds. 
1819. South America:— Re- 
public of COLOMBIA:— 
Bolivar, President. 


1821 


Death of Napoleon at St. He- 


1821. Congress of monarchs 


1821. Hayti :— B oyer, em- 




Jena. 


at Laybach. — Insurrection 


peror. 






in Molilavia and Wallachia. 


South America :— PERU 






—Alexander Ypsilanti de- 


and GUATEMALA inde- 






feated and carried prisoner 


pendent. 






to Austria. 


182^ BRAZIL declared inde. 
pendent. 

Mexico : — Iiurbide, em- 
peror. 

Greek Revolu- 
tion. 

Declaration of Indepen- 


1824 


Char lea X .^ 




dence. 

Massacre of Scio. 

1823. lialv:— Leo XII.. pope, 

1824. Death of Lord Byron at 
Missoionirld. 

1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a » 

182G. — War with Persia. 

Greece : — Missolonghi 
taken by the Turks. 
1827. Treaty between Russia 
and the Porte respecting 
Greece. 

Greece :— E a 1 1 1 e of 
N a V a r i n . 

Portugal :— Maria de Glo- 


iSB7 


Fleet sent to Algiers 




ria, queen, ^g 

—Rebellion in favor of 
Don Miguel as regent. 
1828. War between Russia 








and the Porte. 



'148^ 



THE world's progress. 



[Perwd XL — 40 years. — 



PRoaasss of Society, etc. 



In England : France : 



Jersmy Ben- 
tliain, 

Thomas Chal- 
mers, 

Thomas Dick, 

W. Kirbij, 

Haitam, 

Lingarf!, 

WordsuDorth, 

Soitthey, 

Cainpbell, 

Moore, 

Leigh Hunt, 

Mrs. Hemans, 

Bulwer, 

'• Barry Corn- 
wall." 

Russia : 

Karamsin, 
Somorakov, 
Dmieiriev, 
Krilov. 

U. f 

N. Webster, 

Irving, 

Cooper, 

Flint, 

Wirt, 

Marshall, 



Cuvier, 
Talma, trage- 
dian, 
Segur, 
La Place, 
Beranger, 
Lamartine. 

Germany: 
Spohr, 
Mayerbep.r, 
Kotzebue, 
Gall, 
Spurzheim,. 

Sweden : 
Tegner, 
Dahlyren. 

Italy : 
Rossini, 
Paganini. 



?. A. 

Wheaton, 

Kent, 

Story, 

Gallatin, 

Livingston, 

Channing. 



Liverpool and Manchester 
Railroad opened. 

The two Landers succeed in 
tracing the Niger from Lake 
Tchad to the ocean. 

The first newspaper in Con- 
stantinople. — The Faciory 
Bill in England, limiting the 
hilars oC labor for children. 

Reform Bill in England: — 
Kxtension of Suffrage. 

Trade unioyis in England, 
France, Germany, Svviizer- 
land, (fee. 

Girard College, at Philadel- 
phia, and the University of 
New- York, commenced. 

De 'Tocqueville's History of 
Democracy iti America. 

Inrjuisition abolished in 
Spain. 

Slavery abolished in the 
British colonies. 

Boston and Lowell Railroad 
conflicted. 

James Smithson, of London, 
bequeai lies .£100,000 to the 
United States for the esta- 
blishment of an Institution 
'■'■for the increase and diffu- 
sion of knowledge among 
men." 

The Luxor obelisk erected at 
Paris. 



United States. 



1829. General Jack- 
son, 7th President of the 

United States. 



1830. Treaty between the 
United States and the Porte. 



18.3L The king of the Nether 
North Eastern Boundary, be 

1832. War with the Winneba- 
goes and other Indian tribes. 
—Cholera in New- York. — 
Nullification in South Caro- 
lina. — General .Jackson's ce- 
lebrated proclamation. 

1833. General Jackson re-elect- 
ed to the Presidency. 

Removal of the Depo- 
sites of the United States 
from the U. S Bank. 

1834. The President censured 
by the Senate for removing 
the Deposites. 

1835. Great Fire in New- York. 



1836. The national debt of the 
United States being paid, the 
surplus revenue is divided 
among the States. 

Treaty with Morocco. 

1837. The independence of 
Texas acknowledged. 

Martin Van Buren, 
8th President. 



Great Britain. 



1827. Treaty of London In 
favor of Greece. 



1828. The Wellington minis- 
try. — Disturbances in Ire- 
land. 



1829. Catholic emancipation. 
Captain Ross' voyage to 
discover a North West pas- 
sage. 



1830.— William IV,' 

Earl Grey, flimsier. 
Difficulties with China. 
183L Lord John R u s - 
s e 1 ' s Reform Bill intro- 
duced. 

Cholera first appears ia 
' England. 

lands makes his award on the 
tween the United States and 

the British provinces. 
1832. Reform Bill passed. 



18-33. Captain Ross returna 
from his voyage of disco- 
very. 



1834. Sir Robert Peel, 
Premier. — Difficulties in 
Canada. 



1837. 



-Vistoria 



4 



1815-1855.J 



THE WOB^LD's progress. 



149' 



1S27 



1829 



1830 



France. 



A French fleet sent. to Algiers. 



Algiers talc«in. 



AUSTEIA, &C. 



1032 



1835 



1836 



Three Days' Revo- 
lution, July 27, 28, and 
29. 

Lalayette, commander of the 
National Guard. 

Charles X abdicates. 

— L ouis Philippe I. 

(House of Orleans. )^^ 



Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 , 



Death of Lafayette. 



In.'urrection attempted by 
Louis Napoleon at Stras- 
burg. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1833. The Em- 
peror ol Uus- 
sia visits the 
Emperor of 
Austria. 



1-829. Italy ;— Pius VTTL, pope. 

Algiers taken by the French. 

VENEZUELA independent, General 
P a e z , President. 



1S30. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, anJ 
is declared independent in August. 

1830. Polish struggle for nation^ 
a 1 i t y , begins November 19. 



Brazil : — Revolution ; Don Pedro 11.^ 



1831. 



Belgium :— L e o p o 1 d I .^^ — 

The Pole.=? victorious at Prayo. 

Italy :— Gregory XVI., pope. 

Poland : — Warsaw capitulates to Rus- 



1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded ; 
-O t h o I 



Piiland ;— The Insurrection crushed:' 
5000 families sent to Siberia. 

— University of Warsaw abolished. 

1833. Spain :— Isabella.^ 

— Don Carlos claims the throne. 
Portugal :— A constitutional monarchy. 
Egypt':— Mehemet Ali acknowledged by 
the Sultan. 

Mexico: — Santa Anna, President. 

1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France, 
Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel 
and Don Carlos. - 

1835. The Plague in Egypt. 



1836 Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts the 
constitution. 



Texas :— Battle of San Jacinto, Santa 
Anna taken prisoner. 



China:— A decree to expel all Britisl) 
and otlier barbarian merchants. 



I50» 



THE world's progress. 



[Peiiod XL — 40 years.--' 



1837 



1839 



ISIO 



PuooRsss OF Society, etc. 



S . F . B . Morse takes 
out a patent for his Elec- 
tro-magnetic Tele- 
g r a p h, (invented 1832 ) 

Suspension of specie payments 
by the Banks in the United 
States, in May. 

The Daguerreotype 

invented in Paris. 
Improvement of the condition 

of the Jews in Russia. 
An Antarctic Continent disco 



Penny postage system m Eng- 
land. 



Persecution of the Jews at 
Damascus. 



Wheatstone's Electric Tele- 
graph patented in England. 



*Ml 



1814 



1815 



1845 
1846 



The Crct >n Aqueduct in New- 
York completed. 



Bain's electro-magnetic Tele- 
graph patented in London. 



" Antirentism ^ o.oached in 
the Slate of New-York. 



A great defection from the Ro- 
mish church, under the 
pleaching of Range, in Ger- 
many. 

Lord Hesse's Telescope. 

Gutta Percha in use. 

Completion of the Thames 
Tunnel, March 25. 

The Planet Neptune, pre- 
dicted by Le Verrier, dis- 
covered by Dr. Galle, of 
Berlin, Sept. 23. 



United States. 



1838. The Exploring Expedi- 
tion sails. 

1839. Disturbances on the 
" disputed territory," be- 
tween Maine and New- 
Brunswick. 



vered by th* United States 
Exploring Expedition. 



1841. W. II. Harrison, 
9th President. 

He dies April 4, j ust one 
month after his inaugura- 
tion. 

John Tyler, .sue. 
ceedshim, as lOih Pre.->ident. 

Congre.ss meets in extra 
session, May 31. 

Sub-Treasury Act re- 
pealed, Aug. 9. 

Bankrupt Act passed, 
August 18. 

1842. Tlie Dorr Insurrection 
in Rhode Island. 

Treaty between the Uni 



Great Britain. 



1339. The British take poesaa> 
sion of Ghuzne. 



1840. The uniform Penny 
Postage system esta'. iishea 

Marriage . f Queen Vic- 
toria to Prince Albert of 
Saxe Cobourg. 

War with Chiia, to en- 
force the opiuifi trade. 

War in Syria : — Great 
Britain takin? part with 
Austria and Turkey. Lord 
Palmerston's foreign 
policy excites the ill-will of 
France. 

1841. The war wiih China 
ended : $6,000,000 received 
as a ransom for Canton 



1844. Texas annexed to 
the United States. 

Anti-rent riots in New- 
York. 

1845. Treaty with China. 
James K. Polk, 

11 th President. 

1846. War with Mexi- 
c o : 

Hostilities commence on 
the Rio Grande, April 24. 

Battle of Palo Alto, 
Mays. 

Battle of Resaca de la 
Palma, May 9. 



ted States and England, settling 
the north-eastern boundary. 



Treaty of peace 
China. 



with 



1813. Great "Repeal" 
agitation in Ireland. 

The British gain posses- 
sion of Scinde. 

1844. Daniel O'Connell's trial 
and iirprisonment — the sen- 
tence reversed by the IIouso 
of Lords. 

1815. Sir John Franklin sail* 
in search of the north wtsi 
passage. 



1815-1855.] 



THE world's progress. 



isr 



France. 



Talleyrand dies. 
Difficulty with Mexico: cap- 
ture ot San Juan d'UlIoa. 



Prince Louis Napoleon at- 
tempts a hostile descent on 
the coast of France, near 
Boulogne— is taken prisoner, 
and imprisoned at Ham. 



G u i z o t , minister for fo- 
reign affairs. 

The remains of Napoleon 
removed from St. Helena, 
and deposited with great 
honors at the Invalides, in 
Paris. 



The duke of Orleans, heir to 
the throne, killed by a fall 
from his carriage. 



The Duke de Nemours ap- 
pointed Regent, in the event 
of the king's death. 



Louis Napoleon escapes fr3m 
Ham, May 26. 



Austria, &c. 



1838. New 
Treaty of 
commerce 
with Eng- 
land, July 3. 
* 

Ferdinand 
crowned at 
Milan, Sep- 
tember 6. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1838. Mexico:— The Castle of San Juan 
d'Ulloa taken by the French. 

1839. Peace between France and Mexico. 
China :— The Opium trade forbidden. 
Turkey at war with Egvpt. 

Tndia :— Ghuzne taken by li,e British. 

1840. China : — Canton blockaded by the Eng- 
lish, to compel the renewal of the opium 
trade. 

Holland :— William I. abdicates : 

William H.^ 

Syria:— St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the 
English, Austrians, and Turks 



1841. China:— Canton capitulates, 86,000,000 
paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. 

Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- 
tal, and places himself at the head of the 
government. 



1812. India :— Insurrection in Affghanistan. 



1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich 
Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord 
Geo. Paulet. 

Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- 
cept a constitution, Sept. 15. 

The Society Islands seized by a French 
squadron— "es^tored by the govpr.'iment. 

India :—Scinde annexed to the British 
empire. 
1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful 
insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. 

Rome:— Pius IX., pope ; elected June 16. 



Poland :— Cracow deprived of its inde* 
pendence, Nov. 16. 



152^ 



THE WORLD S PROGPwESS. 



[Period XI. — 40 year's.—' 



k.D. 


Prooress 


OP Society, etc. 


United S-tates. 


Great Britain. 




•\ 




1846. The Oregon Trea 
tling the North- Western Bo 

Commodore Sloat takes 
possession of California. 
July 6. 

New Tariff ^11 passed, 
establishing ad valorem du- 
ties. 

Battle of Monterey, Sep- 


t y with Great Britain, set» 
undary, signed at London, 
June 18. 






tember 23. 










Tampico occupied, No- 










vember 14. 










1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 


1847. Severe famine in Ira- 








Feb. 22. 


land. Large supplii-e of 
food sent from the United 








Battle of Sacramento, 








Feb. 26. 


States. 








Vera Cruz surrenders, 










March 29. 


The Bogue forts in China 








Battle of Cerro Gordo, 
April 18. 

Battle of Contreras, Au- 


taken and destroyed, April 
26. 














gust 20. 










Armistice, Aug. 24. 






. 




Hostilities renewed, Sep- 










tember 7. 

Battle of Molino del Rey, 
Sept. 8. 

Battle of Chepultepec, 
Sep, 12. 

Mexico surren- 
ders, Sept. 14. 
1848. Treaty of Peace with 
Mexico, signed at Guada- 
loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. 


1848. Civil war in Ireland. 
John Mitchell, tried and 




The cultivatio i of the Tea 


plant, in the United States, 


condemned to transporta- 
tion. May 26. 




commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- 








lina. 










Postal convention betw 


een the United States and 
Great Britain. 








First deposit of Califor- 






Suspension 


Bridge at Nia- 


nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. 


Habeas Corpus Act sus- 




gara Falls 


opened July 29. 




pended in Ireland, Julv 25. 




Emigration 


from Europe to 


America during ihis year, 
300,0SO. 


Smith O'Brien arrested 


t 








and condemned, Aug. 5. 

Return of Ross's exp< 
dition, Nov. 



J815-1855.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



r.Q# 



153 



France. 



Reform Banquets in Stras- 
burg, Chartres, &c. 



Michelet's Leclures interrupt- 
ed by the ministers, Dec. 

Abd-elKader captured, Dec. 

22. 
Debate on the Reform Bill, 

Feb. 8. 
Proposed Banquet a^ Paris, 

abandoned, Feb 21. 

REVOL UTIO> COM- 

MENCED, Fee. 22. 

Barricades erected, Feb. 23. 

Louis Philippe abdicates and 
flies, Feb. 24. 

Provisional government esta- 
blished. 

L a m a r t i n e , Provisional 
Pre.=i(lent, Feb.. 24. 

French Republic proclaimed, 
Feb. 26. 

Meeting of the National As- 
sembly, May 4. 

Bloody Insurrection in Paris, 
June 23-25. 

Cavaignac, military dictator, 
June 24. 

Paris in a state of siege. 

New Constitution adopted. 
Nov. 4. 



Louis Napoleon Bo- 
naparte, elected Pre- 
sidint, Dec. 10. 



AUST-RIA, &C. 



1847. Austria 
takes posses- 
sion of Cra- 
cow. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1847. Prussia :— Frederic William granta a 
constitution, Feb. 8. 

Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. 



Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner 
to France, Dec. 22. 

1848. Sardinia :— Charles Albert protests 
against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an 
army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. 

Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. 
Sardinia :— Charles Albert pi-oclaims a 
constitution, Feb. 8. 

Bavaria: — Disturbances on account of 
Lola Montes — the king abdicates in favor of 
his son, 



-Maximilian II. 



March 22. 



Charles Albert 



The Ban Jella- 
chich ap- 
pointed gov- 
ernor of 
Hungary, 
Oct. 3. 

Incurred ion at 
Vienna, Oct. 
6. 

1S48. The Em- 
peror leaves 
the city. The 
Hungarian 
army advan- 
ces within 6 
miles of Vi- 
enna, Oct. 11. 

Windisch- 
graiz ap- 
pointed com- 
mander of 
the imperial 
army. 



enters Milan, March 23. 

Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, March 26. 

Sicily declared independent, April 3. 

Holland receives a constitution, April 17. 

Poland : — Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- 
cow, April 25. 

Sicily -.—The Duke of Genoa elected 
king, July 10. 

India : — Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16. 

Armistice signed between Denmark, 
Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. 

India: — The Biiii.sh make an unsuc- 
cessful attempt on Moultan. 

Sicily : — Messina bombarded and taken, 
Sept. 2. 

Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Pre 
sidentof the Defence Committee, an I Dicta 
tor, Oct. 



154* 



THE world's progress. 



\ Period XI. — 4^0 years — 




A neip j')'aiiet. dise',n%-ere;l by 
Gas2)uiis, at Naples. 



United States. 



[SA9. Zac h a r y Taylor 
12iti Presideni. 



Masneiic Telearrapii lines in use in the United States in 

1840, 10,000 miles. 



Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, 
England. 



Magnetic Clock, invented by 
Dr. Locite., at Cincinnati. 



Rail Roads 6.U00 " 



Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at 

the rate of 1000 a day. 



Great agitation on ine Slavery 
Quesii(m in the United 
Si-fties Congress. 

The Pekin Monitor., a new 
paper, iirinted in China 

The Sidtun of Turkey, grants 
permission to the .lews to 
build a temple on Mount 
Zion. 

A University founded at Syd- 
ney, New South Wales. 



Deaths in 1850 : 

IT. S. A. EUROPE. 

A. Judson. Wordsworth, 
S. M. Fuller, .leffiey, 
M L. Davis. Neander, 
Zschokke, 
Berzelius, 
'Balzac 



1 850. John 0. Calhourt died at 

Washington. 

Attempted invasion of 
Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- 
der Lopez, repulsed at Car- 
denas, May. 

Death of Gen. Taylor, 
July 9. 

Millard F i 1 1 nj o r e , 
I3th President. 

Cali fornia ad- 
mitted, 31st State. 

Texas boundary settled, 
by the payment of 10,000,000 
dollars to Texas. 

New-Mexico and Utah 
admitted as Territories. 

Bill for the arrest of 
fugitive slaves passed by Con 

gress. 
Slave trade in the District of 
Columbia abolished. 



Great BuiTAfN. 



1849. Moultan. in India, taken 
Jan. 3. 



1850. The war jii Lahore fin- 
ished, and th , Punjaub an- 
nexed to the British crown. 



A British fleet blockades 
the ports of Greece, to en- 
force the alleged claiOiS of 
British subjects. 

Sir Robert Peel dies 
July 2. 

Haynau. " the Austrian 
butcher," chastised by tb« 
draymen in London, Sept. 



1815-1855.] 



THE world's progress. 



155* 



France. 



I860 



Austria, &C- 



The Emperor 
issues a pro- 
clamation 
against the 
city 



The World, elsewhere. 



Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. 



Louis Philippe dies in Eng- 
land. 



The Imperial- 
ists take pos- 
session o I Vi- 
enna, Nov. 
2. 



Ferdinand ab- 
dicates, Dec. 

— Francis 

Joseph ^^g 



18-19. A new 
Constitution 
promulgated 
March 4. 

Brescia taken 
by Haynau, 
March 30. 



Rome :— M a z z i n i ' s proclamation, 
Oct. 29. ^ . 

Prussia:— The king prorogues the As- 
sembly, Nov. 9. 

—The Burgher Guard of Bc'limrefuse to 
give up their arms. The city in a state of 
siege, Nov. 12. 

Rome :— Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- 
minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. 

India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur, 
Nov. 22. . ,. . 

Rome :— The Pope escapes m disguise, 
Nov. 24. ^ ^ 

Hungary declared independent, Dec. 
1849. India :—Moultan taken by the British, 
Jan. .3. ^ ^ 

Italy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany 
flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, 

Feb. 9. , • .. 1, K Q 

Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. 
Sicily:— A new Constitution conceded 

by Naples, March 6. 

Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by 

Radeisky, March 21— again totally defeated 

at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the 

tlirone in favor of his son, 

Victor Emanuel. 



India :— Tbe Punjuub annexed to tne 
British Empire, March 29. 

Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1. 

Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 
26. 

Rome :— The French arm,y arrives un- 
der the walls of Rome, Ai)ril 29. 

Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, 

Rome surrenders^to the French, July ^. 
Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. , . . 

Rome :— The government placed in the 
hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. 

Gorgey Iraitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. U. 
°' KosFUih escapes into Turkey. ; 

Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. Zd. 
1850. Rome :— The Pope returns, April. 

Greece disputes the claims of Great 
Britain for lo.=!se3 of British subjects: 13 
forced to submit. 

China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, 

dies: 

Sze-hing ^g succeeds. 



156* 



THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. [Period XL — iO years - 



Progress of Society, etc. 



1850 



On the subject of the Mobbing 
of Marshal Haynau during 
a visit to a London brewery, 
notes pass between Austria 
and Great Britain, termi- 
nating in a threat of retalia- 
tion on the part of the latter, 
Sept. — Nov. 



A Memorial for the annexa- 
tion of Canada to the U. S. 
received in five hours the 
signatures of 300 mercliants, 
landowners, and profes- 
sional men, in Montreal, 
Oct. 10. 



Woman's Rights Con- 
vention, held at Worcester, 
Mass., Oct. 23. 



North- West Passage discov- 
ered by Capt. McClure (Br. 
Navy) in the Investigator, 
Oct. 26. 



The British Consul at Charles- 
ton calls the attention of 
the Governor of South Ca- 
rolina to a law of that State, 
under which British sea- 
men (colored) arc impris- 
oned when they enter her 
ports for trade or in dis- 
tress, Dec. 



Deaths in 1850 : 

V. 8. A. 

J. C. Calhoun, Senator, U. S. 

Sam. Miller, D.D. 

Z. Taylor, President, IT. 8. A. 



United States. 



1850. California admitted as 
a State, Sept. 

Fugitive , Slave Bill 
passed, Sept. 



DisunionMeetings held at 
Natchez (many present op- 
posed to disunion); at Yazoo 
City (resolutions proposed 
voted down), Oct. 7; at 
Nashville (this convention 
passed resolutions recom- 
mending a congress of 
slaveholding States), Nov. 
19. 



Union Meetings held at 
Mobile, Dayton, and New 
York, in Oct. ; at Philadel- 
phia, and Wanchester, N. 
H., in Nov.; and at Bath, 
Me., in Dec. 



The Advance and Rescue, 
American vessels in search 
of Sir J. Franklin, com- 
pletely fastened in the ice, 
Sept. 13. In their northerly 
drift reach lat. 75° 23', Oct. 1. 



Conventions held to 
amend the Constitutions of 
theStatesof Indiana (Oct. 7), 
Virginia (Oct. 14), Maryland 
(Nov. 4), New Hampshire 
(Nov. (B). 



Lopez and others tried at 
New Orleans for engaging 
in an expedition against 
Cuba, Dec. 17. 



"Webster replies to Hiilse- 
mann on the rights of neu- 
tral nations, Dec. 21. 



Great Britain, 



1850. Great excitement and 
agitation in England respect 
ing a dispute on doctrine be 
tween the Bishop of Exeter 
and the Rev. Dr. Gorham, 
one of his clergy. The Privy 
Councirs decision in favor 
of the latter afterwards rati- 
fied by the Courts. 



Searches for Sir J. Fr.ink- 
lin — the North Star returns 
to Spithead unsuccessful, 
Sept. 28. The Prince Albert 
arrives at Aberdeen with the 
intelligence that traces of 
his party had been found at 
Cape Reilly and Beechy 
Island, at the entrance to 
Wellington Channel, Oct. 1. 



Appointment by the 
Pope of several Roman Ca- 
tholic bishops and arch- 
bishops in England, causes 
great exciternent, and an 
indignant letter from Lord 
J. Russell, the premier, 
Nov. 



English forces defeated 
by the Caffres in South 
Africa, with considerable 
loss, and obliged to retreat 
to their fort, Dec. 29. 



1815-1856.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



157* 




1850 



President creates his uncle 
Jerome a Marshal of Erance, 
Jan. 1. 



800 Soldiers drowned at An- 
giers by fall of a bridge, 
Apr. 15. 

French Ambassador recalled 
from London, in conse- 
quence cf a difficulty con- 
nected with an English 
claim on Greece, May 16. 

New Electoral Law, restrict- 
ing the right of suffrage, 
passed, May 31. 

Arrangement with England 
on the Greek dispute, June 
21. 

Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- 
sident 2,160,000 francs 
($405,000) per annum, 
passed, Juno 24. 



1850. Prussia:— The King takes 
the oath required by the Con- 
stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to 
assassinate him, May 22. 

Treaty signed at Munich 
between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- 
ony, and Wurtemburg, to main- 
tain the German Union, Feb. 27. 

Wurtemburg denounces the 
insidious ambition of the King 
of Prussia, and announces a 
league between Wurtemburg, 
Bavaria, and Saxony, under the 
sanction of Austria, March 15. 

Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws 
from the Prussian league, June 
30. 
Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2 

A Congress of Deputies from 
the States i'ncluded in the Prus- 
sian ZoUverein opened, at Cas 
sel, July 12. 



Prussia refuses to join the 
restricted Diet of Frankfort, 
Aug. 25. 



Difficulties occurring in 
Hesse-Cassel, between theElec 
tor and his people, in regard to 
the mode of taxation, Austria 
and Prussia respectively send 
armies to the Electorate, to take 
opposite parts in the struggle, 
Sept.— Nov. 

Austrian ultimatum deliv 
ered at Berlin, directing that 
Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight 
days, dissolve theErfurtLeague, 
and recognize the Diet, etc., re- 
plied to by the Prussian King's 
signing the order calling out the 
whole military force of the mo 
narchy, Nov. 6. 

The Eussian Ambassador at 
Vienna announces that the Czar 
"would consider the continu- 
ance of the Prussian policy in 
the Electorate as a casus belli,'''' 
Nov. 11. 

Treaty of Amnesty an- 
nounced at Berlin, Dec. 3. 

France protests, and Great 
Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, 
against the proposed extension 
of the Germanic Confederation 
beyond the Alps, Dec. 



1S50. Denmark: Bloody 
but indecisive battle of 
Idstedt, between the 
Danes and Schleswig- 
Holsteiners, July 25. 



Yucatan : — Battle, 
near close of the year, 
between the Whites 
and Indians ; latter vic- 
torious; 300 Whites 
killed. 



158* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XL — iO years. — 



Fkoorbss of Society, etc. 



Jas. Richardson, the African 
traveller, dies at the village 
of LTnqurta, six days distant 
from Kouka, the capital of 
Bornou, March 4 



A Company of Gipsies from 
England arrive in Cecil 
county, Maryland, U. S., 
bringing with them all their 
wandering habits and pecu- 
liarities, March. 



According to the evidence 
of Mr. Baines before a Com 
mittee of the House of Com- 
mons, there were in Great 
Britain 13,198 places of wor- 
ship dissenting from the 
tenets of the Established 
Church, to which may be 
added Roman Catholic Cha 
pels, 697, minor sects and 
Jews, 550; total noncon 
formist churches, 14,340. 

^a;7ii6?'^o» of the "Works 
6t Industry of all Nations 
inaugurated by Queen Yic- 
toria. May 1. 

Wyld's monster globe 
erected in London ; em 
ployed 300 men nearly 30 
days in fitting up the inte 
Tior. 



Daguerre, the discoverer of 
the Daguerrean or Photo- 
grapMc Art, dies, aged 61, 
July 10. 



The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) 
Bill passes the British 
House of Commons, with 
only verbal protests from 
the objecting minority, July 
3; but is refused a second 
reading in the House of 
Lords, July 17. 



United States. 



1851. General Quitman of 
Mississippi arrested for al- 
leged violation of the neu- 
trality law of 1818, by set- 
ting on foot a military ex- 
pedition against Cuba. He 
resigns his office of Gover- 
nor, Feb. 3. 

Erie Canal Enlargement 
Bill defeated in the N. Y. 
Senate by the withdrawal or 
resignation of 12 democratic 
members, Apr. 16 ; but 
afterwards passed by a new 
Legislature. 

Minot's Ledge Light- 
house, Boston Harbor, car- 
ried away. It was last seen 
standing about 3 o'clock, 
P.M., April 16. 

Arrest of a notorious 
band of desperadoes in Mi- 
chigan, Apr. 21. 

Initial point of the Boun- 
dary between the United 
States and Mexico establish- 
ed on the right bank of the 
Rio Grande del Norte, in 32 
22 north latitude, and 2)9.4 
meters from the center of 
the bed of the river, by the 
American and Mexican 
Commissioners, and a mon- 
ument erected recording 
the same, April 24. 

President issues a procla 
mation, warning all persons 
within the jurisdiction of 
the United States not to aid 
or engage in any expedition 
against the Island of Cuba, 
Apr. 25. 

Convention of Delegates 
from the Southern Rights 
Associations of South Caro 
lina meets at Chai-leston, 
May 5; and adjourns after 
resolving that, "with or 
without cooperation, they 
are for a dissolution of the 
Union," May 8. 

Erie railroad opened 
from New York city to 
Dunkirk, 469 miles, by 
President Fillmore, Daniel 
Webster, etc.. May 15. 

Riot, with loss of life, 
at Hoboken, N. J., between 
Germans and "short-boy" 
rowdies from New York, 
May 26. 

Serious conflagrations in 
California. San Francisco 
alone suffers by them in 
May and June to the amount 
of $12,000,000. 



Gbeat Britain. 



1851. A strong force of Caffres 
attacks Fort Wliite, Cape of 
Good Hope— repulsed, loss 
20 killed. The Oaflfre chief, 
Hermanns, with a body of 
Caffres and Hottentots, at- 
tacks Fort Beaufort, but is 
repulsed, he and his son 
killed, his band completely 
routed. 3,000 Caffres attack 
the Colonists and their allies 
near Fort Hare ; driven 
back with the loss of 100 
killed, Jan. ^ . Col. Somer- 
set captures and burns Fort 
Armstrong, 90 Caffres killed, 
230 taken prisoners, Feb. 
2:^. The Hottentots of the 
Theopolis Mission Station 
in Lower Albany, join in 
the insurrection. May 31. 
They are defeated in actions 
with the English troops on 
the 3d and 5th of June. 

The Russell Ministry re- 
sign, Feb. 22; but after- 
wards resume office, the 
Earl of Derby not having 
succeeded in forming a 
Cabinet. 

The Prohibited Affinity 
Marriage Bill lost in the 
House of Lords, Feb. 25; 
Lord Campbell and the Ec- 
clesiastical Bench voting 
against it. 



1815-1855.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



159* 



Fkance. 



Ministry resign, Jan. 3. 

Presidential Dotation Bill, 
proposing an additional 
grant of 1,800,000 francs, 
rejected in the Assembly, 
Feb. 18. 



The Sub-Committee of the 
Assembly appointed by the 
Committee of Revision to 
authenticate petitions, re- 
ports, that up to July 1, the 
petitions had been signed 
by 1,123,165 persons, thus 
classified : For revision. 
741,011 ; for revision and 
prolongation of powers, 
370,511 ; for prolongation of 
powers, 12,103 — July 5. 



The question of revision of 
the Constitution again ta- 
ken in the Assembly, when 
a minority was declared 97 
less than the three-fourths 
required by the Constitu- 
tion, July 19. 



AtJSTKiA, etc. 



The "Woeld, elsewhere. 



1851. Denmark: — The Government of 
Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Com- 
missioners of the Germanic Confedera- 
tion, Jan. 10. 

The Austrians complete their mili- 
tary possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31 ; 
and the new government issues its pro- 
clamation, declaring its resumption of 
the seignorial rule of the King of Den- 
mark, Feb. 2. 

Danish mining operations in Green- 
land produce large quantities of copper 
ore, yielding about 60 per cent. 
The Austrian Government and the Ottoman Porte come to 
the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- 
gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not 
attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among 
them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. 17. 



Charles L. 
Brace, an Am- 
erican, arrested 
and imprisoned 
in Hungary, on 
a charge of 
" being a m.em- 
ber of the de- 
mocratic com- 
mlttee, an 
agent of Uj- 
hazy and Cretz, 
and of travel- 
ing with revo- 
lutionary writ- 
ings, to spread 
revolutionary 
movements," 
May 23, 



Inauguration 
of Kauch's co- 
lossal statue of 
Frederick the 
Great at Ber 
lin, May 31. 



The Ger- 
manic Diet, in 
answer to Lord 
Palmerston's 
protest against 
annexing the 
non-Germanic 
provinces of 
Austria to the 
Germanic Fe- 
deration, says, 
" That no fo- 
reign interfe- 
rence should be 
allowed in a 
purely German 
question."July 
17. 



Australia: — Discovery of large gold 
fields near Bathurst, Feb. 

East Indies :— Fort of the celebrated 

E irate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by the 
pauish Government of Manilla, Feb. 
28. 

Hawaii: — The difficulties between 
the Hawaiian and French Governments 
are arranged according to tlie terms of a 
"mutual declaration," published at Ho- 
nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign 
relations and M. Perrin, the French 
commissioner, March 25, 



New Granada :— Congress adjourns. 
It passed a law abolishing slavery in 
the republic, to take effect January 1, 
1852. May 29. 



Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel- 
fl, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100 
miles S. E. of Naples, and other towns 
in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred 
within 24 hours. Melfl was separated 
by a ravine from Mount Volture, upon 
which are many extinct craters. Not 
less than 3,000 persons are said to have 
perished. July 14. 



Ecuador : — Gen. Diego Novoa, Presi- 
dent of the Republic, seized and put 
on board a government vessel by Gen. 
Urbina, who assumes the administra- 
tion of the Government. July 17. 



160* 



THE world's progress. [Period XL — 40 yvars.— - 



A.D. 



1851 



Pkogkess of Society, etc. 



The lord mayor of London, 
with, several of the alder- 
men and common council 
men, the royal commission- 
ers of the Exposition of In- 
dustry, etc., and the execu- 
tive committee of the royal 
commissioners, leave Eng- 
land for France, by invita- 
tion of the prefect of the 
Seine. They are entertained 
with dinners, balls, sham 
fights, and reviews of troops 
—Aug. 1. 



The inauguration of the rail- 
way between St. Peters- 
burg and Moscow, in Itus- 
sia, takes place Sept. 1. 



United States. 



lS5t. "Vigilance committee " 
at San Francisco hang a 
man for stealing, June 10, 
and another, July 11. 

Gov. McDougal of Cali- 
fornia issues liis proclama- 
tion, warning the citizens of 
the State against " vigi- 
lance committees," and 
calls upon all persons to aid 
in sustaining the law, July 
21. 

Nicaragua route, be- 
tween New York and San 
Francisco, opened, Aug. 12. 

The people of Litchfield 
county, Connecticut, cele- 
brate the 200th anniversary 
of its settlement, Aug. 13 
and 14. 

Great riot in New Or- 
leans, growing out of the 
Cuban expedition. Houses 
of Spanish residents at- 
tacked. The Spanish con- 
sul is obliged to ask protec- 
tion, and is placed in the 
city prison for safety, Aug. 
21. 

Riot, with loss of life, at 
Christiana, Pa., upon an at- 
tempt to arrest a fugitive 
slave, Sept. U. 

IT. S. brig Dolphin sails 
on an expedition to run a 
line of soundings for tele- 
graphic purposes across the 
Atlantic, Oct. 

Cotton-planters' conven- 
tion (300 members) meets 
at Macon, Ga. Its object 
being to prevent fluctua- 
tions in the price of cotton. 
Little harmony of views or 
concord of action manifest- 
ed. Oct. 

U. S. steam frigate Mis- 
sissippi sent to Turkey for 
Kossuth, receives him on 
board in the Dardanelles. 
The French government re- 
fuses to allow Kossuth to 
pass through France. The 
Mississippi proceeds on her 
voj^age with Kossuth's com- 
panions, reaching New 
York Nov. 10. 

Kossuth arrives at New 
York in December. Ova- 
tions are offered him in the 
principal cities of the Union. 
He has an interview with 
the President, Sept to Dec, 



Great Beitain. 



1851. " The great aggregate 
meeting" of Roman Catho- 
lics, from all ])arts of the 
United Kingdom, for the 
inauguration of the Catho- 
lic defense association, is 
held at Dublin, Aug. 19. 



The American yacht 
" America," at the regatta 
at Cowes, wins *' The cup of 
all nations," Aug. 22. 



Kossuth arrives by Eng- 
lish steamer from Gibraltar, 
at Southampton, Eng. Ova- 
tions are oijered him in va- 
rious pans of the country. 
He leaves for the United 
States, Nov. 



The submarine tele- 
graph between Dover and 
Calais completed, Oct. 17. 
Opened for public use Nov, 
13. 



A fourth presidency 
contemplated for British 
India, and a proposal mad© 
to remove the seat of go- 
vernment from Calcutta 
to Lahore, Nov. 



I 



181-6-1 866.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



161* 



A.D. 



1851 



Fbance. 



Atjstkia, etc. 



REvoLtmoN: L. N.Bonaparte 
by a coup d'etat seizes the 
reins of government; dis- 
solves the national assem- 
bly, declares a state of 
siege ; arrests the principal 
red-republicans and social- 
ists; constitutes an entire 
new ministry'. The Presi- 
dent orders an instant 
restoration of universal suf- 
frage; an immediate elec- 
tion by people and army of 
a President to hold office 
for ten years, to be sup- 
ported by a Council of State 
and two houses of Legisla- 
ture. The revolution" cre- 
ates an intense excitement. 
The vote of the army shows 
a large majority for L. N. 
Bonaparte. Resistance to 
the usurpation is shown in 
various parts of France, but 
the overwhelming power of 
the army, and a "state of 
siege" in 33 departments, 
crushes all opposition. The 
election, under various con- 
trolling influences, results 
in the confirmation of L. N. 
Bonaparte as President for 
ten years, by a vote of about 
seven out of eight millions. 
Doc. 1-20. 



1851. Marshal Ra 
detzky, by pro- 
clamation from 
Monga declares 
the Lombardo- 
Yenetlan king- 
dom to be in a 
state of siege, 
July 19. 

By cabinet 
letterSjthe Em- 
peror ofAustria 
declares that 
his ministers 
"are responsi- 
ble to no other 
political au- 
thority than 
the throne," 
that "the 
Reichstadtisto 
be considered 
as the council 
of the throne," 
and the minis- 
ter president is 
to take " into 
ripe and seri- 
ous considera- 
tion the possi- 
bility of caM'y- 
ing out the 
Constitution 
of March 4, 
1849." Aug. 20. 

Louis Kos- 
sutli and 35 of 
his country- 
men sentenced 
to death in 
contuw aciarti, 
at Pesth, for 
not appearing 
after citation, 
Sept. 22. 

The ques- 
tion of the ad 
mission of 
Jews to judi- 
cial office in 
Prussia, 
brought to a 
partial termi- 
nation by their 
permission to 
study law. Oct. 



The Woeld, elsewhere. 



1S51. Russia:— Her troops repeatedly de- 
feated by the Circaesians. June. 



Nicaragua :— Gen. Munoz, ex-minis- 
ter of war, deposes President Pineda, 
and sends him and most of his cabinet 
prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects 
Albaunaz President. The Senate assem- 
bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro 
President Aug. 4. 



"West Indies : — Yolcanic eruptions 
from eight craters in the mountains of 
Martinique, Aug. 5. 



Cuba : — Expedition against Cuba un- 
der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from 
New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West 
10th ; efi'ects a landing at Cubanos, 11 th ; 
is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken, . 
29th, and publicly garoted, Sep. 1. His 
followers shot or condemned to ten 
years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse- 
quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who 
fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele- 
brated with great pomp at tiie Cathedral 
in Havana. .$70,000 are subscribed by 
the inhabitants of Havana, for the bene- 
fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9 



Mexico: — General Mariana Arista 
inaxigurated President, Jan. 15 ; Canales, 
Carvajal, and others, issue pronuncia- 
mentos against the general govern- 
ment. Some fightinjr follows, with 
varied success, Sept. — Oct. — Nov. 



Greece : — Lord Palmerston's note to 
the Greek government produces a great 
sensation at Athens. Nov. 



Chili :— Earthquake at "Valparaiso — 
the most violent since that of 1822, few 
lives lost, but great destruction of pro- 
perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago, 
suppressed after two hours' street-fight- 
ing, April 20. Rebels under Cruz de- 
feated by Bulnes at Longomilla, Dec. 8, 



162* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XL — iO yearn. 



A.T>, 



1851 



PK0aRE3S OF SOOIETT, etc. 



United States. 



The town of Lagos, on the 
coast of Africa, destroyed 
by an English force, with a 
loss of thirty killed, and 69 
wounded, because the na- 
tive chief refused to sign a 
treaty for the effectual sup- 
pression of the slave trade 
in his dominions. The chief 
is deposed, and another sub- 
stituted in his place, Dec. 
26-27. 

DeatJis in 1851, 

IT. S. EUKOPE. 



J. J. Audu 

bon, 
S. Olin, 
J. F. Cooper, 
T. H. Gallau- 

det, 
S. G. Morton, 



J. Pye Sfnith, 

Bexley, 

JoannaBaillie, 

Codrington, 

Shell, 

Lingard, 

Daguerre, 

Soult, 

Oersted, 

Jacobi. 



Immigration into California, 
U. S., from Asia is so large 
as to require special Legis- 
lation — April. 



Extensive fires in the Antilles, 
March 2 ; California, U. 8., 
June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly 
destroying two cities;) 
Canada, (at MontrofiJ) July 



1851. Principal room of the 
library of Congress destroy- 
ed by fire, together with 
paintings, statuary, models, 
and about 35,000 volumes 
of books, Dec. 24. 

By joint resolution, the 
Governor of Georgia is 
authorised and requested to 
withdraw the block of mar- 
ble contributed to theWash- 
ington monument by the 
resolution of the General 
Assembly of Febr'y, 1850, 
with the inscription, " The 
Constitution as it is ; the 
Union as it was," and to 
cause another to be pre- 
pared of Georgia marble, 
with the State arms thereon, 
and to be sent to the monu- 
ment, Dec. 31. 

Immigration, June 1, 
1850, to Dec. 31, 1851, 
658,000. 

1852. Deputations from the 
various States, in behalf of 
the Irish exiles, wait upon 
President Filmore— Jan. 23. 
The Ohio State House 
entirely consumed by fire. 
Some of the papers saved, 
but a large mass of docu- 
ments destroyed— Feb. 1. 

Sefior Laborde, the 
Spanish Consul at New 
Orleans at the time of the 
Cuban riots, and who fled 
the city from fear of vio 
lence, arrives at New Or 
leans, is saluted, and re- 
sumes his duties as consul — 
Feb. 9. 

Gold Medal presented 
to Henry Clay by citizens of 
New York. Feb. 10. 

Memorial presented to 
House of Representatives 
of California, from 1,218 cit- 
izens of South Carolina and 
Florida, asking permission 
" to colonize a rural district 
with a population of not 
less than 2,000 slaves." Feb. 
10. 

Hamoeopathic College 
at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed 
and interior destroyed, in 
consequence of remains of 
subjects, taken from the 
burial-ground, being dis- 
covered near the Colleee. 
Feb. 16. ^ 



Gbbat Beitaik. 



1852. Lord Granville, by his 
note to the American mi- 
nister, in relation to the 
firing into the Aaierican 
steamer Prometheus by the 
British man-of-war Ex- 
press, states to Mr. Law- 
rence, for the information 
of his government, that 
her majesty's government 
entirely disavow the act, 
and has no hesitation in 
offering ample apology for 
that which they consider 
to have been an infraction 
of treaty engagements. Jan. 
10. 



Dr. Rao returns unsuc- 
cessful from his search for 
Sir John Franklin, down 
the McKertzie river, and 
from its mouth eastward, 
500 miles. He was sent out 
in the spring of 1851 by the 
Hudson's Bay Company. 
Feb. 



% 



1§15-1855.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



163* 




1851 



Atjstkia, etc. 



1852 



President Bonaparte orders 
the confiscation of the Or 
leans property, Jan. 22. 



The Woeld, elsewhere. 



1852. The Empe 
ror of Russia 
visits the Em- 
peror of Aus- 
tria at Vienna, 
May 8. 



1851. China: — Imperial court seriously 
alarmed at the progress of the disturb- 
ance in the Southern provinces. June. 
A large portion of the Chinese part of 
Hong Kong destroyed by fire : from 470 
to 500 houses destroyed, including all 
the printing oflSces and the finest edi- 
fices and public buildings. Many lives 
lost. Dec. 26-28. 



1852. Argentine Confederation :— General 
Urquiza, Commander of the liberating 
army, completes the passage of the 
Parana with 28,000 men, 50,000 horse, 
and 50 pieces of artillery, and prepares 
to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- 
tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from 
Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza witli 
30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops 
of Rosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- 
sults in the total defeat of Rosas and liis 
flight to England. During the night, the 
city is saved from pillage by detach- 
ments from the various ships' of war of 
all nations in the harbor, Feb. 8. The 
allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. 

— Urquiza, Director of the Argentine 
Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10. 

— The Chamber of Representatives 
of Buenos Ayres declares the river 
Parana open to the navigation of all na- 
tions, Oct. 13. 

Belgium:— Formation of a new mi- 
nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party 
tinder M. de Brouckere, Nov. 1. The 
law against the liberty of the press is 
adopted in the Chamber of Representa- 
tives, Dec. 1. 

Cuba : — The police of Havana disco- 
ver and capture the press of the paper, 
" The Voice of the People," with the 
materials and forms for the fourth num- 
ber. The proprietors and employes are 
arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, 
having cleared at Havana, is brought to 
and boarded at the month of the harbor, 
and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few 
days after, the United States mail steam- 
ship Crescent City is refused permission 
to land her passengers and mails at Ha- 
vana, and ordered to quit tlie port — 
Captain-General Canedo objecting to the 
purser of the vessel, Mr. Smith, alleged 
to be the reporter of false news to the 
New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- 
cent City again enters Havana hari)or, 
with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Caiiedo 
refuses to allow passengers or mails to be 
landed, and forbids all intercourse be- 
tween the ship and shore. The Captain 
protests to the American Consul, and 
leaves the harbor. 



164* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XL — AO years.-^ 



A.S. 



1852 



Pkogress of Society, etc. 



Great floods in the United 
States, March, April, Sept., 
and Dec. ; in England, Nov. 
and Pec; on the conti- 
nent of Europe, Sept. 



TelegrapJis across the Eng- 



lish Channel. 



Earthquakes in Cuba August 
2 and Nov. 26 ; in Manilla 
and adjacent parts, Sept. 16, 
Oct. 18; at Acapuico, Dec. 
4; in the Eastern Archipe- 
lago, Nov. 27 and Dec. 21. 

At Stafford House, in London, 
some English ladies, headed 
by the Duchess of Suther- 
land, adopt an address to 
the -women of America on 
the subject of negro slavery. 
It subsequently receives 
576,000 signatures. Nov. 
26. 



Punisliment of Death re- 
stored in Tuscany, 



Fall in England of the protec- 
tionist ministry of Lord 
Derby and Mr. Disraeli, 
after an existence of nine 
months — Dec. 20. 



DeatJis in 1852. 
U. S. . Europe. 



H. Clay, 
S. JSTott, 
M. Shiart, 
D. Drake, 
J. 11. Paine, 
II. Greenough, 
Amos LaxD- 

rence, 
Milledoler, 
J. Vanderlyn, 
D. Webster, 
J.L. Kingsley, 
J. P. Norton. 



Thos. Moore, 
Schwartzen- 

berg, 
Pradier, 
Wellington, 
Dr. Mantell, 
D"Orsay, 
Lee. 



United States. 



Gkeat Bkitain. 



1852. Sonthern Eights conven- 
tion at Montgomery, Ala., 
passes resolutions against 
making resistance to the 
compromise measures an 
issue of their party, and 
against intervention, March 
5. 

Eiot during election at 
St. Louis, April 5. 

First national agricultu- 
ral convention assembles at 
Washington, D. C, consist- 
ing of 151 members, repre- 
senting 22 States, and the 
District of Columbia, orga- 
nised by the choice of 
Marshal P. Wilder, of Mass., 
president. June 24. 

Convention for revising 
the Constitution of Louisi- 
ana, July 5. 

Kossuth continues to be 
feted in different cities, and 
finally quits the country 
under the name of Alexan- 
der Smith, July 16. 

Henry Clay dies, June 
29. Obsequies celebrated 
at New York with great 
pomp and magnificence, 
July 20. 

Great Britain insists npon the convention of 1818,: re- 
specting North American fisheries, being carried out by 
the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast 
of Nevv Brunswick, etc. The United States government 
dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore 
Perry on board, to the disputed fishing grounds; some 
sixty fisliing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- 
formation and advice. July — Aug. 

Commodore McCauley, 
commander of the United 
States naval forces in the 
Pacific, by proclamation, 
withdraws his protection 
from American vessels pro- 
ceeding to the Lobos Is- 
lands for guano, Oct. 18. 
This difficulty Avith Peru 
settled by the withdrawal 
of American pretensions, 
Nov. 15. 



1852. Submarine telegraph 
wires coated with gutta 
percha, laid across St. 
George's Channel from Ho- 
lyhead, a distance of eighty 
miles, completing the com- 
munication between Lon- 
don and Dublin. June 1. 



Queen Victoria issues 
her proclamation against 
" Roman Catholic ecclesias- 
tics' wearing the habit of 
their order, exercising the 
rites and ceremonies of the 
Roman Catholic religion in 
highways and places of 
public resort." June 15. 



Daniel Webster dies, 
Oct. 24. Funeral solemni- 
ties celebrated at Boston 
with much state, Nov. 15. 

The United States de- 
clines the tri-partite con- 
vention respecting Cuba 
proposed by England and 
France, Dec. 1. 

imniigration, 876,000. ; 



Duke of Wellington dies, 
Sept. 14. His funeral obse- 
quies take place in London 
with great pomp, Nov. 18. 



Fall of the Protectionist 
ministry of Lord Derby and 
Mr. D'Israeli, after an exist- 
ence of nine months, Dec. 
20. 



By a decree of the Go- 
vernor General of British 
India, the province of Po 
gu is ann-vvfld to the British 
dominions^ Dec 20. 



1815-1855.]. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



165* 



France. 



President Bonaparte . com- 
Tnences his tour tlirough 
Soutliern France, Sept. 16. 
Visits tlie Chateau D'Am- 
boise, and releases Abd-el- 
Kader,_ who had been- a 
prisoner for five years, Oct. 
10. Eeturns to Paris, ma- 
king a pompous entry into 
the city, Oct. 16. 



A decree of the President 
convokes the Senate for 
Nov. 4, for the purpose of 
deliberating on the restora- 
tion of the einpira. Oct. 19. 

The Senate decrees the re- 
establishment of the em- 
pire, subject to the ratifica- 
tion of I he people, Nov. 7. 
Tlie vote is taken. through- 
out France and Algeria, 
Nov. 21 and 22; result— 
7,824.189 in favor of reiistab- 
lishing the empire, against 
258,145 negative, and 63,326 
void ballots. 



The Senate goes in a body to 
St. Cloud; to announce offi- 
cially the result of the elec- 
tion to Louis Napoleon, and 
hail him Emperor, Dec. 1. 



At the Hotelde Ville, in Paris, 
Louis Napoleon is publicly 
proclaimed Empkror of 
TiiE Ffench, under the 
name of Napoleon III, 
Dec. 2. 



Austria, etc. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1852. Greece: — Signing of a convention in 
London by the five powers, England, 
France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in 
reference to the aff'airs of Greece. None 
but a prince of the Greek religion is 
hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece. 
Nov. 18. 

Hawaii: — Eruption of Mauna Loa; 
lasts several weeks. Feb. 

India:— The Burmese ev.acuate and 
burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- 
der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, 
Nov. 21. 

Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
refuses to give audience to an English 
Protestant deputation in favor of Eosa 
and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. 

— The punishment of death is rees- 
tablished in Tuscany, for treason, crimes 
against religion, murder, and robbery 
w'ilh violence, Nov. 10. 

— The Pope addresses a letter to the 
King of Siirdinia, strongly adverse to 
the bill under consideration in the Pied- 
montese parliament, permitting mar- 
riages without religious ceremonies; it 
is consequently withdrawn by the mi- 
nistry, Dec. 20. 

— At .Home, Bishop Ives, of North 
Carolina, U. S., formerly an Episcopa- 
lian, is received into the Catholic 
Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. 

Liberia :— President Eoberts attacks 
and gains possession of the native chief 
Boyer's principal town, Jan Ifi. 
A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and 
Eome is ratified, stipulating tliat the former shall main- 
tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and 
1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid 
by the Papal government. Nov. 10. 

Mexico: — Carvajal attacks Camargo 
and is defeated, Feb. 21. 

The French Count Boulban de Ea- 
ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- 
nera, is defeated at Hermosillo, and hia 
expedition completely overthrown, Nov. 
1. 



1852. The Empe- 
ror of Austria 
visits the King 
of Prussia at 
Berlin, Dec. 17. 



Prussia : — 
The bill for bi- 
ennial parlia 
ments becomes 
a law, Dec. 23, 



Spain : — A priest, aged 63, attacks 
with a dagger, and wounds the Queen 
of Spain, on her return from celebrating 
at the cathedral a Te Denm for the 
birth of her child, Feb. 2. He is tried, 
convicted, degraded from his priestly 
office, and suffers death from the garote, 
7th. 

—Ninety-five Americans belonging 
to the Lopez expedition, who had been 
sent to Spain, arrive at New York, 
March 13, having been liberated by the 
Queen. . 

—The Cortes dissolved by royal de- 
cree, for having elected De la Eosa, the 
anti-ministerial candidate, their presi* 
dent, Dec. 2. 



lee* 



THE world's progress, [Period XL — 40 years. — 



1853 



1'bogress of Society, etc. 



Firmans accorded to all sub- 
jects of the Porte (not Mus- 
sulmans) confirming their 
religious rights, June 22. 



The first Norwegian railway 
opened July 4. 



UNrrEO States. 



The American expedition un- 
der Com. Perry arrives at 
Japan, July 8. On the 14th 
he lands and delivers to the 
Imperial commissioners the 
letter from the American 
President ; a few days after 
leaves the island, to return 
in the spring. 



Over 60,000 pilgrims enter 
Aix-la-Chapelle, to visit the 
exhibition of tiie relics, Ju- 
ly 17. 



Gbbat Britain. 



1853. Caloric ship Ericsson 
makes lier trial trip to the 
Potomac, Jan. 11, 



Adverse decision of Na- 
poleon, arbiter between the 
United States and Portugal, 
in case of the General Arm- 
strong, read at Washington. 
Jan, 17. 



Franklin Pierce and 
William E. King declared 
duly elected President and 
Vice-President for four 
years from 4th March next, 
Feb. ». 



W. E. King sworn in as 
Vice-President, at Cumbre, 
Island of Cuba, Consul 
Sharkey administering the 
oath, March 24. 



Second American Arctic 
expedition leaves New 
York, May 31. 



Important amendments 
to the city charter of New 
York, restraining the power 
of municipal officers in 
money matters, adopted by 
a Tote of 36,672 in favor, 
8,351 against, June 7. 



Crystal Palace at New 
York opened in presence of 
the President of the United 
States, etc, July 14. 



1853. Mr. Ingersol, American 
envoy, feted at Liverpool 
and Mianchester, Jan, 4-7. 



Sandilli and other Caffre 
chiefs send in their submis- 
sion to General Catbcart, 
tiiereby closing the war, 
Feb. 10. Peace concluded, 
March 9. 



Doncaster church, built 
in 1070, destroyed by fire, 
Feb. 28. 



Warlike stores, supposed 
to be for Kossuth, seized, 
April 14. 



Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- 
thoress of " Uncle Tom's 
Cabin," received at Statford 
House by many. of the no- 
bility and statesmen ot 
England, May 7. 



Dublin Industrial Exhi- 
bition opened, May 12. 



The "strike" at Stock- 
port ceases, and 20,000 men 
resume labor, having ac- 
complished their object, an 
advance of ten per cent, in 
their wages, August 8. Si- 
milar strikes occur at Leeds, 
Kidderminster, and other 
cities. 



1815-1856.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



167* 



▲.D. 



Fbanck. 



The Pantheon at Paris re- 
opened as the Church of 
St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. 

Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
at last acknowledge Napo- 
leon III. Emperor of the 
French, Jan. 11. 

Marriage of the Emperor and 
Eugenie de Montijo, Count- 
ess de Teba, celebrated at 
Catliedral of Notre Dame, 
Paris. Amnesty granted 
to 4,312 political prisoners 
and exiles, Jan. 30. 

General St. Priest, and many 
other legitimists, secretly 
arrested in Paris, on the 
charge of political commu- 
nication with the Count of 
Chambord, and some of 
having sent false intelli- 
gence to foreign journals, 
Feb. 5. 

Application is made by the 
French government to the 
English for Napoleon's 
will, Feb. 17. Subsequent- 
ly granted. 



Funeral of Mme. Easpail at 
Paris, the occasion of a 
formidable socialist demon- 
stration. 40,000 persons 
march in procession to Pere 
la Chaise, March 13. 

Fleet sent to Turkish waters, 
March 20. 

A peace address, signed by 
4,000 English merchants, 
bankers and traders, is pre- 
sented to Napoleon III. at 
the Tuilleries, by English- 
men, March 28. 



A bill restoring capital pun- 
ishment for attempts on the 
life of the Emperor, or to 
subvert the Imperial go- 
rernment, ia passed, May 
28. 



Attsteia, etc. 



1853. Austria of- 
fers herself as 
a mediator be- 
tween the 
Turks and 
Montenegrins, 
Feb. 1. 



Attempt on 
the life of Em- 
peror of Aus- 
tria at the ram- 
parts of Vien- 
na, Feb. 18. 



Baden: — 
Prof. Gervinus 
tried for high 
treason,in pub- 
lishing his "In- 
troduction to 
the History of 
19th century." 
Sentence, ten 
months' im- 
prisonment, 
and book to be 
destroyed, 
March 5. 



Prussia : — 
Democratic 
conspiracy dis- 
covered at Ber- 
lin, March 29. 



Austria re- 
cals her minis- 
ter from Berne, 
May 20. 



Tub Woblb, elsewhere. 



— «ft -^ 

1852. Switzerland :— The Canton of Ticino 
suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, 
and expels all of that order under 65 
years of age, Nov. 25. 

Turkey :— War breaks out between 
the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15. 

1853. Belgium : — A maritime congress as- 
sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. 

— Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, 
heir-appai'ent of the throne, and the 
Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. 

Canada and New Brunswick:— Ga- 
vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; 
riots ensue; military called out; June 
6-9. 

— The first sod of the European and 
North American Railroad turned at St. 
Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the 
Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 
25,000 persons, Sept. 14. 

China : — Nankin taken by the rebels ; 
Tartar garrison (20,000) massahred; 
March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. 

Denmark: — Parliament prorogued, 
and a "fundamental" law issued, by 
which the government becomes liereaf- 
ter an absolute one, July 19. 

Hawaii : — Small-pox rages, having 
carried oflf since May 1,805 out of a po- 
pulation of 60,000 persons, Aug. 31. 

Holland : — The first chamber adopts 
the much-disputed law on religious li- 
berty, Sept. 8. 

India : — Battle of Donabew, in Bur- 
mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, 
March 19. 

Italy: — An insurrection breaks out 
at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed 
by Eadetsky, Feb. 6. The property of 
the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- 
tered till they can prove they are not 
implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 
Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, 
Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- 
versies between Austria and both Sar- 
dinia and Switzerland, follow—Sardinia 
solemnly protesting, April 16. 

— The Pope prohibits the circulation 
of " Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- 
ons. May 10. 

Guerazzi tried at Florence for high 
treason, and found guilty, June 11. 

— Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests, 
Aug. 15. 

— Order signed for immediate release 
of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9, 

— New church, built for the Wal- 
denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, 
Dec. 15. 

Mexico ; — New revolution ; Arista 
resigns the presidency, Jan. 5. 

— Santa Anna having been elected 
President, is received in Mexico with 
great enthusiasm, April 17. 



168* 



THE^ world's progress, , ' IFeriod XD — iO years."-^ 



1858 



Progress of Society, etc. 



A great national horse-show 
at Springfield, Mass^ U. S., 
Oct. 19-21. 



The first Presbyterian Chinese 
church or^nized at San 
Francisco, U. S., Nov. 6. 



Duel between Sotil6 and 
De Turgot, American and 
Frencli ministers to Sjjain, 
Dec. 18. 



Cholera prevails In Europe. 



Several new asteroids discov' 
ered, raising the number to 
27, between the planets 
Mars and Jupiter. 



U. S. Europe. 



0. B. Adams, 
Junius Smith, 
W. R. King, 
B. Bates, 
Sim. Green- 
leaf. 



Arago, 
Von Buch, 
Dacres, 
Mrs. Opie, 

"Wardlaw. 



United States. 



1853. Great heat throughout 
the country — thermometer 
every where 100" Fah. 
Deaths from it in New 
York city in four days, 400, 
Aug. 11-14. 



Eemaining portion of 
" Table Kock," at the Falls 
of Niagara, breaks ofi^. Sept 
9. 



"Great Eepublic," ves- 
sel of 4,000 tuns, largest 
merchantman in the world, 
launched at East Boston, 
Mass., Oct. 4. 



Captain Gunnison and 
party massacred by the 
Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. 



Inauguration of the 
"Washington aqueduct. 
President Pierce turns the 
first turf, Nov. 9. 



A mob of men and wo- 
men demolish the railroad 
track near Erie, Penn., Dec. 
9, and repeat the outrage, 
Dec. 27. 



Yellow fever epidemic 
in the States bordering on 
Gulf of Mexico, carries off 
from 12,000 to 15,000 per 
sons. 



Bcdini, the Papal Nun- 
cio, tries to influence the 
EomanCatholic laity to give 
up their church property to 
the Bishops, but does not 
succeed. He quits the 
country ignominiously. 



Immigration, 868,000. 



Great Britadt. 



1853. Naval Review at Spit- 
head, in presence of the 
Queen, Aug. 11. 



Queen Victoria visits 
Ireland, Aug. 29. 



Deputation from the 
Protestant Alliance, headed 
by the Earl of Shaftesbury, 
waits upon Lord Clarendon, 
to state the case of Miss 
Cunninghani, arrested at 
Lucca for distributing Ita- 
lian Bibles, etc., and to 
urge the government to 
procure her immediate li- 
beration, Sept. 28, A depu- 
tation of clergymen and 
others, headed by Sir Cul- 
ling Eardley, wait upon 
Lord Clarendon and thank 
him and the government 
for the exertions which had 
been made, Oct. 27. 



Bronze statue of Sir Ro- 
bert Peel erected in front 
of the Koyal Infirmary at 
Manchester, Oct. 3. 



Captain Inglefleld, of the 
Phoenix, arrives from the 
Arctic regions, with the 
news of the discovery of 
the North-west Passage, on 
Oct. 26, 1850, by Captain 
McClure of the Investiga- 
tor, Oct. 7. 



The first stone of a Ro- 
man Catholic cathedral 
laid at Shrewsbury, by 
Bishop Brown— the young 
Eui'l of Shrewsbury giving 
£15,000 towards its erection 
—Dec. 12. 



The Dublin Exhibition 
building is formally opened 
as a winter garden, by the 
Lord Lieutenant and the 
Countess St 6ermainS| 
Dec. 16. 



1815-1855.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



169* 



France. 



1853 Plot to assassinate the Empe- 
ror, while on his way to the 
Opera Comique, discovered 
at Paris, July 7. 



Austria, etc. 



A Roman circus of great size 
discovered at Tours, Aug. 
81. 



The Duke de Nemours, on 
behalf of the entire Oi-leans 
House, effects a reconcilia- 
tion with the Count de 
Chambord, Nov. 17. 



Inauguration of the statue of 
Marshal Ney, on the spot 
where he was shot, and the 
anaiversary of his execu- 
tion, Dec. 7. 



The 'WoELn, elsewhere. 



1853. Persia :— Earthquakes destroy Shi- 
raz, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Tehe- 
ran, July 11. 



Peru .-—Difficulty at Chincha Islands 
between Peruvian commandaut and 
American shipmasters, Aug, 17. 



10 



Portugal:— Maria <Queen) dies, Nor. 



1853, AnAustrlan 
war vessel in 
the port of 
Smyrna, seizes 
and attempts 
to carry off 
Martin Koszta, 
a Hungarian 
refugee, travel- 
ing under an 
American pass- 
port, who 
claims protec- 
tion of Ameri- 
can flag. An 
American fri- 
gate places the 
Austrian un- 
der her guns, 
and Koszta's 
release is impe- 
ratively de- 
manded, June 
21. 

Austrian go- 
vernment pro 
tests against 
proceedings of 
Captain Iiigi-a- 
ham at Smyr- 
na, in a circu 
lar addressed 
to the Europe- 
an courts, Aug. 
1, and through 
its envoy ad- 
dresses a note 
to the Ameri- 
can govern- 
ment on the 
same subject, 
Aug. 29. 

Eastern Affairs. — "War between Turkey and 
KussiA. — Prince Menschikoff sent by the Emperor of Rus- 
sia with demands which are rejected by the Porte, May 21, 
June 15. The Russians cross the Pruth, 120,000 strong, 
Jime 21-28. — The Porte addresses a protest to the Russian 
cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July 
14. The Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated 
"Vienna note," for the joint acceptance of Russia and 
Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts ; Turkey re- 
quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will no't ac- 
cede to, Sept. 14. Military congress at Olmutz, Sept. 20. 
The note is dropped, Sept. 30. Turkey declares M-ar 
against Russia, Oct. 3. Hostilities commenced on the 
Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicholas in the 
Black Sea, Oct. 31. Turks defeat Russians at Oltenitza, 
Nov. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11. 
The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4, 
and the Bospliorus, Nov. 15. Turks beaten and massa- 
cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 30. The Vienna Con- 
ference continues its efforts to effect an arrangement be- 
tAveen the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of 
the people of Constantinople in favor of war, Dec. 21. 
Russians uniformly victorious in Asia. The religious fana- 
ticism of both parties is aroused. 



Spain: — New and stringent law 
against liberty of the press published, 
Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo- 
ration of her birth-day, orders three 
screw -frigates to be constructed, to be 
called after the three queens from whom 
she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra^- 
gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. 



Switzerland: — Insurrection In Frl- 
burg by the Jesuit party speedily sup- 
pressed, April 22. 



Venezuela : — Earthquake at Cumana ; 
600 persons killed, July 15. 



170* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[^Period XL — 40 years. 



▲.B. 



1854 



Pkogkess op Societs", etc. 



l>eputati»n of " Friends" pre- 
sents to the Emperor of 
Russia a peace memorial, 
Feb. 10. 



CoroplGte equality before the 
law secured to all subjects 
of the Porte, without dis- 
tinction of creed, by treaty, 
March 12. 



Commercial treaty concluded 
between the United States 
and Japan, March 23. 



In Turkey, the possessions of 
the Mosques to be declared 
the property of the State 
from March 27. 



The first railway is- opened- 
in Brazil^ the Emperor and 
Empress being j^resent at 
the inauguration, April 30. 



The changes introduced in the 
Ottoman Empire by the in- 
fluence of the Allied Pow- 
ers, amount to a revolution 
in its social condition.^ 



Marked increase in the num- 
bers and prosperity of 
Christians in Turkey ; Mo- 
hammedan population, ex- 
cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- 
ing out. 



Cross raised iti a Catholic 
burying ground belonging 
to the i^rench, in Turkey. 



Uniteb States, 



1854. The steamer San Fran- 
cisco founders at sea; 240 
U. S. troops washed over- 
board; the rest of 700 res- 
cued by the Three Bells, 
Kilby, and Antarcti^c, Jan» 
6. 



Astor Library opened 
for use of the public, in New 
York city, Jan. 9. 



Outrages on the railroad 
near Erie, Pa., renewed by 
mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31 



Skirmishes between U. 
S. troops and Apache and 
Utah Indians,. March 5, 30. 



Certain sections of the 
" Maine Liquor Law" deci- 
ded to be unconstitutional 
iu Massachusetts, Maixh 13. 



Miss Dix's bill for ame- 
liorating the condition of 
the indigent insane,. vetoed, 
April 20. 



Great flood in the Con- 
necticut river, hundreds 
driven from their dwel- 
lings, May 1. 



Mass meetings at Bos-- 
ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, 
N. H., Feb. 27; New York, 
IVlay 13, against the Ne- 
braska bill, which, how- 
ever, becomes a law. May 
SO. 



Riots in Midiigan, April 
IT; at Boston, (attempt to 
rescue a fugitive slave,) 
May 26; at New Y'ork and 
Brooklyn, (papist interfe- 
rence with street-preach- 
ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. 



San Juan, Nicaragua, 
bombarded and burnt by 
the U. S. sloop-of-war,. Cy 
anc, July 18. 



Great Beitaix. 



1854. Parliament opened by 
Queen, who expresses a de- 
sire thfit exertions for an 
amicable settlement of the 
Eastern difficulties should 
be persevered in, Jan. 31. 



The Queen reviews the 
fleet on its departure for 
the Baltic, March 11. 



A day of humiliation 
and prayer observed, April 
26.- 



Launch of the "Royal 
Albert," the Queen chris- 
tening the vesselj. l\Iay 13. 



Crystal Palace at Sy- 
denham opened by the 
Queen, June 10, 



1815-1855.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



171* 



A.D. 



1854 



Feai?cb. 



The Emperor and Empress 
attend tlie first agricultural 
exhibition ever held in Pa- 
ris, June 9. 



AtrsTEiA, etc. 



1854. Alliance, 
offensive and 
defensive, be- 
tween Austria 
and Prussia, 
signed April 
20. 



The Emperor reviews a di- 
vision of troops about to 
proceed to the Baltic, July 
12. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1854. Brazil :— San Salvador destroyed by 
an earthquake, causing a loss, in less 
tlian one minute, of 200 lives, and 
$4,000,000 of property, April IG. 

Canada:— Parliament House at Que- 
bec burnt, including government library 
and philosophical apparatus, Feb, 1. 

India: — The Ganges Canal, a work 
of vast magnitude opened, April 8. 

— Day of humiliation and prayer for 
success of the British arms, observed at 
Bombay and all over India, by the na- 
tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. 

Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the 
country between Florence and Eome, 
May. 

— Eailway from Lusa to Turin inau- 
gurated in j)resence of King and Queen 
of Sardinia, etc.. May 22. 

Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be 
tween some Frenchmen under Count 
Eaousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans, 
July 13. The Count is defeated, taken 
prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. 

Eussia: — An imperial ukase calls out 
nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por- 
tion of the Empire, May 9. 

Spain : — Earthquake at Fiana, crum- 
bling down the greatest part of the Al- 
cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, 
and causing large chasms in nearly all 
the streets, Jan. 13. 

— Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- 
zans demand of the municipal authorities 
that the j)rice of provisions be reduced, 
and wages increased, March 31. 

— T!;e insurrection of the people 
at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the 
Eivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- 
tero enters the city, and is received 
with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,000 
defenders of the barricades defile before 
the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- 
ing herself on the balcony, July 31. 

— Dona Maria Christina, the Queen 
Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- 
der escort of ti'oops, but against the will 
of the people. She was indebted to the 
State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. 

Turkey: — Fire at Constantinople; 
400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. 

— Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- 
ings, April 8. 

— Banquet given by the Sultan to 
Prince Napoleon, May 8. 

— Fire at Yarna, destroys ISO houses 
and vast quantities of military stores, 
Aug. 10. 



172* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XI.— 40 years.-^ 



1854 



U.S. 

J^. B. Blunt, 
Jaadb Bur- 
nett, 
John Davis, 
Coin. Doiones, 
J. Harring- 
ton, last sur- 
vivor of bat- 
tle of Lex- 
ington. 
Mrs. E. Jud- 
son. 



Pkogress of Society, etc. 



The Sultan issues a firman for 
the constructioii of a church 
at Scutari, Sept. 

DeatM in 1854. 



Europe. 

Anglesea, 

Bodisco, 

Cockburn, 

Forbes, 

Janaeson, 

Maitland, 

Melloni, 

Montgomery, 

Paixhans, 

Pellico, 

Plunkett, 

Eubini, 

Schelling, 

Mme. Son tag, 

Mrs. 0. South- 

ey, 

Talfourd, 
Wilson. 



United States. 



1854. Grisi and Mario, the two 
most renowned lyric ar- 
tists of the old world, arrive 
at New York, Aug. 19. 



Extensive drought pre- 
vails several weeks. 



Cholera prevails, June- 
Nov. ; yellow fever prevails, 
Aug.-Nov. 



Immigration, about 500,000. 



Great Bkitaij*. 



1855. Visit of the Emperor 
and Empress of France, 
April 16. 

Death of Lord Eaglan, 
Commander-in-chief at Se» 
bastopol, June 28. 



1815-1855.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



173* 



Feanoe. 



Austria, etc. 



The Woeli), elsewhere. 



1854. Venezuela: — Slaves emancipated, 
April 25. 



1854. Saxony : — 
The King 
thrown from 
his carriage at 
Innspruck, and 
killed, Aug. 10. 

Easteen Affaies. — The Anglo-French fleet enters 
the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Tm'ks defeat Eussians at Citate, 
Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi- 
enna Conference, Jan. Eussian ambassadors quit Lon- 
don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa- 
dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and 
France resolve to summon Eussia to evacuate the Prin- 
cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Eussians cross the 
Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between 
England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French 
ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Eussia refuses 
a reply. England and France declare war against Eussia, 
March 28. Counter declaration of war by Eussia against 
England and France, April 12. Convention between 
England and France, April 18. Odessa bombarded, April 
22, Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. 
Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Eussians raise the 
siege of Silistria, June 23, and re-cross the Danube, July 
7. Eussians defeated by Turks at Eutschuk, July 12 and 
13. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- 
cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the 
Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies 
enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- 
mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Eussians at the Alma, Sept. 
20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire 
opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Eussians repulsed, 
Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Eussians again repulsed, 
Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 

1855. Eussia :— Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. 
— The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of 

Azoph, May 24. 

— The allies repulsed in an assault on the outpost* of 
Sebastopol, June 18. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



CHJEFLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS. 



AEBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near 
the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. 
An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305. 
The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was 
in the fifth century : see Clogher^ Elphin, Down. The first in Scotland was 
in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see 
Bano-or. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet 
in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands 
of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in 
England by order in council, 2 Henry V. I^IL— Salmon. The revenues of 
193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to i;2,653,000. 
These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry 
VIII. 1539. See Monasteries. 

ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in 
later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, 
and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following :— 



Of Henry IV. of Germany, 

Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumaraed 

Thunder., 

Of Albert of Saxony, .... 

Of Lestus V. of Poland, . . . . 

Of Uladislaus III. of Poland, 

Of Baliol of Scotland, . . . . 

Of Otho of Hungary, . . . . 

OfEric IX. of Denmark, . . 

Of Eric XIII. of Sweden, . 

Of Charles V. Emperor, . . • 

Of Christina of Sweden, 

Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 

Of James II. of England, -v. . . . 

Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, . 

OfPhilipV. of Spain, . . . . 

Of Victor of Sardinia, . 

Of Charles of Naples, . , . . 

Of Stanislaus of Poland, 



1080 

1114 
1142 
1200 
1206 
1306 
1309 
1439 
1441 
1556 
1654 
1669 
168S 
1704 
1724 
1730 
1759 
1795 



He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- 
naparte family. See Sj)ain. May 1, 1803 
Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to 

take the crown of Spam, . June 1, 1808 
Of the same (by flying before the British 

from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 
Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1310 
Of .Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 
Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 
Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 
Of Pedro of Portugal, . . May 2, 1826 
Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 
Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 

Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving 

the kingdom), . . . May 26, ia34 
OfWilliam I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1810 
Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager 

and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 184C 
Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 
Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 
Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, 

Dec. 2, 1848 
Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 

Aug. 1849 



Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 
Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes 

emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 
Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his 
son, . . . • March 19, 1808 
ABEL ARD AND HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and 
misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. e. 1118, when Helolse (a canon's daugh- 
ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after sufiering an ignominious m- 
iury became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St Marcel of 
grief which never left his heart, in 1142. HeloYse begged his body, and had 



/ 4b THE world's progress. [ ACA 

it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, Avith the view of reposing 
in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, 
and died in 1163. The ashes of both v»^ere carried to the Museum of French 
Monuments in 1800; and the museum having been subsequently broken up. 
they were finally removed to the burying-g-round of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. 

I^BORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation 
conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- 
iory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; 
and Rome was built in their countrj^ They were called Aborigines, being 
icbsque o'Hg-me, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. The 
word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally 
applied to any original inhabitants. 

ILBOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- 
dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the 
British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 
1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- 
gust 1, 1798. See NiU. 

ABRAHAM, Era of. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To 
reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. 

A.BSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, 
and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. 
St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- 
gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of 
age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without 
meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days 
by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Biog. Laert. A woman of Nor- 
mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Aibano. Gilbert Jackson, 
of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 
1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on 
the sixteenth, 1789. — Phillips. A country girl, of Osna,bruck, abstained four 
years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hiifeland's Practical Journal. Ann 
Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Stafibrdshire, supposed to have been 
an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. 
At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived 
two years without meat or drink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards 
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See 
instances in Halter's Elemental Physiologice ; Cornaro ; P richer s Surgical 
Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. 

ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, 
flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. 
They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- 
rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhei'e in a. d. 170. — 
Bossuet. 

A BYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, 
which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old 
style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 
125 days. 

At^ADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and 
the arts, are of early date. j4.ca^em« was a shady grove without the walls 
of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato 
first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 
B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
andria about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also 



ilch] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



147 



Darned as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua 
mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical 
academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne. in 1135. Academies 
were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society 
of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal 
academies : — 



American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
1780. 

American Philosophical Society, 1769. 

Ancona, ofthe Cagtinosi, 1624" 

Berlin, Royal Society, 1700 ; of Princes, 
1703; Architecture, 1799. 

Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics, 
1690; Sciences and Arts, 1712. 

Brescia, ofthe Erranti, 1626. 

Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Brussels, Belles-Lettres, 1773. 

Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. 

Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. 

Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1749; Science and Literature, 
1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. 

Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 

Faenza, the Fhiloponi, 1612. 

Florence, Beiles-Leltres, 1272 ; Delia Cms- 
ca, 1582 ; Antiquities, 1807. 

Geneva, Medical,* 1715. 

Genoa, Paijiting, &c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 

Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Kistorv, 
1652; Military, 1752. 

Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 

London : its variou.s Academies arc de- 
scribed through the volume. 

Lyons, Sciences'^, 1700; had Physic and Ma- 
thematics added, 1758. 

Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 
1730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. 

Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. 



Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 17C6. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. 

IMunich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 

Naples, i^ossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; 
Sciences, 1695; Hercuianeuin, 1755. 

New York, Literature and Philo;ophy,i814.* 

Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 

Padua, for Poetry, 1610; Sciences, 1792. 

Palermo, Medical, 1645. 

Paris, Sorbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu- 
sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; 
Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- 
tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. 

Parma, the Innominali, 1550. 

Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filirgiti. 1574. 

Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; 
the School of Arts, 1764. 

Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 

Rome, Umorisli, 1611; Funtascici, 1625; 
Infecondi, 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadi^ 
1690 ; English, 1752. 

Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. 

Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles-Lettres, 
1753; Agriculture, 1781. 

Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 

Turkey, Military School, 1775. 

Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 

Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. 

Verona, Music, 1.543; Sciences, 1780. 

Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- 
gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. 

Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. Woolwich, Military, 1741. 

A-CCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and 
without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century 
that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after 
Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in 
Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by 
other grammarians in the various languages. 

A.CHAIA. This countrj^ was governed by a race of kings, but even their names 
are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achseus. the son of 
Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the 
iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achfei were descendants of Achseus, 
and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- 
clidge drove them thence, they retired among the lonians. expelled the na- 
tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, ^gira, u.^geum, Bura, Tri- 
taea, Leontiura, Rhypse, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dym«, and Phara3. 

The Achajan league, . .B.C. 281 | Alliance with the Romans, . B. c. 2C1 

Fortress of Athonreum built, . . 228 

Defeat of the Achseans by the Spartans, 

" 226 

220 



and Lysiades killed. 
Battle of Sallacia, 
The Social war begun, 
Tlie Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEto- 

lians, .... 

Aratus poisoned at Mgmxn, . 
Battle of Mantinea ; Philopcemen defeats 

the Spartan tyrant Mechanidas, 



219 
215 



Philopcemen defeated by Nabis. in a na- 
val battle, . '. . . 194 
Sparta joined to the league, . l£l 
The Achasans overrun Messenia with 

fire and sword, . . .182 

The Romans enter Achaia, 165 

Metellus enters Greece, . . 147 

The Achffian league dissolved, . 146 

Greece subjected to Rome, and named 
the province of Achaia, . . 146 



* Now extinct. 



148 THE world's progress. [ada 

The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that 
of the Achfean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance 
to it in their confederacy. 
A.COUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and 
the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, 
was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by 
Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about 
A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700, 
Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook 
Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and 
La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. 

VCRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192, after a 
siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 
barons, and 300.000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 Chris- 
tians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the n..urder 
of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. 
Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- 
ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable 
siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by 
the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relin- 
quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to 
the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. 
It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet 
under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, 
the Egyptians losing upwards of 2.000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000 
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840. 
See Syria and Turkeij. 

ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and 
accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Paus. in 
Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2,000 years, was destroj^ed 
in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was 
marked hj terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high 
towers, each a^ the distance of fifty feet. — Euripides. 

ACTIUM, Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, 
and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate 
of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cgesar; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c. 
This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate 
upon Ctesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman 
empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con- 
queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. 

ACTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- 
cients ; men or eiuiuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to 
have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- 
land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- 
atre at court. — Theat. Biog. 

A ""TS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See P«;-- 
llavieiii. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been 
annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between 
the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 
repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. 
Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large and 225 to Ireland solely. 

A.DAMITES. a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. 



/ldm] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



149 



130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that 
if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Tiieir chief 
was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it 
was not necessaiy to confess Christ. — Eusebms. This sect, with an addition 
of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply," 
was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named 
Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every 
age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, 
again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they 
spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon. 
ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sinctf 
the formation of the government: — 

First Administration ;— 1789 to 1797 ;— 8 years. 
"Virginia^ 
Massachusetts, 



George Washington, 
John Adams, 



President. 
Vice President. 



Thomas Jefferson. 
Edmund Randolph, 
Timothy Pickering, 
Alexander Hamilton, 
Oliver Wolcott, 
Henry Knox, 
Timo'thy Pickering, 
James M'Henry, 
Samuel Osgood, 
Timothy Pickering, 
Joseph Habersham, 
Edmund Randolph, 
William Bradford, 
Charles Lee, 



Virginia, 

do. 
Pennsylvania, 
New York, 
Conneclicut, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, • 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Georgia, 
Virginia, 
Pennsylvania, 
Virginia, 



April 30, 1789 
do. 1789 

Appointed. 
Sept. 26, 3789 ; 

2. 1794 
lO; 1795 ^ 

11, 1789 

3, 1795 S 

12, 1789 ) 
2, 1795 > Secretaries of War. 

27, 1796 ) 
26, 1789 : 

Post Masters Gen." 



Jan. 
Dec. 

Sept. 

Feb, 

Sept. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Sept. 

Nov. 

Feb. 

Sept. 

Jan. 

Dec. 



Secretaries of Slate. 

i Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 



7, 1791 

25, 1795 ' 

26, 1789 

27, 1794 
10, 1795 ' 



Attorneys GeneraL 



Speakers of the House of Representatives 

Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 

Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 

Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 

Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 

Second Administration ;- 



1st Congress, 1789. 

2d do. 1791. 

3d do. 1793. 

4th do. 1795. 



John Adams, 
Thomas Jefferson, 

Timothy Pickering, 
John Marshall, 
Oliver Wolcott, 
Samuel Dexter, 
.lames M'Hemy, 
Samuel Dexter, 
Roger Griswold, 
George Cabot.* 
Benjamin Stoddart, 
Joseph Habersham, 
Charles Lee, 



Jonathan Dayton, 
Theodore Sedgwick, 



1797 to 1801 ;— 4 years. 
Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. 

Virginia, 1797 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Pennsylvania, {contitiuedjn office.) ? Secretaries of Statet 
Virgmia, May 13, 1800 S 

Connecticut, (continued in office.) } Secretaries of the 
Massachusetts, . Dec. 31, 1800 s Treasury. 

Maryland, (continued in office.) ) 

Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War. 

Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 > 

Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secretaries of the 

Maryland, May 21, 1798 S Navy. 

Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen. 

Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General. 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

New Jersey, 5th Congress, '. 797. 

Massachusetts, 6th do. 1799. 



President. 
Vice Presid?.nls. 



Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. 
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 

Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 

George CUnton, New York, do. 1805 

Appointed. 

James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801 Secretary of State. 

Samuel Dexter, Mass. (continued in office.) } Secretaries ol the 

Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania. Jan. 26, 1802 S Treasury. 



* Mr. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established ir. 1798. 



150 



THE world's progress. 



[ ADSfi 



Henry Dearborn, 
Benjamin Stoddart, 
Roben Smith,* 
Joseph Habersham, 
Gideon Granger, 
Levi Lincoln, 
John llreckenridge, 
CcBsar A. Rodney, 



Nathaniel Macon, 
Joseph B. Varnum, 
Nathaniel Macon, 
Joseph B. Varnum, 



Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 Secretary of War. 

Md. {continued in office.) { Secretaries of the 

Maryland, Jan. 26, 1S32 i Navy. 

Georgia, {continued in office.) I Post Masters Ge- 

Connecticut .Ian. 26, 1892 i neral. 

Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i 

Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 V Attorneys General. 

Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. 

Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803. 

North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. 

Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807. 



Fourth Administration;— 1809 to 1817 ;— 8 ye^ra 

•Tames Madison, Virginia, March 4, 1809 

George Clinton, New York, 1809, {died April 20, 1812) } 

Elhridge Gerry, Mass. 1813, {died Nov. 23, 1814) \ 

Appointed. 
Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) 

Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 } 

Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 \ 

Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) 



President. 
Vice Presidenta. 



Robert Smith, 
James Monroe, 
James Monroe,! 
Albert Gallatin, 
George W. Campbell, 
Alexander J. Dallas, 
William Eustis, 
John Armstrong, 
James Monroe, 
William H. Crawford, 
Paul Hamilton, 
William Jones, 
Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
Gideon Granger, 
Return J. Meigs, 
Cccsar A. Rodney, 
William Pinkney, 
Richard Rush, 



Tennessee, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 

New York, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

South Carolina, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 



Feb. 

Oct. 



9, 1814 
6, 1814 



March 7, 1809 ) 
13, 1813 f 



Jan. 



Sept. 27, 1814 ( 
March 2, 1815 ) 
March 7, 1809 
Jan. 12, 1813 
Dec. 19, 1814 



Secretaries of Stata 

Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 

Secretaries of War. 

Secretaries of the 

Navy. 

Post Masters Ge- 
neral. 



Connecticut, {continued in office.) ) 

Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ 

Delaware, {continued in office.) ) 

Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys GeneraL 

Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S 



Joseph B. Vamum, 
Henry Clay, 
Henry Clay, 
Langdon Cheves, 
Henry Clay, 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. 

Kentucky, 12th do. 1811, 

Kentucky, ? ,^, , 11812. 

South Carolina, \ ^"^"^ "°- J 1814. 

Kentucky, 14th do. 1815. 



James Monroe, 
Danic D. Tompkins, 



Fifth Administration ;- 
Virginia, 
New York, 



-1817 to 1825 ; -8 years. 
March 4, 1817 
do. 1817 



President. 
Vice President. 



John Q. Adams, 
William H. Crawford, 
Isaac Shelby,! 
John C. Calhoun, 
Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
Smith Thompson, 
Samuel L. Southard, 
Return J. Meig.s, 
John McLean, 
Richard Rush, 
William Wirt, 



Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treaa 

Secretaries of Waf , 



Appointed. 
Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 

Georgia, March 5, 1817 

Kentucky, March 5, 1817 

South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 

Massachusetts, {continued in office.) i «?„„....+ :„„ «<• ♦!,« 

New York, ' Nov. t), 1818 i ^^^^^^t^."^' ""^ ^^^ 

New Jersey, Dec. 9,1823) ^^*^-^- 

Ohio, {continued in office.) (Tost Masters Oe- 

do. Dec. 9, 1823 ( neral. 

Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) i « t*„^„p„„ Qpneia 
Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 \ -^"o^neys Geneift 



• Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Croioninshield, of Massachusetts, 



li^.retary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these ap] -ointments; iin 
Mr. S?7iith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jeflbrson's adcii 
ftistration. 

t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War. 

t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. 



adm] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



151 



ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 

Speakers of the House of Representatives 

Henry Clay, Kentucky, 



Heniy Clay, 
John \y. Taylor, 
Philip P. Barbour, 
Heury Clay, 

John Q. Adams, 
John C Calhoun, 

Henry Clay, 
Richard Rush, 
James Barbour, 
Peter B. Porter, 
Samuel L. Southard, 
John McLean, 
.William Wirt, 

John W. Taylor, 
Andrew Stephenson, 



Kentucky, 
New York, 
Virginia, 
Kentucky, 



15th Congress 
16th do. 



17th 
18th 



do. 
do. 



1817, 
S 1819. 
1 1820. 

1821. 

Ib^. 



Sixth Administration;— 1825 to 1829, --4 years. 

Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. 

South Carolma, do. 1825 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Kentucky, March 8, 1825 Secretary of State. 

Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'y of the Tieas'v 

Vu-gmta, do 1825 ) 

New York, May 26, 1828 \ Secretaries of War. 

New Jersey, (^continued m office.^ Sec'y of the Navy. 

Ohio, icojitimied in office.) Post Master Gen 

Virginia, (cotitinued in office.) Attorney Genera], 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

New York, 19th Congress, 1827. 

Virginia, 20th do. 1828. 



Andrew Jackson, 
Jolm C. Calhoun, 
Martin Van Buren, 

Martin Van Buren, 
Edward Livingston, 
Louis McJ,ane, 
John Forsyth, 
Samuel D. Ingham, 
Louis McLane, 
William J. Duane, 
Roger B. Taney, 
Levi Woodbury, 
John H. Eaton, 
Lewis Cass, 
John Branch, 
Levi Woodbury, 
Mahlon Dickerson, 
William T. Barry, 
Amos Kendall, 
John McP. Berrien, 
Roger B. Taney, 
Benjamin F. Butler, 



Seventh Administration;— 1829 to 1837;— 8 years. 



Tennessee, 
South Carolina, 
New York, 

New York, 

Louisiana. 

Delaware. 

Georgia, 

Pennsylvania, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, 

New Hampshire, 

Tennessee, 

Ohio, 

North Carolina, 

New Hampshire, 

New Jersey, 

Kentucky, 

Kentucky, 

Georgia, 

Maryland, 

New York, 



March 4, 1829 President. 
do. 1829 ; ,,- Tj - , , 

1833 \ Presidenis. 

Appointed. 
March 6, 1829^ 

1833 I Secretaries of State. 
1835 J 
March 6, 18291 

1831 o , . ^ ,, 
1833 \ Secretaries of the 

1833 I Treasury. 

1834 J 

March 9, 1829 , „ , . . „, 

1831 \ Secretaries of War. 

March 9. 1829 )^ 

' 1831 > Secretaries of the 

1834 S ^^''^• 
March 9, 1829 ( Post Masters Ge- 

1835 \ neral. 
March 9, 1829 J 

1831 > Attorneys General. 
1834 > 



Andrew Stevenson, 
Andrew Stevenson, 
John Bell, 



Martin Van Buren, 
Richard M. Johnson, 

John Forsyth, 
Levi Woodbury, 
Joel R. 1 oinsett, 
ISIalilon Dickerson, 
Janids K. Paulding, 
Amos Kendall, 
John M. Niles, 
Benjamin F. Butler, 
Felix Grundy, 
Henry D. Gilpin, 

James K. Polk, 
Robert M. T. Hunter, 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Virginia, 21st Congress, 

Virginia, 22d do. 

Pennsylvania, 

Eighth Administration ;— 1837 to 1841— 4 years. 



1829. 
1831. 
1835. 



New York, 1837 President. 

Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Georgia, (^continued in office.) 
New Hampshire, {continued in office.) 
South Carolina, 1837) 

New Jersey, {continued in office.) > Secretaries of War 

New York, " 1838 S 

Kentucky, {continued in office.) ) Post Masters Ge- 

Connecticut, 1840 \ neral. 

New York, {continued in office.) ) 

Pennsylvania, C Attorneys General. 

Pennsylvania, 1839 \ 



Secretary of State. 
Sec'y of Treasuiy. 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Tennessee, 1837. 

Virginia, 1839.' 



152 



THE WOR-LD'S progress 



[ ADIH 



ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 

Ninth Administration ; — 1841 to 1845 ; — 4 years. 



William II. Harrison, Ohio, 

Died one month after inauguration, and 



1841 Fresid€ut. 



John Tyler, 

Samuel L. Southard, 
Willie P. Mangum, 



Virginia, 

New Jersey, 
North Carolina, 



Daniel Webster, 
Abel P. Upshur, 
Thomas Ewing, 
Walter Forward, 
John C. Spencer, 
John Bell, 
John C. Spencer, 
George E. Badger, 
Abel P. Upshur, 
David Henshaw, 
Francis Grander, 
Charles A. Wickliffe, 
John J. Crittenden, 
Hugh S. Legare, 
John Nelson, 



John White, 
John W. Jones, 



Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 

New York, 

Tennessee, 

New York, 

North Carolina, 

Virginia, 

Massachusetts, 

New York, 

Kentucky, 

Kentucky, 

South Carolina 

Maryland, 

/Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives. 
Kentucky, 
Virginia, 



1841 

1841 
1841 
Appointed. 

1341 

1841 

18411 

1841 \ 

1841 J 

1841^ 

1841 S 

184n 

1841 } 

1841 J 

1841? 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1811 



Vice President, 
became acting Pres. 
Acting V. Pres. and 
Pree. Senate. 

Secretaries of Stato. 

Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 

Secretaries of War. 

Secretaries of the 

Navy. 

Post Masters Gen- 
eral. 

Attorneys General. 



1841 
1843 



Tenth Administration ; - 
.Tames K. Polk, Tennessee, 



George M. Dallas, 

James Buchanan, 
Robert J. Walker, 
William L. Marcy, 
George Bancroft, 
John Y. Mason, 
Cave Johnson, 
John Y. Mason, 
Isaac Toucey, 



Pennsylvania, 



1845 to 1849 ;— 4 years. 
1845 
1845 
Appointed. 
1845 



John W. Davis, 



Robert C. Winihrop, 



Pennsylvania, 

Mississippi, 

New York, 

Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

Tennessee, 

Virginia, 

Connecticut, 

Speakers of the House of Representatives, 
Indiana, 



1845 

1845 
1845 
1847 
1845 
1845 
1847 



Massachusetts, 



President. 
Vice President. 

Secretary of State. 

Secretary of Treas. 

Secretary of War. 
} Secretaries of the 
^ Navy. 

Post Master Gen. 

i Attorneys General 

1845. 
1847. 



Eleventh Administration;— 1849 to 1853; — 4 years. 



Zachary Taylor, 
Millard Fillmore, 

John M. Clayton, 
William E Meredith, 
William B Preston, 
George W. Crawford, 
Thomas Ewing, 
Jacob CoUamer, 
Reverdy Johnson, 

Howell Cobb, 



Louisiana, 
New York, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

Ohio, 

Vermont, 

Maryland, 



1849 
1849 
Appointed. 

1849 
1849 
1&19 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 



Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
Georgia, 



President. 
Vice President. 

Secretary of State. 
Sec'y of Treasury. 
Sec'y of the Navy. 
Secretary of War. 
Sec'y of Interior.* 
Post Master Gen. 
Attorney General. 

1849. 



ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from tlie 
accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- 
ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — 

Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . 1529 

1509 Lord Audley, chancellor ; archbishop 
1513 Cranmer .... 1532 



king henry viii. 
Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey 
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey 



' A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. 
Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- 
trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, 
were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate 
of the United States." Am. Almanac, &c. 



ADM ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



153 



Anc? .ord CroiT,weIl (earl of Essex) . 1534 
Dutfe of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and 

bishop Gardiner . . , 1540 

Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 



KING EDWARD VI. 

The earl of Hertford, continued 
Johii. duke of Northumberland 

aUEEN MARY. 

Bishop Gardiner 

QUEEN ELIZABETH. 

Sir Nicholas Bacon 

Sir William Cecil, qfterioards lord 
Burleigh; chief minister during al- 
most the whole of this long reign 

Earl of Leicester, a favorite . 

Earl of Essex .... 

Lord Burkhurst 

KING JAMES. I. 

Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) 
Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North 

ampton. 
Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches 

ter, a^*ericards earl of Somerset 
Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar 

ruoss, and duke of Buckingham 



1552 



1553 



1558 



1564 
1538 
1601 



1608 
1612 
1615 



KING CHARLES 1. 

Duke of Buckingham continued 

Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 

Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford, 

lord Cottington . . . 1640 

Earl of Essex .... 1640 
Lord \ is. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 

[The civil war commenced, and all 

went into confusion.] 



KING CHARLES II. 

Edward, earl of Clarendon ' . 
Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 
Lord Ashley, Lord Arlinston, Sir T. 

Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 
Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created 

earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas 

O?borne .... 

Sir Thomas Osborne 
Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, eaii 

qfterioards marquess of Halifax, sir 

William Temple 
Duke of York, and his friends 



1660 
1667 

1667 



1673 
1674 



1677 
1682 



KING JAMES II. 

Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, 
sir George afterwards lord .Jeffries 1685 

Lord .Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord 
Bellasis, lord Arundel, carl of Mid- 
dleton, visct. Preston . . 1G87 

KING WILLIAM III. AND Q,rEEN MARY II. 

Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord 
Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- 
tvards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 1688 

The earl of Sunderland, &c. . . 1695 

Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of 
Halifax, ear! of Pembroke, viscount 
Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 

aUEEN ANNE. 

Lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord 
Pembroke, duke of Buckingham 

7* 



Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 17tii. 

Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes 
of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170? 

R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171 (' 

Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth, 
and Henry St. John, esq. aftcricards 
visct. Bohngbroke ; lord Harcourt . 17l( 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 17 1' 

KING GEORGE I. 

Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, 
marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- 
ford, duke of Marlborough, visct. 
. Townshend, &c. . . . i/i^j 

Robert Walpole, esq. . . ' 171= 

James, afterwards earl Stanhope '. 1713 
Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . 1716 
Robert Walnole, esq. afterwards sir 
Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?l 

KING GEORGE II. 

Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtc.i, lord 
Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1742 

Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl 
of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 174c! 

Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke 
of Bedford, &c. . . . i74(i 

Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- 
inson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 1754 

Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, 
earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 

[Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in 
June, same year.] 

William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, 
duke of Newcastle, '&c. , .1757 

KING GEORGE III. 

Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke 
of Bedford .... 1761 

Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville. 
sir Francis Dashwood, &c. . .' 1762 

Right hon. George Grenville, earl of 
Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of 
Bedford, &c. .... 1763 

Marquess of Rockingham, duke of 
Grafton, earl of Shelburne, &c. July 1765 

Duke of Grafton, hon. Chas. Towns- 
hend, earl of < ;hatham, &c. Aug. 17GG 

Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick, 
lord North, &c. . . Dec. 1767 

Lord North, lord Halifax, &c. . , 1770 

Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor- 
mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St. 
Germain, &c. .... ir/J 

Marquess of Rockingham,right hon'ble 
Charles James Fo'x, «&c. Mar. 30, 1782 

Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord 
Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782 

Duke of Portland, lord North, Mr. Fox, 
&c. (The Coalition Ministry. See 
'■^Coalition.") . AiDril 5, 1733 

Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Govver, 
lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thur- 
low, right hon. W. W. Grenville, 
Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke 
of Richmond, &c. . Dec. 27, 178r 

Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf- 
ford, lord Hawkesburv, &c. . . 178< 

Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds. 
lord Camden. &c. ' . . .' 179i' 

Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chat- 
ham, lord Loughborough, <fec. . 179£i 



i54 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



I ADR 



Mr Pitt, iukc of Portland, lord Gren- 
ville, Mr. Uundas, &c. . . 1795 

Mr. Piu, earl of Westmorland, earl 
of Chaiham, lord Grenviile, &c. . 1798 

Right hou. Henry Addingion, duke of 
Portland, lord Mavvkesbury, lordHo- 
baif. lord Eldon, <fec. . Mar. 17, 1801 

Mr. Pitt, lord Melville, rt. hon. George 
Canning, lord Ilarrowby, lord West- 
morland, duke of Portland, Mr. Dun- 
das, «fcc. . . May 12, 1804 

Lord Grenviile, lord Henry Petty, earl 
Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind- 
ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. 
Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. 
(Sae'^AlUhe Tuknis.") Feb. 5, 1805 

Diiko of Portland, jMr. Canning, lord 
Havvkesbury, earl Camden, right 
hon. Spencer Perceval, ifec. Mar. 25, 1807 

Duke of Portland, earl Bathiirst, lord 
vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville 
Gower, &c 1808 

Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, mar- 
quess Wellesley, viscount Palmers- 
ton, Mr. Ryder," &c. . . Oct. 1809 

REGENC'i' OF GEORGE, PRINCE OF WALES. 

Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, 

&c. continued. 
Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. 

Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. 

Rvder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. 

N'ich. Vansittart, cfcc. June 8, 1812 

KING GEORGE IV. 

Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth, 
Mr. Vansittart, &c. continued. 

Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount 
Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- 
ges Bourne, &c. . April 10, 1827 

Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland, 
right hon. William Huskisson, Mr. 
Herries, &c. . . August 11, 1827 

Duke of Vvellington, right hon. Robert 
Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- 
ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul- 
burn, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. 

January 25, 1828 

Duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen, 
sir George Murray, lord Lowthei-, sir 



Henry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. Huskis- 
son, vise Palmerston, Mr. Grant, earl 
of Dudley, &c. retiring) May 30, 1823 

KING WILUAM IV. 

Duke of Wellington and his cabinet, 
continued. 

Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Mel- 
bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston, 
marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol- 
land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra- 
ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, [ >30 

[Earl Grey resigns May 9, but resumes 
office May 18,' 1832.] 

Viscoinn Melbourne, viscf>nnt Althorp, 
lordJohn Ru.ssel, viscts. I'almerstoiv 
and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, 
lord Howick. Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou- 
lett Thomson, «kc. . July 14, 18»4 

Viscount Melhournt's administration 
ri'" /."J. tae duke of Wellington 
.t.K:es the helm of slate provisionally, 
waiting the return of sir Robert Peel 
from Italy . . Nov. 14. 1834 

Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, 
lord Ellenborough, lord Rosslyn, 
lord WharnclifTe, sir George M urray, 
Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Herries, Mr. 
Goulburn, &c. . Dec. 15, 1834 

Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues 
return to office . April 18, 1835 

Q,UEEN VICTORIA. 

Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi- 
net, continued. 

Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 

Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's 
commands to form a new adminis- 
tration. May 8. 

This command is withdrawn, and lord 
Melbourne and his friends are rein- 
stated . . . May 10, 1839 

Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
earl of Aberdeen, earl of Haddnig- 
ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr. 
Goulburn, &c. . Ang. 7, 1841 

Lord John Russell's administration 

July 6, 1816 



ADJMIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed 
by Henry 111. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings had 
been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed 
in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of 
great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward T. 
in 1297. — Spelman; Rymer. 

ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was 
created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high 
admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court 
for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. 

ADRIANOPLE. Battle of, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 
3, A.D. 323. Adrianople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360; 
and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire till the capture of 
Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the 
sultans, and the one who took Constantinople. Avas born here in 1430.-— 



APV j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 155 

Priestleij. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was 
restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 

M)EIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea 
was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married 
the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his'^bucentaur, or state 
barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, 
and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for 
the first time for centuries, in 1797. 

ADULTERY, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with 
the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx. 10. This law 
was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, 
because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal 
of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged 
to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not— Calviet. Lycurgus 
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans 
tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; 
the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, 
and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil- 
dren. — Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery 
were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England 
the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil 
action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. 

ADULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, 
and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — 
Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished 
by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping 
her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without 
distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stowc. 
The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished 
capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is 
no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man 
were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present 
this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress 
of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they 
usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe. 

ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of 
the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest 
Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after.' Advent was 
instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. 

ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of 
merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension 
of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296, 
This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign 
of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation 
in 1564. — Anderson. 

AD^TERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they 
were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penally 
of 50Z. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with " No questions to 
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. 
— Statutes. The advertisement duty was fbrmerl}^ charged according to the 
number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 8s. Qd., and in Ireland 
" at 25. 6f/. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England 
to l5. 6rf., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833. 



156 THE world's progress. r AFP 

^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There were three degrees 
of these ofScers, and the functions of the principal Avere similar to our justices 
of the peace. The plebeian sediles presided over the more minute affairs of 
the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all 
the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. 

ENIGMA. The origin of the aenigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews 
borrowed their senigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The 
philosophy of the Druids was altogether senigmatical. In Nero's time tlie 
Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing 
truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is 
an elegant specimen of the senigma : — 

Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; 
Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 

.^OLI AN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher. 1G53 ; 
but Richardson proves it to have been kno\\Ti at an earlier period than his 
time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story 
of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, 
was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. 

AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has 
been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The 
ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well 
as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that 
hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The 
true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- 
golfier, 1782. — See Balloon. 

iESOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor 
of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b.c. ^Esop's 
Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits 
both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch. 

JETOIAA. This country was named after ^tolus of Elis, who, having acci- 
dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, 
and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of 
Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assimied a con- 
sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achagans, to whom 
they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. 
They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. 

Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other 
cities, and destroy with fire all the 
counti-y they invade . B.C. "201 

They next invite the kings of Macedon, 



The JEtolians begin to ravage the Pelo- 
ponnesus . . .B.C. 282 

They dispute the passage of the Mace- 
donians at Thermopylae . . 223 

Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price 
of peace .... 218 

Battle of Latnia; the jEtolians, com- 
manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by 
Philip of Macedon . . .214 

With the assistance of allies, they seize 
Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212 

They put to the sword the people of 



Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with 
them against the Romans . . 195 

They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Deme- 

trias in Thessaly . . ,194 

Their defeat near Thermopylae . . 193 

They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192 

Made a province of Rome . . 146 



AFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage Avithin certain degrees of kindred v/as 
prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age. 
Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti- 
cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain 
near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 
1603. All marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are 
declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV, 1836. 



AGR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 157 

AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath 
in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered 
and modified December 1721. 

AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in 
India, January 5, 1842. — See India. 

A FRIC A, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient 
world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It 
was conquered by Behsarius in a.d. -553 et $eq. In the seventh centmy, about 
637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend- 
ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great part of the present popu- 
lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among 
the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men- 
tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made 
his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50, 
1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died 
of shot-wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at 
Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament 
voted 61,000^., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, 
sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the 
Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successivelj^ obliged to return, the Albert having 
ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi- 
tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard- 
ships, Oct. 17. 

AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ- 
ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A 
charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was 
created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let- 
ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre- 
sent company, 23 Geo. H. 1749. See Slave Trade. 

AGE : Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was 
the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as 
generation. Tlie interval since the first formation of man has been divided 
into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but 
a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the 
, order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance, 
would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age. 
Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : 
by some the space of time commencing from Constantine, and ending J^vith 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called 
the middle age ; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of 
the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of 
nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to 
Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year. 

AGINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by 
Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken 
prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the 
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, 
and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain 
were the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one 
marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415. 
— Goldsmith. 

A-GRA, Fortress of, termed the key of Hindostan, siirrendered. in the war 
with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once the 



158 THF world's progress, ("alb 

most splendid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent 
ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his 
palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con- 
tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Alaic- 
soleums. 

A.GRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro- 
man people of all the lands which thej^ acquired by conquest, limiting the 
acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain 
the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribune libe- 
rius Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of 
Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Livy ; Vossius. 

A-GRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im- 
mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, 
perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri- 
culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it 
was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, 
and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor. 
Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27. 

\GYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade 
the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority 
upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now 
flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public 
there since 1814. 

\IR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the 
first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov- 
ered by Torricelli, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary Vvith the height by Pas- 
cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have 
illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi- 
ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others, 
the air-gun by Guter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by 
Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle 
in 1657 ; and the air-j)ipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, 
about 1756. See Balloon. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PfiACE of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa«. 
between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt^, but 
retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or* 
celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, 
Spain, and Genoa. Bv this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 
1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, 
of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 
1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the 
part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 
7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha- 
Delle, and a convention signed, October 9, 1818. The sum then due from 
France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs. 

AL.A.BAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included in 
the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi ter- 
ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population m 
1810 was less than 10,000 ; in 1816, 29 683; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830, 
808,997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in 
1840 amounted to $12 854 694 ; imports, to $574,651 

ATiBA. Founded by*Ascanius, 1152 b.c, and called Longa, because the city 
nxtended along the hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and war 



ALB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159 

governed by a race of kings, the descendants of^neas. When Amulius 
diithroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a 
life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows^and office of a vestal, 
thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however', 
frustrated; violence was offered to Iha, and she became the mother of 
twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to 
be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants 
were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by 
Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and 
called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed 
Lupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled 
by a she-wolf At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of 
Ilia and Numitor, 754 e.g., and the next year founded Rome.— Farro. 

CLEAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once 
the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Csesar was 
the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, 
who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- 
fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled 
the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- 
cution raised by Diocletian,' June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was 
erected here to his memory by OfFa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's 
was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. 

ALBAN'S, ST., Battles of. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- 
caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., 
of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered 
no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists 
under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen 
Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated armv 
perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461. 

ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 
1623, and by them named Beaverwyck; capitulated to the English in 1664, 
and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and 
Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : 
in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 33,721. 

ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- 
guedoc, and at Toulouse; they opposed the disciples of the Church of 
Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that rehgion. Simon 
de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's 
legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the 
Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded 
the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 
men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. 

ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by 
Julius Csesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion 
of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 
400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, 
Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- 
try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales; the 
Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a 
mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See 
Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir 
Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in 
1792. • 

ALBUERA, Battle of, between the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 



160 THE world's PROGRESft. [ ALE 

and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord 
Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, 
the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant 
achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9O0O men 
previously to their retreat. 
ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the 
transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a 
universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be 
had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood : yet 
few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after 
Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the 
first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it 
off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had 
this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians 
are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by 
Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else 
but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, 
about A. D. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all 
kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rijmer's 
Feed. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments 
in this way. and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to 
the king, affirming that thej^ were made hj means of a red and white pow- 
der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain 
of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe; 
but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. 

ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : 
it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans 
believe, inimitable b)^ any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. 
It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, 
a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing 
this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- 
torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God 
sent it to their prophet hj the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. 
— See Koran, Mahometisvi, Mecca, &c. 

ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and 
among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as 
distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given 
them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- 
. vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes 
were settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- 
mans introduced that of coitnt, Avhich though different in its original signifi- 
cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given 
its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the 
United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. 

ALE and wine. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- 
mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke's 
Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as- 
cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife 
of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- 
pai'ing a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — ■ 
Tacihis. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- 
sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws were passed for 
their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale 
and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles 
11. , 1660. See Beer, Win^.. 



ALG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 161 

A.LEMA.NNI, or All Men, (i. e. men of all nations,) a body of Suevi, defeated 
by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of this warlike people are 
said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at the 
head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and 
Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibboii. 

ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- 
* ber 12, 323 b. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation 
was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- 
quence, the year 1 a. d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to 
the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a. ix), 
which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date l)e- 
came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, tohich see. The date is 
reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and 
after that time by subtracting 5492. 

ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by 
Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. ; taken by Caesar, 47 e. c, and the library of 
the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered 
by the Saracens, whtn the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was 
totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for 
six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph 
Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures 
of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the 
Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- 
sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable 
battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by 
the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by 
them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. 

ALEXANDRIA, Battle of, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- 
tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 
15.000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The 
British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. 

ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by 
Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him. Alexandrines, about a. d. 
llP)L—Noiiv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well- 
known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified : — 

. " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 

Tha* like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-Iong." 

ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely 
known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said 
to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and 
into Italy by Leonardo of' Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- 
ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- 
bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into 
general use.— ik/oreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 

ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 
44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of tho 
Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he 
seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tmv- 
-^ej.— Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most 
powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet 
and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was 
reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures 
with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- 
ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775 



162 THE world's PPwOGRESS. ^ alm 

1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Eimonth, 
Aug-. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- 
ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and 
Duperre, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, 
and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry 
announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834, 
Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engag-ements (in one of whiclt 
the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836, 
General Damrcmont attacked Constantina {which see), Oct, 13, 1837;" since 
when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have 
taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 22, 
1847. See Morocco. 

ALT, Sect of. Founded by a famous Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- 
homet, (having, married his daughter Fatima,) about a. d. 632. Ali was 
called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians 
follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- 
metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, 
that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and 
Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, 
and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cut- 
ting sword'* of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- 
tor's family was wholly extirpated wiihin thirty years after his own decease. 
Ali was assassinated in 660. 

ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When 
they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to bo half foreigners, if 
they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
handicraft by retail, 1483. 

ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, 
in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints 
and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. 
The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the 
year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very 
remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a 
great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were 
connected with popular feeling or tradition. 

ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest 
instances, of which Blair gives Psalm Ixxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen- 
ser's Faerie Queene is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator, 
abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim'' s Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- 
fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich in allegorj^. 
ALLIANCES, Treaties of, between the high European Powers : See Coalition, 
Treaties, &c. 

Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631 Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 

Alliance of Vieiina , May 27, 1657 Germanic Alliance . .July 23, 1785 

Alliance, the Triple , , Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 179. 

Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 

Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 

Allianco, the Hague .Tan. 4, 1717 

Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 

Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 

^.LMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- 
dars were anciently in use, Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- 
tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. 
Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an alm^anac in the 
style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were : 



Alliance of Petersburg . April 8, 1805 

Austrian Alliance ." March 14, 1812 

Alliance of Sweden , March 24 iS12 

Alliance of Toplitz . Sept. 9. 1313 

Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 181? 



4LU J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 1Q3 



ALINIAN A.CS, continued. 



Poor Robin's Almanrx , . 1G52 

Lady's Diary . . . . 1705 

Moore's Almanac . . . 1713 

Season on the Seasons . . . 1735 

Gentleman's Diary . . . 1741 

Nautical Almanac . . . . 1767 

Poor Riciiard's Almanac, (Franklin's, 
Pliiladelphia) .... 1733 



Jolui Soraer's Calendar, written in Ox- 
ford 1380 

Oni! in I.ambeth palace, written in . 1460 

Fif.st printed one, published at Buda . 1472 

First printe.! in England, by Richard 
Pynsou .... 1497 

Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 

Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . ''644 

Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. 
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 
1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this 
com.pany, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was 
abolished in England. 1834. 

AI..MEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- 
manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was 
defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- 
sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him; but the route 
of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. 

ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and 
wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c— Blair. But Josephus 
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though 
this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lette\ of the 
Pha'-nician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks avpha, and 
abbi-eviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived 
from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought 
the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- 
lowing : — 

A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, ^, T, T. 
These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- 
acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented 
the double characters, 0, X, 4», H, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simonides added Z, 
■»?, H, n, about 489 b. c.—Arimdelian Marbles. When the E was introduced 
is' not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters 
till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small 
letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets 
of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — 

English . . 26 

French . . 23 

Italian . . 20 

Spanish . . 27 

ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com 
mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 
Wise.' This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 
crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a j)reface, 
written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. 
ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- 
tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks 
the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt.— .Hero- 
dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus L in 135 ; 
and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar 
in Britain was in Q?,L—Stoiije. The Church of England, and all the reformed 
churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- 
ported their use. 
ALCM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha,, in Syria, about a. d. 1300 ; 
it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in 



German . . 26 I Greek . . 24 

Sclavonic . .27 Hebrew . . 22 

Russian . .41 Arabic . . 28 

Latin . . . 22 | Persian . . 32 



Turkish . . 33 

Sanscrit . . 50 

and 

Chinese . . 214 



164 THE world's progress, [ AME 

1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Aliim 
is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and 
to whiten bread. It may he made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphu- 
ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; hut it is usually obtained 
by means of ore called alum slate. 

AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, 
Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- 
panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and 
gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called 
Maranon. 

AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- 

• ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having 
made incursions, were alL-slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their 
enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- 
went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female 
state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- 
mony Avas a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated 
times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumhis Curtmt, 
They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- 
stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more 
force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the 
Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the 
Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with 
him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred 
females were in her train. — Herodotus. 

AIVIBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to 
another, are referred to early ages, ^nd to almost all nations. In most coun- 
tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, 
they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- 
sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a 
lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their 
protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- 
sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- 
dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780. — Phillips, 

AMEER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a 
medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. 
Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails 
among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- 
ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king- 
dom; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in 
favor of each opinion. 

AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it meang 
t'mejaiihful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- 
plies, so be it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally 
used' both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. 

AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first 
an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the 
offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped 
off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into 
court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death 
or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for 
making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. 



AMM J 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 165 



AMERICA: See Uiiited Slat-es. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- 
ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo- 
ber, on which clay he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. 
This great navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- 
ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci ( Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; 
and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. 

New England, the second, by the Ply- 
mouth company . . . lG2t 
New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16J4 
[For other occurrences, see Tahular 
Vieics — United Slates. See also 
separate states, Maijie, &c. 



Newfoundland, the first British colony 
in this quarter ol' the world, discover- 
ed by Cabot, and by him called 
Prima Vista. .... 1497 

Vii-ginia, the first English settlement 
on the main land . . . 1607 



A.MERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast 
portion of the Western World, had the largest ar^d richest share of it. When 
thej' landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called 
Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but they were soon 
subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The 
cruelties practised by the new adventurers w^herever they appeared, will be 
a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted 
its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence 
in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending 
chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke 
of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United 
States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823. et seq. ; 
and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Bro.zil, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &.a. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 
776 names of American authors Avho had died previous to that j^ear. This 
did not include authors of mere pamphlets, Avhich would have swelled the 
number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very 
moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- 
logy. Sermons. &c., 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography, 80 ; Pohtics 
and Law. 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are 
repeated.] 

AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known ; it M-as the ninth 
in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name 
Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according 
to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. 
One M-orth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- 
mond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. 
Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Bitrns. 

AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain ; the 
prehminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and 
M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive 
treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for 
England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schiaimelpen- 
ninck for Holland. 

AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of J..ot ; they invaded tlie 
land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated 



' Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, records 
many instances of it that fill the mind wi'th horror. In .Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unre- 
sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them 
throw the Indian infants to their doss for food ! "I have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrow 
Jhe limb of a human being to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter of 
another victim to tire lender!" 



166 THE world's progress. [ ANA 

by Jephtliah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, 
with an intention to put out the riglit eye of all those they subdued, but 
Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- 
quished; and Antiochus the Great tookRabboath their capital, and destroyed 
all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. 

AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by 
Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- 
sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : 
having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with 
two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for 
the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities 
of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process 
of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, 
and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. 
— Suidas. 

AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar 
and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in 
full senate " Omnium mulieruvi virum, et omnium virorum mulierem.'' In the 
Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people 
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- 
bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one 
of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built 
A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- 
theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 

AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its 
building, as a city wa'^ commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange Avas 
built in" 1634; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world, 
in 1618 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that 
time. It is built u])oa 13.659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, 
for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel 
in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince 
invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were 
admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was 
restored in November, 1813. See Holland. 

/MULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations . have been fond of amulets. The 
Egyptians had a great variety ; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. 
Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the 
passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny. 
Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood 
of the true cross about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion 
and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences — 
witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and 
sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. 

ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about a.d. 1525, and was known in England 
before 1519. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- 
asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- 
tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existhig 
mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism w'as a contriv- 
ance of the devil, that there is no original sin that men have a free will in 
spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Miaister 
they called Mount Zi-on, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the 
king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and 



ANG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 167 

they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. IMunster was 
taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The 
anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the 
not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the 
reiiresentatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, 
named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The 
odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round 
of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his 
eighty-tifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. 

ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, 
the name of the Virgin, is made aTviy. On the question put by Pilate to our 
Saviour. " Quid est Veritas?''' we have this admirable anagram, '^ Est vi?- qui 
adesty The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in 
the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — HenauU. 

ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana- 
thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We 
have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Joshua vi. 17). 
Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. Buch ecclesias- 
tical den-.inciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- 
beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- 
tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic 
countries to this day. — Ashe. 

ANATOMY. Tlie structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- 
phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of 
medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- 
philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first 
to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to 
brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living 
criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied 
with subjects unlawfully exhumed from gi^aves ; and, until lately, the bodies 
of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical 
plates were designed hy Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of 
Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of j)lants was discovered in 1680. 
— Freind's History of Physic. 

ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many 
of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- 
terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- 
ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- 
able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- 
nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. 

ANCHORS FOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the 
Tuscans —Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the 
Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The 
anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will 
weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost ^450. — Phillips. 

ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- 
vented by Wolfius. in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind 
to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a. d. 456. The 
Angdici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 
1191 The Anseliccp, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa 
TonJli, A. D 1534. 



168 THE world's progress. [ant 

ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some 
will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before 
all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave's 
Hist. Literal. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- 
cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. 

ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing 
four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. 8^. in the reign of Henry VI., and 
at IO5. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold 
coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands 
of the English, in the reign of Henry VL, 1431. — Wood. 

ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made 
to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, 
as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the 
Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book 
printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 
1653. 
ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at 
Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had 
its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. 
It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- 
thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the 
patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features 
of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose 
eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- 
tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- 
tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. 
ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- 
lage near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose population joined the first Saxon 
freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a 
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See 
JBritain. 
ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unkno^vn to the Hebrews, 
Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first 
notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. 
Burnet. 
ANNO DOMINI; in the year of our Lord; used by the Christian v/orld, and 
abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of 
our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See 
Jra. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the 
<car of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. 
^WTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north 
or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 
64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French 
and American Exploring Expeditions, under D'Urville and Wilkes, respec- 
tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as 
the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was 
coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, 
fell in with land, which he coasted for 800 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the 
year 1830. 
ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of 
people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, 
reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world 
1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at th« 



I. 

II. 

in. 

IV. 



10 


V. 


40 


VI. 


160 


vn. 


640 


vm 



2,560 


IX. . 


. 6.55,360 


xm. 


. 10,240 


X. 


. 2,621,440 


XIV. 


40,960 


XI. . 


10,485,760 


XV. 


163,840 


XII. 


. 41,943,040 


XVI. 



ant] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1^9 

end of the first century, ten married coiiples ; and from these, allowing 
them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would 
rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable 
of holding-. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only; and 
then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- 
ries that preceded the Flood :— 

. 167,142,160 

671,088,640 
2,684,354,460 
10,737,4 18,2<kT 

This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, 
by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest 
estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. 
AJS'THEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were 
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century.— 
Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in ^S^.— Baker. 
Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose 
into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches 
in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the 
world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by 
Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. 
Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of 
other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea 
Islands, &c. 

ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients 
to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- 
men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and JereviioJi \y . 30, and in 
eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes 
types xbr printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to 
its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi- 
cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. 
We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- 
cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. 
The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold 
that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good 
WQfks are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for 
sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. 

ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In one 
day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once 
the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- 
tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers 
attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria : it placed the creation 
5492 years b. c. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- 
podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of 
pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- 
ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east 
of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes 
Island . — Brookes . 

ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The ierm antique is applied to the produc- 
tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption 
of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have 
existed in Ireland 700 years b, c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 

8 



170 THE world's progress. [ afo 

credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, StoAve, and 
others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for 
a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from 
favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- 
ceived its charter of incorporation from Georg-e II. It began to publish its 
discoveries, &c., under the title of ArchcBologia, in 1770, The Society o< 
Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. 

ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New-Yort, 
an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer 
estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. 
See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them 
from prison, Jan. 27, 1847. 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been 
the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 
second century. . This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it 
was adopted by L^lius and Faustus Socinus. Baxjle. — See ArioMS^ Socini- 
ans, and Unitarians. 

ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its flue exchange built 
in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, 
in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars 
caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The 
remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, 
was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which 
he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war 
between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- 
tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the 
Butch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, 
Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse surrendered the citadel to the French after 
a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgluvi. 

APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about 
A. D. 95. — IrcncBus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, 
and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many 
churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the 
sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by 
Luther, jMichaelis, and others, and its authoritj^ questioned in all ages from 
the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Chrisfians in 
A. D. 139. 

APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are 
neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history 
of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, 
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged 
by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. — Ashe. 

APOIjLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who 
taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his 
flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent 
down from/heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel; 
that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. 
Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. 

APOLLO, Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, 
poetry, and eloqiience, had temples and statues erected to him in almost 
every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid 
temple was at Delphi, built 12G3 b. c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnaj, 



4Ra] dictionary of dates. 171 

built 434 B. c during a period in which pestilence raged, was brrn^ in .4. d. 
362, and the Christians accused of the crime, — Levglet. 

APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the 
Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while 
after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship 
was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in th-^ 
Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church a^ 
England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. 

APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; l})# 
second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d, 
300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled 
hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- 
ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the churck ot 
Rome, and predicting its downfall. 

APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they 
raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the 
East were the lirst who paid divine honors to their great men, and the 
Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and 
humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. 
This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus- 
tus, in favor of Julius Csesar, b. c. 13. — Tilkmont. 

AITEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of 
murder might light with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt 
or innocence. In 1817. a young maid, Mary Ashford, was' believed to have 
been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed 
his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant 
(the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, 
April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the 
statute book, 59 George III., 1819. 

APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early 
business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they 
valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at 
the price appraised. 1282. 

APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, 
but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having 
' introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. 

AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by 
Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the 
sacrament, and used nothing but water. 

AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, 
which was therefore called the Appian-vmy , about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of 
every kind were among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some 
remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and 
beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- 
dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 
126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. 

AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of 
England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It v/as erected into a 
principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
of Aquitaine Avas taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this 
duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

AllABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians 
made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara- 



172 THE WQULD'S progress. [ ARC 

cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- 
phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. 

ARBELA, Battle of. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the 
Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b.(;. 
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the 
Macedonian army amounted to only 40.000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arrian. 
The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, 
which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- 
ling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed 
to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. 

ATICADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- 
selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in their 
manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, 
STirrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as 
being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery 
they honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twentj'-five kings, whose 
liistory is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory, 
although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of 
other states. — Eu$tathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by (Eno- 
trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards 
called Magna (ircecia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. 

ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- 
nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly 
coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into 
England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but 
soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- 
terbury, A. D. 596. 

ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, 
and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- 
con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council 
of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, 
though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to 
A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity : an 
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII, 1532. 

ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- 
dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was 
offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- 
nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the 
earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded 
by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by 
Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which 
was written " Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and 
Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town, 
Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 

ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previoiisly to a. d. 440, and Ha 
rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bow? 
of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed 
the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England 
in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, 
Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range of 
the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it 
is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the 
hoiiscs of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- 
ard II. 1397. — Stoive. The citizens of London were foi-raed into companies 
of archers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporate 



arg] dictionary of dates. 173 

body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry YIIL 1538. 
— Nortkouk's History of London. 

ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the 
best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature 
in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a, d. 114) and Constantino, 
Avere magnificent. 

ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b. c. Their 
King, Hiram, supphed Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials 
for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. c. The art 
passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came 
into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged 
during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the 
ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches 
and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from 
the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not 
fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. 

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- 
ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- 
tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this 
dignity, 1070 b. c. 

ARCOLA, Battle op, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the 
Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of 
this bloody conflict, Avhich was fought for eight successive days, was the 
loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and 
some b}^ Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first 
Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. 
Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a 
number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted 
to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin'' s Bay. For the subsequent 
and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, 
Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., %&& North- West Passage. 

AREOPAGIT^. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- 
cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. 
— Aritnd. Marbles. The name is derived .from the Greek Areas pagos, the 
Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- 
der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever 
causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine 
speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- 
ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. 

ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in 
Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated 
by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 378, 
— Dufresnoy. 

ARGON ATJTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of 
Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship 
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the 
figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
was for the recovery of the gold'en fleece. This is the first naval expedition 
on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first 
heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its 
builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 

ARGOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years be- 



174 THE world's progress. [ ARK 

fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder were 
called hiachidcB. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to 
the country. When the Heraclidas took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 
1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a 
republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. — Euripides. 



Inachiis founds the kingdom . b. o. 1856 
Phoroneus rei.°ns sixty years . ISC 

Apis reigns tiiirty-five years . . 1747 
Tiie city of Argos built bv Argus, son 

ofNiobe . . ; . . 1711 
Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his 

father, and reigns .... 1641 
Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes 
part of the kingdom, and calis it af- 
ter his wife, Messenia . . 1552 
Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 
Sthenelus reigns .... 1485 
(Jelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 
Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of 



Hypermnestra, wht» saved her hus- 
band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- 
crificed theirs. (See F/ambeauj;)B.G. 1125 
Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose j.fe 
had been preserved by his wife, .le- 
thrones Danaus .... !4ii5 
Reign of Abas . . . 1381 

Reign of Prcetus, twin-brother of Acri- 

sius 1361 

Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- 
sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 1361 
Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 
Perseus leaves Argos. and founds My- 
cenee (which see.) . . . , 1313 



Argos, in modern historj'', was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was 
lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. 
Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present 
and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece. 

ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny iLe 
divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned 
by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the 
reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried 
into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the 
Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence 
arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- 
tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I ^Heresie. 

ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. 
It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The 
oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his 
Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was iised 
A.i>. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of 
Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine 
digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — 
introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng- 
land, 1253. The date in Caxt'on's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, 
is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in 
England on arithmetic {de Arte Suppntandi) was bj'Tonstall, bishop of Dur- 
ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier 
in his Rabdologia, in 1617. 

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being 
the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. 
But Apamea, in Phrj^gia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck 
there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this 
place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in 
breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about 
a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, 
three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for 
birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the 
figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. Theie was a 
door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. 

ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union 
in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, includii-i^ 19,935 slaves. 



AjtM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 175 

ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- 
sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C 
volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, 
July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten 
fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put 
to sea. and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and 
Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, imd admiral 
Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging 
the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis- 
persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North 
Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, 
and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, 
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The 
English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. 

IHMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by 
St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY". The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, 
against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but 
its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty 
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- 
ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral 
bottoms beins- contrarv to the maritime system of England, the British 
cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- 
mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was 
obliged to secede from the alHance, and acknowledge the claim of England to 
the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. 

ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 
B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- 
menia fell to the kings of Sj^ia. The Armenians were the original wor ■ 
shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis., to whose 
priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, 
nrior to marriaere. — Martin's Memoires sur VArinenie. 



prior to marriage. 

Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 
He is restored to his throne, and dies. — 
Blair 1 



City of Artaxarta built . . b. c. 186 

Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93 

He is called to the throne of Syria, as- 
sumes the fastidious title of " King of 
Kings," and is served by tributary 



Reign of Venones . . A. d. 16 

Zenon reigns . . . .18 

princes . . • • . 83 ' Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36 

Ti"Tan8s defeated by LucuUus . 69 He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 

A'^lin defeated, and lays his crov/n at Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power 

the feet of Pompey . . 66 ■ paramount in Armenia . . • 62 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 j Armenia reduced to a Persian province 

Artavasdes assists Pompey against .Tu- j under Sapor . . .365 

lius Caesar . • • .48 Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 

Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Irruption of the Turks . . 755 

Marc Antony . • .36 Again made a Persian provmce, under 

Antony subdues, and sends him loaded | Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472 

with silver chains to Egypt, to grace ! Subdued by Selim II. . . 1^22 

his triumph . . • -34 Overrun by the Russians . . l^^a 

The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Surrender of Erzeroura . July 182? 



Artaxias 



33 (See Syria.) 



ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a. d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical 
vear on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years 
and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 
10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- 
spondence with Europeans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 
manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 



176 THE world's progress. [ AKM 

natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a framt It ia 
said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c, 
ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, 
and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially 
asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. 
They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in 
securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I, favored the doctrines ol 
the Arniinians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland 
and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. 
Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1^^^.— Brandt. 
ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 
twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- 
ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order 
at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote 
colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- 
biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798— and again in 1808. 
ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence 'han 
the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron 
armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons 
was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the 
well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- 
Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy 
cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen 
had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid 
about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, 
not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry 
VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. 
Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of 
Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- 
orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick. 
ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, 
battle-axe. pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles 
were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
Phoenicians. See tke vcij-iotcs weapons through the volume. 
ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of 
fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing 
army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing 
armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The 
first standmg army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in 
France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by 
Charles I. in 1638 ; they Avere declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 
1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
armies : Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain. 310.000 ; Prussia, 350.000 ; Tur- 
key. 450 000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 680,000. 
ARMY. BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- 
dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted 
for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary return.s and other official 
records : 

17C0, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men . . sum voted je7,847,000 
1800, War . . . . . . ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973,000 

"i 810, War; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26,7-18,000 
181.5, Last year of the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39,150,000 

1820, Time of peace ; war incuttibrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253,000 

1830, Peace . . . . . ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 

In 1845, the aimy, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted 
was .£4,487,753. See MiZi^m and Volunteers. 



aSS j MCTIDNARY OF DATES. 177 

ARTILLEPiY. The first- piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- 
man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpo^er, in 1330. Artillery 
was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 
1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 
1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the 
battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first 
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in 
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 
1543. — Ri/mer's Fadera. jVIade of brass, 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 
1728. See Iron. 
ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was 
composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society 
of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of 
Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, 
waj> instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and 
of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition \)y the 
artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this 
society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time the 
Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- 
ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
19,1824. — See British Maseiivi; British IiisLiiution ; National Gallery, ($^c. 
ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from 
1582 to 355 B. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 
37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wore found in the Isle of 
Paras, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord 
Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are 
Greek, of which there are two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 
1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Porsori's Treatise, 1789. 
ASCALON, Battle of ; in Avhich Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- 
tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other 
infidels. No less than 40 000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of 
battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Ri/mer. 
ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent 
until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, 
first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the 
mmiber of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- 
ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of 
Dies Cineruni, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was 
abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 
ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the 
greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of 
the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. 
ASPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Clr.arles, 
and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809. and two following days. In 
this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 
men, and the loss of theFrench Avas more than 30 000 : it ended in the defeat 
of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that lie 
had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat 
endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial eftect on 
the subsequent prosecution of the war. 
ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- 
bury and others to assassinate king William HI., near Richmond. Surrey, as 

a* 



178 THE world's progress. [ ASS 

he came from Imni ing. The object of the conspiracy was to have been con- 
summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. 
— Hist. England. 

ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, 
settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land 
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
ferrat in 1192 ; they a.ssassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan o/ 
Tartary was murdered in 1251. They were conquered by the Tartars in 
1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed tho 
title of ''Ancient of the Mou7itainsy 

ASSIENTO. A contract between the hing of Spain and other powers, for fur- 
nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It 
began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By tho 
treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish 
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to 
Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. 

ASSIGNATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the 
revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At 
one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
dencies. — Alison. 

ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the 
Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her 
corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mar3MS reported to 
have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted 
in 813. 

ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius 
ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Ctesar, a.d. 43. It is certain that assu- 
rance of ships was practised in the j^ear 45. The first regulations concern- 
ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in 
Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a 
precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries; but the 
first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 
1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria. 

ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus 
wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the 
Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the 
union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter 
founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- 
named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, 
with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all 
perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- 
rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet. 

The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her 

6 ; xi. 1. — Blair - - b. c. 2247 dominion. — Lenglet - b. c. 2017 

The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, 

Astronomical observations begun by j and India. — Lenglet - - . 1975 

the Chaldeans - - - 2234 i The Arabs seize I*\ineveh - - - 1937 

Belus reigns .55 years. — Usher - 2124 I Belochus, the last king of the race of 

Ninus, son of Bolus, reigns in Assyria, I Ninus. — Blair - - - -1446 

and names his capital after himself - 2069 \ He makes liis daughter. Artossa, sur- 

Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having , named Semiramis II., his associate 

subdued the Armenians, Persians, ' on the throne - ... 1433 

Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- | Belatores reigns .... 1421 

lishes what is properly the Assyrian | « * * * « 

monarchy,of which Nineveh was the The prophet Jonah appears in the 

seiit of empire. — Blair - - 20.59 ; si roets of Nineveh — Biair • ■ 840 

Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Nineveh taken by Arbaces • - 820 



kST ] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



179 



ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of tlie first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, 
the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b.c, and 
the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being 
besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, 
and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- 
napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, 
and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by 
the Turks in 1637 a, b.— Priestley. 



Phul raised to the throne, about the 
year. — Blair - - B.C. 777 

He invades Israel, hut departs without 
drawing a sword. — Blair; 2 Kiiigs 
XV. 19, 20 - - - - 770 

Tialaih-Pileser invades Syria, takes 
iJamascus, and makes great con- 

• quests - - #• - 740 

Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports 
the people, whom he replaces by a 
colony of Cutheans and others, and 
thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. 
—Blair 721 

He retires from before Tyre, after a 
siege of five years. — Blair • - 713 



Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- 
neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- 
lem, when the angel of the Lord in one 
night destroys 180,000 of his army, — 
Isaiah xxxvii. - e.g. 

[Commentators suppose that this mes- 
senger of death was the fatal blast 
known in eastern countries by the 
name of Safniel.] 

Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes 
Babylon. — Blair 

He invades Judea — Blair - 

Holofernes is slain by Judith 

Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher 



710 



690 

677 
677 
667 



Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 



ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence 
was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Renault. The 
early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted 
to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated 
the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the 
humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the 
Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made 
ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this 
period; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting 
his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. 
/ STRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of 
Babylon, about 2234 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- 
vanced in Chaldsea under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 
1100 B.C.; some say man}'' centtu'ies before. Lunar eclipses were observed 
at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, 
and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further 
discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and 
believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began 
his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 
143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b.c. The precession of 
the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- 
ered, hj Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during 
which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; 
and was afterv/ards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 

The Alphonsine tables (which see) were The transit of Venus over the sun's disk 

composed - - • A. n. 1284 first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a. d. 1639 

Clocks first used in astronomy, about • 1.500 Cassini draws his meridian line, after 
True doctrine of the motions of the pla- 
netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 
The science greatly advanced by Tycho 

Brahe, about .... 1582 
True laviTs of the planetarv. motions, by 

Kepler - - - ' - - 1619 

Telescopes and other instruments used 

in astronomy, about - - ' - 1627 

The discoveries of Galileo were made 
about ... - - 1631 



Dante. — See Bologna ■ - - 1655 

The aberration, of the light of the fixed 

stars discovered by Hon'ebow - 1659 

Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 

Map of the moon constructed by Heve- 

lius 167C 

Motion of the sun round its own axis 

proved by Halley - - - 1676 

Discoveries of Huygens - - -1686 

Newton's Principia published, and tb« 



180 



THE world's progress. 



[ATM 



ASTRONOMY continued. 

system as now taught incontrovertibly 

established • - - a. d. 1687 

Gatalosue of the stars made by FJam- 

stead -- - ... 1688 

Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by 

Cassini- - - - -1701 

Aben'alion of the stars clearly explained 

by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 

Celestial inequalities found by La 

Grange- - - - -1780 

Cra;nus and satellites discovered by 



Herschel, March 13.— See Greorg^/MW 
Sidus - - - - 1781 

Mecanique Celeste.^ published by La 



Place 1796 

Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 - 1801 
Pallas, by Dr. Gibers, March 28 - 1802 

Juno, by Hardins, Sept. 1 - - - 1804 

Vesta, by Gibers" - - - 1807 

Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - 1846 

United States astronomical expedition 

to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. 

Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 

The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from 
us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; 
so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of 
them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course 
thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from 
the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but 
the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that 
their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- 
ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four 
hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. 

ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for 
those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them 
obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for 
this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, 
to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus 
built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the 
coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high. 
that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- 
lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very 
ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were 
secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- 
bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, 
the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This 
security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed 
until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. 

ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- 
ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. 
Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution 
at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for 
them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by 
most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed 
by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- 
tury. — Dii Pin. 

ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- 
nosa, a foreigner, wa& its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini 
publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- 
louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and 
had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled 
to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienctares , because 
they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men 
of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England 
we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe: "Though a small 
draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will 
certainly brings him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord fjar.on. " Sf 



ATT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 181^ 

Dieiin'existait pasil faudrait Vivventer :^^ If a God did not exist, it would 
be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. 

A-THENiEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of 
Minerva. One of them was called Panathenaea^nd the other Chalcea ; 
they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus 
afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people 
of Athens, the first every fifth j^ear, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. 

ATHENAEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and 
philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated 
Athensea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great 
beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — 
Tillemont's Life of Adrian. 

ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ant.ent Attica, whose magnificent 
ruins ye*^ attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. 
The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned 
in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge 
took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or 
Noah's floods that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two 
hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by 
whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first 
state of Athens was under s.n-enteen kings, comprising a period of 487 years, 
but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostlj^ fabulous ; in its second 
state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in 
its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, 
and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. 
Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized 
themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and 
perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short 
space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to 
distinguish Athens in a mo.^ peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes 
of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204. 
and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- 
vince of European Turkey; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, 
and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 
1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from 
B. 0. 1556 to B. c. 21. 

ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, 
stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 
B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; 
its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by 
Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was 
ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; 
and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 

A ITAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses 
in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, 
unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III. 
1694-5. — BUickstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who Avas beheaded in 
Lincoln 's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. 
The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were 
reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least 
interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who 
was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. 

\TTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God,'' and thus distinguished for his con- 
quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro~ 



182 THE world's progress. [AUG 

man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the provincea. 
He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named lidico, 
about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAl^ A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters 
patent. It is among ^is duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for 
the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims 
concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills 
agaiast the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William de 
Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278.-^Beatson. 

APTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward HI.'s reign was under 400 
for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the 
practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- 
land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and 
practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 ''practis- 
ing lawyers'' in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory, 1850. 

ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite 
which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was 
described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 
the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; 
a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was 
about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of 
the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. 

AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French 
and Prussian armies, they were commanded b)' their respective sovereigns, 
and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on 
every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- 
soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French 
empsror immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his 
memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. 

AUGSBURG CONFESSION of F.\ITH. The confession of articles of faith 
drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to 
the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first 
consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed 
to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- 
ony, his son. and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, 
which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- 
burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. 

AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland 
and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- 
ties of Munster and Mmeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Munster and Ni- 
megtten. 

AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, 
long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals 
and several orders of the priesthood, by Nunia, 710 b. c. There was a com- 
munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and 
other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is 
named, was the inventor of augury by birds.— Fos.sms. The augurs of 
Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and 
flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. 

AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of 
Augustus Cfesar,~from whom it was named in the year 8 b. c, because in 
this month he was born, was created consul, or chief magistrate thric© 



4lU!3 1 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



18S 



triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an 
end of the civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
March. 

AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by 
the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- 
sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded 
exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards; 
150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of p^oners. This decisive vic- 
tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, 
same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. 

AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, 
New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Oi 
a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed 
to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have 
been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- 
vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act 
to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. 
New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- 
nected Avith Australia have lately been formed in London. 

AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- 
gary and annexed to Germany,, when it received its present name, about a. d. 
1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, 
Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in 
the German language implies. 

Rodolpli, count of Hapsburg, seizes 

Austria from Bohemia, and makes 

himself archduke - - - 1273 

Revolt of Switzerland from the house 

of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. -1307 
Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to 



1438 



1477 



1496 



three crowns — the imperial, and 
those of Hungary and Bohemia; his 
family still possess the empire, 
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the 
marriage of Maximilian with the 
heiress of that province 
Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip 
I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- 
gon and Castile 
Charles V., reigning over Germany, 
Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, 
the Netherlands, and their dependen- 
cies, abdicates, and retires from the 
world, leaving his German dominions 
to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain 
and the Netherlands to his son, Philip 
II.— See Spain 
The Protestant princes of Germany, 
being oppressed by the house of Aus- 
ti-ia, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden, and this leads to the 
treaty of Westphalia - 
Leopold I reigns. — See Germany 
Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, 
who marries the celebrated queen of 
Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of 
the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745 
Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 

Religious toleration granted - - 1776 

The emperor controls the pope - 1782 

Raign of Leopold II. - - - 1790 

Reign of Francis II. - - - 1792 

Austria becomes a distinct empire, and 
Francis II. of Germany takes the title 
of I. of Austria " - Aug. 9, 1804 



1557 



1648 
1658 



The emperor issues his declaration 

against France - - Aug. 5, 1805 

Napoleon, after many victories, enters 

Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805 

Vienna evacuated by the French, 

Jan. 12, 1806 
They again capture i: - May 13, 1S09 

But "restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 
Napoleon marries the archduchess 
Maria Louisa, the daughter of the 
emperor - - April 1, 181G 

Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 

Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 

Death of Francis I., and accession of 

Ferdinand - ' - March 2, 1835 

New treaty of commerce with Englanti 

July 3, 1833 
Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- 
dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 
Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- 
forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ; 
freedom of the press and national 
guard granted by the emperor 

March 13, 1648 
The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- 
; lition of the censorship and conven- 
tion of the states ; the people demand 
1 more, and are refused March 18, " 

Milan revolts, and contends successfully 
I with the soldiery - March 23, " 
j Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- 
tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia 

March 23, " 
Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion 

March, " 
The emperor retires to Innsbruck 

May IS, " 
Austrian army under Radetsky holds in 
check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in 
Lombardy - - May — " 

Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, •* 



184 THE world's progress. [ Asa 

AUSTRIA, continued. 

Diet of the Croatian-Slav onic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his brother, 

summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; 
May 20, 1S18 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph 

Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 1M6 

blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution 

Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1849 

delsky - • - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great 

Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30, " 

The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days 

Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, " 

minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus- 

the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , " 

measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment 

new ministry ; the emperor flies June 11, " 

Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " 

The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- 

six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " 

Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. 

mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. 

sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the 

city and mastei-s it Nov. 2, " 

Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- 
cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of 
Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic 
Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head 
of that body. 

AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright; see Copijright and Literary Property. 

AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of 
a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; 
and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand 
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman 
Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this 
kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in 
vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 
1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. 

AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat 
was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several 
times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was 
restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to 
France by the National Assemblj^ 1791. Hon'ible massacres in October of 
that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. 

AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- 
ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to 
have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. 

AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- 
lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled 
by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with 
beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet 
flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of hawks, and he 
therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took 
place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. 
Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed 
the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. 
Michael's in the sea., where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
called, Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. 



BAC] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 185 



B. 
BABEL, THE Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. The temple of 
Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the 
world ; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one 
of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deilied 
after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither 
the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there 
honored with the company *^f the god. — Blair. 

BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, 
for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab- 
ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of hia 
own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the 
queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to 
this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would 
accept of him as a husband. 1586. 

BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy 
writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 e.g. — Lenglet. Ninus of 
Assyria seized on Babylon, and established Avhat Avas properly the Assy- 
rian empire, by uniting the two soveicignties, 2059 b. c. According to 
Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; 
according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has 
adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of. the empire by 
Ninus, B. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- 
throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assyria. 

The tower of Babel b'jilt - b. c. 2247 

The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 

Ashur builds a city, afterwards called 
Nineveh - - - 2245 

The astronomical observations are be- 
gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — 
Blair ; Lenglet - - - 2234 

Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- 
pire over the neighboring states, de- 
feats the Babylonians, and makes 
them tributary. — Usher - -2124 

Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, i Taken by Darius. — Usher - • 511 

The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and 
in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its 
greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it 
Avas but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is 
scarcely known to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist. 

Bacchanalia, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in 
Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called 
Diomjsia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome imder 
the name of Bacchanalia. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried 
^ men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at 
certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, 
and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After 
twenty-five years of age, a tax Avas>laid upon bachelors in England, 12^. lOs. 
for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695. 
Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants, 
in 1785^ 

BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game 
(decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 e. c. It is 



and names his capital after himself, 
Nineveh. — Lenglet - • b. c. 2069 

Babylon taken by Ninus - • - 2059 

The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 

Belesis governs in Babylon • - 766 

Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 
Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 

He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet - - 587 
He is driven from among meifeji^ - - 569 
Babylon taken by the Medes 'WS. Per- 
sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 



186 THE world's progress. [ BRl 

stated by somo to have been inv(;ntcd in Wales in the period preceding the 

Conquest. — Henry. 

BADAJOS, Shook of. This important l)arrier fortress had surrendered to tho 
French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by tl)0 British under lord Wel- 
lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. 
'J'h'.s victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it 
obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, 
to con)inence a preciintate retreat from that kingdom. 

BADICN, lloijsio OK, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zali- 
ringcin, who died a. n. 1074. From Christopher, who united the brandies 
of llochbcrg and Baden, and died in 1-527, proceed the brandies of Baden- 
Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in 
the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. 

BADEN, TiiKATV OP, between France and the emperor, when Landau was 
ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate; it 
was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Conifederation, 
in 1806. Its territorial accpiisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- 
ranteed by the congi-ess o( Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his 
peojde freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right 
of public meeting, Feb. 20. Trooj)S revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- 
rection at Ctirlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection 
subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. 

BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The 
nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions 
of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West 

BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 
762 — takcm by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It 
has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the 
Turks. — Blair. 

BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and 
Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece oi 
Grecian sculpture of the highest {i,nti(iuity, now in Rome, is represented a 
bag{)iper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played 
upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51, 

BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. 
San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on th(^ night of the 11th Octo- 
ber, 1402. — The Bahamas weni not known to the English tiiri667. Seized 
for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- 
rendered to Cai)tain Rogers. 

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all Anionics 
were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute; and by the 3d Edward 
I. the ])()W('r of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and ]Mary 
and in later reigns. 

BAILIFFS on SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- 
rcve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
counti(;s in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the 
name of bailids, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There 
arc still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high 
bailifl'of Westminster. Tlie term Bum-bail/JJ' is a corruption of bound-bailiff, 
every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good be- 
havior, — Blackslotie. 



BAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187 

BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and 
control ambition; tlic principle is said to bo a discovery of the Italian poli- 
ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France — 
RoberLso'ii. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power 
was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. 

BALLADS. They may be traced in British liistory to the Anglo-Saxons. — 
Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- 
duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might 
sing Avho could." — Bcde. Alfred sung ballads. — Malmshury. Canute com- 
])osed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; 
but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, 
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. 

BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and 3^ou may 
make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statcsmai has said, " Give 
me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- 
mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule 
public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all 
your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." 
The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those 
of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; 
Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. 

BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One 
performed at the interview between Hen. Vlll. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, 
in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Gidccio.rdini. In the next century, 
they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts 
of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore 
a part in one, 1664. 

BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave 
the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by 
MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended 
at Paris. Piia,tre Dcsrozier and M. Roraain perished in an attempted voyage 
from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken lire, June 14, 1785. At 
"the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoilre the 
enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. 
Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by 
a parachute, Sept. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 
23,000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, 
and the balloon, being surrounded by fire- works, took fire, and she was pre- 
cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. 

BALLOON, Thk Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, 
and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants 
of London in ref)cated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that 
place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, 
after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the 
duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836, 

BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United 
States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the 
Maryland ]iatent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city 
in 1797. Population m 1790, 13 503; in 1810, 35,583; in 1830, 80,625; in 
1840, 102r'^.13, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city 
commemoraVc i its successful defence against the attack of the British under 
general Ross. ^ept. 12, 1814. 

BALTIMORE, Battlk of, between the British army under general Ross and 
the Americans; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuc- 



i88 THE world's progress. [ BAfl 

cessful, and after a desperate engag-ement were repulsed "witli great loss; 
the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12,. 1814. 

BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, of 
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected 
in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of 
London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles T. 
laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. 
The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, 
which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded Avith to 
the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths 
in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valu- 
able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — 

Bank of Venice formed - • -1157 i Bank of Hamburgh - -1619 

Bank of Geneva - - - 1345 Bank of Rotterdam ' -1635 

Bank of Barcelona - - -1401 Bank of Stockholm • ■ -1688 

Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 Bank of England - - ■ -'694 

Bank of Amsterdam - - -1607 1 Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816 

BANK OF ENGLAND, (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer- 
chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- 
sideration of 1.200,000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- 
ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up 
to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same 
authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, 
and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were 
at 20 per cent, discount; and so late as 1745, they Avere under par. Bank 
bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; 
small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 
1797, when notes of one and two pounds Avere put into circulation. Silver 
tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, Avith the 
head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. 
Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction 
had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- 
sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- 
voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- 
culation is as follows : — 

In 1718 (earliest account) - £1,829,930 In 1815 - - . - .£26,803,520 

1778 .... 7,030,680 1820 - - . - 27,174,000 

1790 - - - - 10,217,000 1830 - - - - 20,620,000 

1800 .... 15,450,000 1835 . - . - 18,215,220 

1810 .... 23,904,000 1840 - ... 17,231,000 

The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in 
the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. 
are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, 
" that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 
6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of 
the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- 
ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., 
all formed since 1828. See Funds. 

BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. 
— A new one with cap. of 835,000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar- 
tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of 
the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- 
dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of tlie Treasury, (W. J. 
Duane the late se'cretary having refused to sign the order.) Se})t.*23, 1833, 
Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- 
gibihty assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Mr 



BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 189 

Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on 
their journal the president's protest against their resohition, May 7, 1834. 
Noted resokition of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- 
lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed 
Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9. 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by 
Pennsylvania, March»29, 1836: suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for 
establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- 
tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a 
"Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of all 
the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. 

BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- 
land and New-York, May 10—16, 1837 ;~legalized for one year by legisla- 
ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same 
month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. 

BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry Vlfl. 
1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; 
and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt 
may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before 
the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused 
a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in 
gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons 
becoming bankrupts, and noi, paying their debts in full, shall vacate their 
seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, 
passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large. 

NUMBER OP BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 

1700 
1725 ■ 

1750 

1775- ... 

According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826,. 
there had become bankrupt in the four months, f receding, 59 banking-houses, 
comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy 
to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. 
This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented 
commercial embarrassment and ruin. 
BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and 
Edward II. of England; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and 
that of Ednard of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which 
he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The 
rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were 
killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. 

BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, 
and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. 
The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- 
ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the 
church of England to this day. 

BAPTISM. The-sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised by 
all sect^ ;professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner 
of our'b^viour, is eminently called the Bafti&t, as being the first that publicly 
baptized with, a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, 
and was baptize(i> by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in 
rivers ; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built 
chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was 



38 


1800 


- 1339 


1830 


- 1467 


416 


1810 - 


- - 2000 


1835 - 


. - 954 


432 


1820 


- 1358 


1840 


- 1308 


520 


1825 - 


- - 2683 


1844 • • 


- - 1064 



190 THE world's progress. [ BAR 

by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they 
use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; 
our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. 

BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their 
opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much 
earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much" persecution in England in 
the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 
lGo5. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led 
the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732.— See Ayiabaptists. 

BARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother 
plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605; and was, 
with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to tlie earl of Marl- 
borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has sufiered severely from elemental 
visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- 
ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, 
by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every 
thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two 
great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- 
sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. 
The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- 
corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. 

BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In 
England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the 
barbcr"s pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the 
former sign. 

BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that 
of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company wa.s 
formed under this name iu 1308, and the London companj'' was incorporated, 
1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute 
ofHjmy VIII. 

BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, 
and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexand<n- the 
Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we rind bards, according to Strabo, 
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the 
English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. 
They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost 
down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in 
the fifth. The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish 
soimets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See 
Ballads. 

BARNET, Battle or, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- 
ward IV. gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- 
wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle 
of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's 
abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and 
made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. 
Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendant biirometers in 1695 ; 
marine in 1700. 
\RONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its orig'nial name in 
England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was chang\jd into Thane, and 
by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank, s^ire named in the his- 
tory of England, and un^loubtedly had assisted in or had been summoned 
to parliament; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the first 



bat] dictionary of dates. 191 

precept to be fbund is of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. The 
first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beanchamp, 
created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard 11. , 1387. Barons first sum- 
moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and com- 
pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the 
forests, at Runnymcde, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a 
coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete 
armor in the reign of Henry III. — Beatson. 

BARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
ditary : instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created 
in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. 

BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. 
about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- 
land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- 
geants, &c. 

BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- 
ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered 
on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° 
below zero of Fahrenheit. 

BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com- 
menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 
1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were 
murdered throughout the kingdom, by 'secret orders from Charles IX., at 
the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. 
The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even 
as regarded the female and the infant. 

BASTILE OF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 
1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. 
It was afcerwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- 
came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It 
was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France 
between the ytjars 1587 and 1594; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated 
populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. 
On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other 
officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had 
their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having 
fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. 
"The man with the iron ma^k," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, 
died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. 

B..^TAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East 
Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred 
here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by 
the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison 
surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. 

CA.THS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. The 
therma3 of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The 
marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules 
in those of Caracalla. — Strabo. 

BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of 
England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's 
chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roU ; and among these chiefs 
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis- 
tributed, 1066. 



192 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[BAT 



BATTLE, Wager of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws, 
where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, 
and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of 
murder, Ashford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, 
the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of 
battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had 
first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer 
was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this 
mode of trial, 59 George IIL, 1819. — Statutes at large. 

BATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria^ with other military implements, some 
of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 4A1 b. c. These 
ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our 
battering csiwaow.—Desag^iliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- 
ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- 
building the new edifice in 1675. 

B ATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- 
lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- 
dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are 
the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in g\.neral history, and 
are those also that are most commonly referred to : 

A. D. 

Berwick ... . 1378 

Bilboa {British legion) Dec. 24, 1836 

Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 
Blackrock {Amer. Sf Brit.) - Dec. 3, 1813 



Actium {the empire of RoTue is con 

firmed to Augustus) - 
Arbela (Fall of' Persia) • - 



Aboukh- (Turks) 

Acre (Siege commenced) 

( Sir Sydney Smith) 

(Storming of) 

Adrianople (Constantine) 

Albuera 

Alford ( Covenanters) - 

Alexandria (Abercrombie) 

(Abercrombie) 

Algiers (Exmouth) - 

(French) 

Alderton Moor 

Agincourt 

Aliwal (India) 

Almanza,, in Spain 

Amo)^ ( City taken) - 

Almeida - - . - 

Anjou, or Breagne - 

Antoign - 

Areola 

Ascalon (Richard I.) • 

Assaye ( Wellesley) - 

Auerstadt 

Augsburg 

Austerlitz 

Badajos 

Balkan, passage of the - 

Baltimore 

Bannockburn 

EdLYXioi (Edward IV.) 

Barrosa - 

Bautzen 

Bayonne - 

Belgrade 



31 

- - 331 

A. D. 

July 26, 1799 
Mar. 18, 1799 
May 27, ibid 

Nov. 3, 1840 

- 323 

May 16, 1811 

July 2, 1645 
Mar. 21, 1801 
May 17, 1799 
Aug. 27, 1816 

July 4, 1830 

- - 1643 
Oct. 25, 1415 
Jan. 20, 1846 
April 4, 1707 

Aug. 27, 1841 
Aug. 5, 1811 

- - 1421 
Aug. 13, 1792 
Nov. 19, 1796 

Sept. 3, 1191 

Sept. 23, 1803 

Oct. 14, 1806 

Aug. 24, 1796 

Dec. 2, 1805 
Mar. 11, 1811 
July 26, 1829 
Sept. 12, 1814 
June 25, 1314 
April 14, 1471 

Mar. 6, 1811 
May 20, 1813 
Mar. 19, 1794 

- - 1456 
- 1717 

- Aug. 1777 
April 13, 1759 



Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 

Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704 

Borodina - - • Sept. 7, 1812 

Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485 

Bothvvell Bridge, Scotland - "- -1679 
Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 

Bovines (French and Germans) - - 1214 
Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 

Brandywine - - - Sept. 11, 1777 

Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452 

Brenau (Austrians and Bavarians) - 1743 
Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757 

Briar's Creek - - - - 1779 

Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 

Bridgewater (Americans and British) 

July 25, 1814 
Buena Vista (Am,er. and Mexicans) 

Feb. 22, 1847 
Buenos Ayres (Popham) 
( Whitelock) 



Bennington (Am,cr 4 Brit. 
Bergen - 

- Sept. 19 and "Oct. 2, 1799 

Bers;en-op-Zoom (taken) ■ - 1747 

'- - - Mar. 6, 1814 

Beresina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 



Bunker's Hill 
Busaco - 
Brov^nstown (Canada) 



June 21, 1806 

July 6, 1807 

June 17, 1775 

Sept, 27, 1810 

Aug. 8, 1812 

B.C. 



Cannae (Victory of Hannibal) - 216 

Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio) - 146 
Chceronea, (Tolmidas) - - - 447 

(Philip) - - - - 338 

(Sylla) . - - 86 

Cnidos (Lysander killed) • - • 394 

Cranon, in Thessaly ... 322 
Cyzicum - - - - - 406 

A.D. 
Calais taken ... Jan. 7, 1558 
Calcutta (India) - - June 1756 

Camden (Amer. Sf Brit.) - Aug. 16, 1785 

: (Amer. ^ Brit.) • April 25, 1781 

Campo Santo ... - 1743 

Canton (Bogue forts taken) Feb. 26, 1841 
Castel Nuovo - - Sept. 29, 1806 

Castella - - April 13, 1813 



ffAT J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



193 



BATTLES, continued. 

Cassano (Prince Eugene) 

Castlebar (French) - - Aug. 28, 

Casti^lione - - July 2. 

Castillonj in Guienne 

Charleroi 

Charleroi Fleurus - - June 17, 

Charleston (taken by the British) 

May 12 
Chepultepec (Am.SfMex.) Sept. 12-14. 
Chippewa • July 5 and 25, 

. . - Oct 

Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11 

(stormed) • Jan. 19, 

Clontarf, Ireland 

Constantina (Algiers) • Oct. 13 

Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) 

Corunna, (Moore) • - Jan. 16 

Cowpens (Amer. 4* Brit.) 

Cr'aney island (Americans and Brit.) 

June 21 
Cressy (Fch Dien) • 
CuUoden (Preteiider) • 
Cunnersdorf- 
Detroit (surrendered) - 
Dettingen (George II.) 
Dresden • 

Dreux. in France - 
Drogheda (taken hy storm) 
Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) • 
Dunbar - 

(King of Scots taken) 

-, Siege of, - - ■ 

DunganHill- - - July 10, 

Dunkirk - - • Sept. 7 



Aug. 25 
April 16 
Aug. 12: 
Aug. 16, 

Aug. 26 



Nov. 12 
Sept. 3. 



Dimsinane • 

Durham, Nevil's Cross 

Eastport (Americans and British) 

July 
Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 

Erie, Fort - • • Aug. 15, 

Erzeroum ( Turks and Prussians) • 
Eutaw Springs - • - - 

Evesham • • Aug. 4, 

Eylau - - - Feb. 8, 

Fairfield (Amer. ^ Brit.) 
Falkirk, (WoZtoce) - - July 22, 

Flatbush, L. I. (Am. 4- Brit.) Aug. 27, 
Flodden - - - Sept. 9, 

Fontainebleau - • Feb. 17, 

Fontenoy - • - April 30, 

Fort du Quesne • - July 9, 

French Town, Canada - Jan. 22, 
Friedburg • • June 4, 

Friedland - - • June 14, 

Granicus ..... 

Germantown . - • Oct. 4, 
Gisors (Dieu et man droit) 

Guilford - - • Mar. 16, 

Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 

Halle (Bernadotte) ■ • Oct. 17, 

Hanau(Wrec?e) - Oct. 29, 

Hastings (Conquest) • Oct. 14, 
Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, 

Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, 

Hoheniinden • - Nov. 3, 

Ipsus (Antigonus slain) - • - 

Issus (110,000 Persians slain) 



A. D. 

1705 
1798 
1796 
1453 
1690 
1794 

1780 
1848 
1814 
1814 
1812 
1812 
1039 
1837 
1848 
1809 
1781 

1813 
1346 
1746 
1759 
1812 
1743 
1813 
1562 
1&19 
1715 
1650 
1296 
1337 
1647 
1793 
1054 
1346 

1814 

1642 
1814 
1745 
1781 
1265 
1807 
1779 
1298 
177G 
1513 
1814 
1745 
1755 
1813 
1745 
1807 

B. C. 

334 

A. D. 

1777 
1193 
1781 
1333 
1806 
1813 
1066 
1464 
1758 
1800 

B. C. 

301 
333 

9 



Jamac ... Mar. 3, 

Jemappe • • Nov. 5, 

Jena - • . . Oct. 14, 

Ket and Warwick 

Killiecrankie, Scotland • July 27, 

Kowno - . - Dec. 14, 

Krasnoi - • • Nov Itt, 

Leuctra - - - - . 

Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) - 
Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) 

—(Austrians) • April 21, 

Langside • • May 13, 

Leipzic - • - Oct. 16, 

Lepanto (G^reeAs) - - May 9, 

Lewes - - - May 14, 

Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19, 



Ligny 
Lincoln 



June 16, 

Feb. 2, 

May 19, 

Dec. 5, 

May 10, 

Aug. 27, 

May 2, 



Lisle (taken by the Allies) 

Lissa .... 

Lodi 

Long Island • 

Lutzen - 

Lutzingen ( Gustavus slain) 



Mantinea (Epaminondas slai7i) 
Munda, in Spain - - - - 

McHeniy, Fort (A-mericans and Brit.) 

Oct. 13, 

Malplaquet (Marlborough) 

Manheira 



Mantua - 



Marengo • 

Marignan, Italy 

Marston Moor 

Mexico 

Milan 

Minden 

Mittau (Swedes and Russians) 



May 30, 
July 12, 

- Sept. 23, 

May 29, 
Jan. 31, 
June 14, 

• Sept. 1.5, 
July 3, 

Sept. 12-14, 
April 27, 

- Aug. 1, 



Mockem 



April 1, 
Oct. 14, 



Mohartz, Hungary • 
Molwitz - - • April 10, 

Monmouth (Amer. Sf Brit.) • June 28, 
Monterey (Mexico) • Sept. 24, 

Montmorenci • • Aug. 10, 

Moodkee, India • • Dec. 18, 

Morea. ((Jastle surrenders) Oct. 28, 
Moscow (burnt) • Sept. 4, 

Moskwa - - • Sept. 7, 

Moscow (retaken) - Oct. 22, 

Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) 
Naseby • • - June 14, 

Newark • - • • - 

Newbury - . - - - 

— (second battle) • Oct. 20, 

New London (burnt by the British) - 
New Orleans - - Jan 8, 

Niagara, Fort - • - Nov. 

Nisbet - - • May 7, 

Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 
Northallerton, (or the battle of the 
Standard) . • • - 1138 



A.D. 

1569 
1792 
1806 
1549 
1689 
1812 
1812 

B. C. 

370 

A.D. 

1747 
1745 
1809 
1568 
1813 
1829 
1264 
1775 
815 
1141 
1217 
1708 
1796 
1757 
1776 
1813 
1632 

B. C. 

363 
45 

A. D. 

1814 
1709 
1793 
1794 
1795 
1796 
1797 
1800 
1515 
1644 
1848 
1799 
1759 
1705 
1813 
1813 
1687 
1741 
1778 
1846 
1759 
1845 
1828 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1700 
1645 
1644 
1643 
1641 
1731 
1815 
1813 
1402 
1779 



194 



THE world's progress. 



[ba^ 



BATn.ES, continxued. 

A. D. 

Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 1779 
Novi (Suwarrow) - Aus. 16, 1799 

... Jan. 8, 1800 

Ogdensburg (British and Americans) 

Feb. 22, 1813 
Oporto - 

Otterburn (Chevy Chase) - 
Oudenard (Marlborough) 



Pharsalia 



May 11, 1809 

- - 1308 

July 11, 1708 

B. C. 

. 48 



PhiJippi (Roman Republic ends) 



42 

A.D. 



Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) 
Pavia (French andAustrians) Feb. 24 
Pensacola (taken by general Jackson) 

Nov. 20, 
Peterwarden • • Aug. 6 

Pfaffendorf - - - Aug. 15 

Pinkey - - - Sept. 10, 

Piattsburg (Americans and British) 

Sept. 11 
Poitiers - - 

Prague • 



Sept. 19, 

Nov. 9 

May 6. 

Jan. 2, 

July 8 

Dec. 26 

July 28: 

June 16, 



Palo Alto (Ist ofAmer. 4- Mex.) May 8, 1846 
Parma (Austrians and French) 

(Suwarrow)- ■ July 12 



1734 
1799 
1429 
1525 

1814 
1717 
1760 

1547 

1814 
1356 
1620 
1757 
1777 
1709 
1806 
1813 
1815 

1759 
1775 
1760 
1812 
1706 
1846 
1382 
1787 



Princeton (Amer. 4" Brit.) 
Pultowa (Charles XII.) 
Pultusk - 
Pyrenees 
ftuatre Bras 

Q,uebec (or the plains of Abraham) 

Sept. 13 

(death ofMontgomery)Dec. 21 

- - - April 28 

tlueenstown (Amer. ^ Brit.) Oct. 13, 
Ramilies (Marlborough) - May 23 
Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9, 
Rosbach - - - Nov. 17 

- - - Nov. 5, 

Sackett's Harbor (Americans and 

British) .... 1813 

Salamanca - - • July 22, 1812 

'ian Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, 1813 

Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) 

Oct. 17, 1777 
Savannah (taken by the British) 

Dee. 29. 1778 
Schwerdnitz • - Aug. 16^ 1762 

Sedgemoor • • - July 5, 1685 

Seidlitz (Poles) - • Mar. 31, 1831 

Sempach - - - July 9, 1386 

Seringapatam .... 1791 

(Tippoo reduced) - - 1791 

(Tippoo killed) May 4, 1799 

Shrev/sbury - - July 21, 1403 

Skenesborough • • July 7, 1777 

Smolensko - • - Aug. 27, 1812 



A. D. 

Sobraon (India) - Feb. IC, 1S46 

Soiway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 

St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) - 1455 



(second) 



1461 

- 1567 

Jan. 27, 1814 

Mayo, 1836 

Mar. 13, 1470 



St. Denis (Montmorenci) 
St Dizier, France - 
St. Sebastian 
Stamford 

Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 
Stratton (poet Waller) • May 16, 1643 
Talavera de la Reyna • July 27, 1809 

Tarragona - - - Jan. 24, 1812 

Tew^kesbury - • May 4, 1471 

Thames (Americart^ and Brit.) Sept. 1S13 
Thermopylae (Greeks) ■ July 13, 1822 

Tiiltniont (French and Allies) - 1705 

Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 

. . Aug. 30, 1813 

Tournay - • - May 8, 1793 

Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 

Toulouse - - - April 10, 1814 

Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 

Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776 
Turin (French and Germans) • 1706 

Ulm .... June 21, 1800 

(surrendered) • Oct. 29, 1805 

Valenciennes • • May 23, 1793 

Varna (surrenders) - Oct. 11, lc'25 

Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) 

March 27, 1847 
Villa Franca 
Vimiera ( Welli7igton) 
Vittoria, Spain 



Wagram 

Wakefield 

Warsaw 



April 10, 1812 

Oct. 21, 1808 

. - 1702 

June 21, 1813 

Julv5, 1809 

Dec' 31, 1460 

Oct. 10, 1794 

Nov. 8, ibid 

Sept. 8, 1831 

Washington (burnt by the British) 

Aug. 1814 
Waterloo - - June 18, 1815 

White Plains (Amer. Sf Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 
Nov. 30, ibid 



(taken) 



Wilna (Poles) 
Worcester 

(Charles II.)* 



June 12, 1831 
Sept. 13, 1642 
- - 1651 
July 1778 



Wyoming massacre 
York (Canada) captured by Ameri- 
cans - - - April 27, 1813 
York Town (surrender of CornwaUis) 

Oct. 19, 1781 

B. C. 

Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) 
Zela (CcBsar: veni, vidi, vici) 



Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) 
Zurich .... 



202 
47 

A. D. 

1697 
1799 



BAVARIA, House of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century; this 
house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- 
phian family ; Henry Guelph was made duke of Bavaria by Conrad XL, em- 
peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024, Otho, count Wittelpatch. v/aa 
made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was 



* This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England. 
N. B. — Many of the above battles are deseribcJ more fully under lach name. 



BEA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 195 

erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by 
the treaty of Presbiirg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and 
German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This 
kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- 
ber recommends freedom of the press, &.C., by ahiiost unanimous vote, Oct. 
17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, 
Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of 
his son, Maximilliau II., March 22, 1848, 

KINGS OP BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October :— abdicated, 

1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848. 

tor, created king. | 1818 Maximilian II. 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by 
Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, 
from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of 
William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered 
by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- 
ments shov/ing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to 
the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now prese. ;ed 
in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. 

BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This 
weapon was invented at Bayonne; in France (whence the name), about 1670. 
According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 
1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter 
with so formidable a novelty." 

BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar 
of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has 
several times held 30.000 men in order of battle. 

BE \DS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by 
Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in geneial use in 
Roman Cathohc devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased 
persons for the repose of whose souls a certain number of prayers were re- 
cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler. 

BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. 
The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with 
the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their 
beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the 
time of Alexander, Avho ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the 
beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn 
by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. 
In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until 
the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The 
Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few 
years; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, 
was obliged to keep ofiicers on foot to cut otf the beard by force. 

BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the 
battle of PultoAva, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724: her beard 
measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy 
beard, and her whole body covered with \isii\v.~Dict. de Trevovx. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stift" beard. 
In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. 

BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by 
Charles the BoM, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men. the womeii 
under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- 
guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 
1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 



196 THE world's progress. [beh 

Bean vais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliverance 

— Henault. 

BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry 11. say, in a moment 
of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me 
one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon 
Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral 
of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when 
he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any 
other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- 
actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but 
not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed 
him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured Avithout a 
groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 
1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Henry VIII, 1539.— 
Stowe. 

BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the 
skins of beasts. — Whittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and 
Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- 
wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used 
in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. 

BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in 
his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer Avas drunk generally in England in the 
thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty 
paid on "«Ze caLled'bere,''^ one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a 
penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 
1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- 
dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees," Hymettus, 
in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was 
admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on 
bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or ajyis genus, and 111 in 
England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : 
they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since 
spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardie^s 
America. 

BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff first produced 
sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent 
sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- 
naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of 
sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 

BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern 
times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they 
could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- 
cability. The coimcil of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a 
branch of the order in 1311. 

BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- 
mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by 
William the Conqueror, 1074. when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- 
ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Chron. 
English history is fiUed with instances of this mode of execution, particu- 



BEL ] 



DICTlOivrARY OF DATES, 



19/ 



larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and M&rj, when even women of the nohlest 
blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* 
BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- 
sia vvhose nanje it bears. Behring thus established that the continents 
of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about 
thirt3'-nine miles, 1728. 

BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands 
and anciently the territory of the Belgfe, who were conquered by .rulius 
Cffisar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed 



into a kingdom in 1831. 

Became an acquisition of the house of 

Austria .... 1477 
OVarles V. annexed the Netherlands to 

the crown otSjwin - . -1556 

Seven provinces, under William, prince 
of Orange, levolt, owing to the tyranny 
of Phiiip il.; freed- - - 1579 

The ten remaining provinces are given 

to the archduke - - . 1598 

Thei^e again fall to Spain . - . 1648 

Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 

And three to France - - - 1748 

Austrians expelled ; but their I'ule after- 
wards restored - - . . 1789 
The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 
United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 
J*laced under the sovereignty of the 

house of Orange - - -1814 

The revolution commences at Brussels 

Aug. 25, 1830 
The Provisional Government declares 

Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 
The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the 
Dutch are driven to the citadel, from 
whence they cannonade the town, 

Oct. 27, 1830 
Belgian independence acknowledged 

Th 



by the Allied Powers, announced by 
VanderWeyer - - Dec. 26. 1830 

Duke de Nemours elected king; but 
his father, the king of France, refuses 
his consent - . Feb. 3, 1831 

M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 
of Belgium - . Feb. 24. 1831 

Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected 

„l^''ng - - - July 12, 1831 

He enters Brussels - . July 19, 1831 

The king of the Netherlands recom- 
mences the war . Aug. 3 1831 

[France sends 50,000 troops to assist 
Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] 

A conference of the ministers of the live 
great powers is held in Loufjon, which 
terminates in the acceptance of the 
24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1&31 

Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter 
of Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 

The French army returns to France 

Dec. 27, 1832 

Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much 
mischief ensues - . April 6, 1834 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
signed in London - April 19, 1839 



IS last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian 
question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831 was 
maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions ' of francs 
offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- 
admissible. 

BELGRADE, Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies in which 
the latter was defeated Avith the loss of 40.000 men, fought 1456 ' Belgrade 
was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists iii 1688 from 
whom It again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 
1717 (see next ariicle), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks 
It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach iii 
1790. ' 

BELGRADE, Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was vndei- 
taken m May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year the 
Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought 
m which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered' 
Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. 



K k' ^1"!?"^ f^T^ instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady .lane Grey. 
beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury-the latter remarkable for h»r 
resistance of the execiationer. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to 
do It ; telling him, hat she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die hke a criminal He nur- 
sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off aftei 
mangling tne neck and snouiders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying mannel^ She was daughter 
of George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Planta^enet. May 27, IcAl.—Huma, 



198 THE world's progress. [ BEH 

BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; un ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish 

church, used in excommunication, which see. 

'BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the helles- 
lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto. Latini, 
and other learned men in different coimtries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. 
Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fon- 
tana. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about 
this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- 
beth, and flourished in that of Anne. 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of 
them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the 
potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- 
ces of the Romans. 

BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The 
responses of the Dodonaean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strado. 
The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted 
by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna, 
about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., 
king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the 
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert 
commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. 
Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, by ring- 
ing them, against thunder and. lightning, about 900. First cast in England 
by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- 
proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at 
Cro3'^land abbey, 960. — Stowe. 

Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 I St. Peter's, at Rome - - lbs. 18,607 

Great Tom ol' lancoln - - 9.894 Great Bell at Erfurth • - 28,224 

Great Tom of Oxibrd - - - 17,000 | St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow • • 127,836 

Bell or the Palazzo, Florence - 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 

The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal 
alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at £66,565 sterling. In its fusion 
great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the 
people. 
BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. — 
Du Presnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were 
baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, 
&c., in 1501. — Weaver. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- 
tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in 
the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious 
solemnity. — Ashe. 

BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the 
first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in 
the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- 
able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread 
over a large portion of Europe, but w^as superseded in the vast influence it 
possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- 
dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on 
the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, in 
Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- 
nated Benedictine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there 
have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archb-shops, 400C 
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 king? 41 queens, and 3600 saints. 
Their founder was canonized. — Baronius 



BEN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199 

BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century ; till then 
the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should 
become vacant in the space of six months were given b}^ pope Clement VII. 
to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Moiiastica. The number of benefices in 
England, according to parliamentar}^ returns, is 10 533, and the number of 
glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries, 
prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- 
ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels 
about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there 
are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no 
glebe-houses. — See Church of England, 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but 
afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par- 
ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin 
book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and 
if the ordinary said " Legit %t dericus," the offender was only burnt in the 
hand, otherwise he suffered death, 8 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was 
abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the 
claim of sanctuaiy, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Stowe. Benefit of clergy was 
wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. 

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., in the Uvited 
States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, 
during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American 
Almanac, 1846) as follows : 

For theological education and other I For miscellaneous objects (such as 

religious objects - - $1,054,966 j monuments, &c.) - - - 433,321 

For purposes of instruction - 1,09.5,594' 



For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 \ Total - $4,751,293 

[Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula- 
tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000. Few 
cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- 
habitants.] 

BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. 

Formed. Income. 
1849. 



Formed. Income, 
Amer. Boardof Com. Foreign 1849. 

Missions - - - 1810 - $260,897 

Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 
" Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 
" Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,423 
" Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 



Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,7.54 

" Colonization Society 1819 17,414 

" Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 

Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 

Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 



United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be 
given to the distitute Irish, March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from 
New York on same errand, .July 8, 1847. 

Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to "Harvard College, for scientific department, .Tune, 1.847. 

BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no 
record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 
1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the 
Mogul empire. — See India. 

The English were first permitted to 
trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1.5.34 

Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 

First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 

The settlements first placed in a state 
of defence . . . . 1694 

Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 

Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol- 
diers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 



Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla ; and 
the dreadful affair of the Black-hole - 1756 

Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 

Imperial gi'ant, vesting the revenues of 
Bengal in the Company, by which 
the virtual sovereignty of the country 
was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 

Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal made the 
chief presidency - ■ June 16, 1773 

See India. 



200 THE world's progress. [beI 

BERESINA, Battle op. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- 
sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of 
it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle, 
and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. 

BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 
14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19, 
1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; 
and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men. 
On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he 
exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the 
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was 
made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it 
was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a 
dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, 
March 8, 1814. 

BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its 
five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- 
quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of 
Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in 
a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the 
French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous 
Berlin decree. — See next article. 

BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. 
It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English- 
men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as 
prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- 
nication Avith Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the 
Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided 
the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.— See Jena. 

BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, 
in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers 
was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 
1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another, 
by which a tliird of the houses was destroved, and all the shipping driven 
ashore, July 20, 1813. 

BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian 
army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte 
led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, 
fought June 14, 1800. 

BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- 
leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a 
large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers 
gratis for three days. — Brooke. 

BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the 
English and Scots ; and Avhile England and Scotland remained two king- 
doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it 
stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 
1210. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and 
after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- 
land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, "and afterwards 
to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- 
fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. 

BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who 



BIB 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 20 1 

had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished 
city. It now contains a church, erected by the famons St. Helena, in the 
form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where 
they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid; another, called 
the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is 
much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe. 

BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into 
the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- 
pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- 
tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- 
tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. 

BIARCH F. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, 
Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence 
should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established 
the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately 
for 800 years. — Herodotus. 

BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by 
seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence 
called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at 
Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephus. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In 
283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of 
Josephus. — Hc'iolett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and 
eai'h pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison, it was 
found tliat the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin 
Martyr. 

BIBLE, Ancient copies op the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- 
tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, Avhich was writ- 
ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age 
is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek 
patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same 
time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, 
about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher. of Jerusalem, was made about 
1100. 

BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and 
Sandj^s, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop 
Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal. the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park- 
hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and 
archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. 

BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twentj^-two books by the 
JeM^s, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the 
Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made 
by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and 
a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228; and this 
division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. 

BIBLE, Editions of the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- 
rome, A. D. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be 
authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See 
Books.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from 
the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale" Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this 
edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in chui'ches, 

9* 



202 



THE world's progress 



[bh. 



1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new 
translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now 
generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first 
hooks printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible Avas first 
jH'inted in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be trans- 
lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed 
in 



Spanish 


-1478 


Russian 


-1581 


Manks - 


. 


.1771 


German - 


- -1522 


Hungarian 


- • 1589 


Italian 


. 


-1776 


English 


-1534 


Polish 


-1596 


Bengalee 


. 


-1801 


French • 


- -1535 


Modem Greek - 


• -1638 


Tartar 




. 1S13 


Swedish 


-l&ll 


Turkish 


-1666 


Persian 


. 


-1815 


Danish - 


. - 1550 


Irish 


. - 1685 


African 




-1816 


Dutch 


-1560 


Portuguese 


- 1748 


Chinese 


- 


-1820 



Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared m several in- 
stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot 
Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, 
Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — 
Wood's Fasti. Oxo7i. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have 
made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, 
are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was 
formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; 
Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French 
Bible Society, 1792; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801; Hibernian 
Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812; American 
Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- 
can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A 
bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 

BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark; 
with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act 
respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Declared to 
be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the 
same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 85 George III. 1794. — Statutes 
at large. 

BILL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, 
was obtain -^d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the 
legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the emplojmient of all 
manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass 
it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory^ of the rights of British subjects, 
passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only writte'n law 
respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viiier's 
Statutes. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their 
property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson. 
Bills were used in England, 1307. — The onlv legal mode of sending money 
from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 
— duty advanced, 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital 
to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of 
pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. 
The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many 
statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 
1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 8 Victoria, July 1839. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about 
A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the 



BIS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 20o 

great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet 
afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- 
plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- 
inp- the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years :— 



In the year 1780, Christenings - 16,634 

1790, Christeniiigs - 18,980 

1800, Christenings - 19,176 

1810, Christenings - 19,930 

1820, Christenings - 26,158 

1830, Christenings • 27,028 

1840, Christenings - 30,387 



In the year 1780, Burials - - 20,507 

1790, Burials - ■ 18,038 

1800, Burials - ■ 23,068 

1810, Burials - - 19,892 

1820, Burials - 19.348 

1330, Burials - - 23,524 

1840, Burials - - 26,774 



BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, 
and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — 
Nouv. Did. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an 
artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate biUiard-tables were 
introduced in England in 1827. 

BIRDS. Divided by LinnaBus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and 
by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the 
bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or 
on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon 
the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the 
young." — Duteronomy, xxii. 6. 

BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; 
but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- 
liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. 
The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- 
thew Boulton, in 1764. 

BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti- 
tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- 
dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z.— of a common 
person, 2s.— 7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of 
four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery 
recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five 
children at a birth, September 3. 178S.—P/dllips. The wife of a man named 
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at 
a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. 
BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but 
now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in 
a certa'.n district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. 
Petei, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of 
Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by 
all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should 
belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. 
BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first Avas appointed in a. d. 180. See York, 
London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d' Elire of the king 




depri 

tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. ""See Cranvier. Bishops were excluded 
fVom voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. 
Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality 
of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 
1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven Avere sent to the tower for not 
reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring 
the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit- 



204 THE W0P».LD'S progress. [ BLA 

ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterburj (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and 
Maiy, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of 
Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An 
order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to 
be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be 
created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded 
in 1846. — See Manchester. 

BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this 
country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first 
planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402. thirty years l3efore the arrival of 
St. Patrick. 

BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The 
see of St. Andrew's, was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, 
according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of 
Regulus, a Greek monk of Patras, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived 
of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the I'evo- 
lution, 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops 
belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. 

BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII, to bt, i.ext to 
viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of 
Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of 
London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the 
others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in 
Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- 
cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. 
The others rank according to consecration. 

BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- 
bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at 
Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- 
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, 
Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop 
of the United States v/as Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. 

BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every 
fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. 
It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before 
the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, 
and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added 
day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen- 
dar and Leap Year. 

BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 
332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed 
it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, 
except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took 
Prus^. its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed 
Constantinople. 

BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the 
scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the 
inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and 
hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase •' I'll set you down in the 
black book." 

BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of 



BLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 

England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the 
tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William 
III., 1696-7. — Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, 
on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- 
testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the 
same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, 
and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among 
other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as 
late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous 
writingSj subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's 
Bench. 

BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and oecame heredi- 
tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the 
knights painting their banners with dififerent figures, thereby to distinguish 
them in the crusades. — Dugdale. 

BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known 
in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system 
was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
1768. There are now immense bleachflelds in both countries, particularly 
in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the 
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Be'rthollet was 
introduced in 1795. — Blanchivient des Toiles. 

BLENHEIM, Battle of ; between the English and confederates, commanded 
by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal 
Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated 
with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among 
the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. 
The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of 
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest 
seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim, 
Fought Aug. 2, 1704. — Hume. 

BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- 
ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- 
dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of 
sight. Blinding the contxuered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a 
whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. 
See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from 
their heads. See article Eastern Empire. 

BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.— FVem«^. Blisters 
are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretajus, a 
physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Cure's Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD, Circulation of the, through the lungs, first made public by Michael 
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of 
the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved 
afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father 
Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation; but the honor of the positive discovery of 
the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by 
v/hora it v/as fully confirmed, 1628. — Freind's Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD, Drinking op. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- 
tem, by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, 
drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 



206 THE world's progress. [bceo 

strength, 1438. — Henault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. , 
and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at 
the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. 

BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that 
the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans- 
fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the 
infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and 
prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera- 
tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving 
mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- 
tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in Englawi 
(but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One English physi- 
cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way; he died in 1691." — 
Frei7id's Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's 
household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, 
and had got him to-Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued 
by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the 
regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these 
and other offijnces, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of £500 
per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. 

6LUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally 
conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most 
active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished 
naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- 
ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. of 
Boioijer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have 
worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- 
liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. 

BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, 
established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- 
merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and 
plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- 
spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the afiairs of trade 
was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 

BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot 
be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- 
land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again 
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was 
first suggested at South Shields ; and one Avas built by Mr. Greathead, the 
inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. 

BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or 
novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, 
as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first 
edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- 
burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for ;e2260, June 17, 1812. This 
identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, 
June 5, 1819. 

BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was eqiially 
celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes 
of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, 
Messapia. Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- 
dar, Hesiod. Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished 
and beautiful Corinna. 



Boi] 



DICTrONARY OF DATES. 



207 



BCEOTIA continued.^ 

Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- 
mea - - - b. c. 1493 

Reign of Polydore - . -1459 

Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 

Amphion and Zeihus besiege Thebes, 
and dethrone Laius - . . 1388 

CEdipus, not knowing his father La'i us, 
kills him in an affray, confirming the 
oracle as to his death by the hands of 
his son - - - . . 1276 

CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- 
solves her enigmas - . 1266 

War of the Seven Captains - . 1225 



Here the greatness of this country ends 

capital, 335 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing 

the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaLves.—Strabo. 



Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216 

Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 

Tlie Theban^bolish royalty, and ages 
of obscurity follow - - - 1125 

Battle of Chaeronea, in which the The- 
bans defeat the Athenians - - 44? 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- 
nians at Leuctra, restores his countiy 
to independence, and puts it in a con- 
dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 371 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- 
bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea - 338 
Alexander destroyed Thebes, the 

and all 



BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose 
soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels bv accumulated 
water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed", March, 1830. 
The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3.000,000 acres ; that of Scot- 
land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. 

BOH, a_ fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation 
of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. 

BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes : the title of king 
was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their 
territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown 
was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ditary. — See Germamj. 



The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are 
ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550 

City of Prague founded - - - 795 

Introduction of Christianity - - 894 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor 
Henry III., who spreads devastation 
through the country - - - 1041 

The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, 
the first king - . . . i061 

The regal title is farther confirmed to 
Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199 

Reign of Ottoacre 11., who carries his 
arms into Prussia - - - 1258 

Ottoa ^re, refusing to do homage to the 
emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- 
quished, and deprived of Austria, 
Styria, and Carniola - - - 1282 

In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of 
silver are first discovered, and agri- 
culture is encouraged and improved 
(et seq.) - - . . 1284 

Winceslas IV. becoming odious lor his 
vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 

John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen 
to succeed - . . . 1310 

Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 

King John slain at the battle of Crecy, 
fought with the English - - - 1346 



John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two 
of the first Reformers, are burnt for 
heresy, which occasions an insurrec- 
tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed 
them, is deposed, and the Imperialists 
are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 
Albert, duke of Austria, marries the 
daughter of the late emperor and 
king, and receives the crowns of Bo- 
hemia and Hungary - - - 1437 
The succession infringed by Ladislas, 
son of the king of Poland, and George 
Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1458 
Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected 
king of Bohemia, on the death of Po- 
diebrad - - . . . 1471 
The emperor Ferdinand I. marries 
Anne, sister of Louis the late kins, 
and obtains the crown - ~- 1527 
The elector palatine Frederick is driven 

from Bohemia • - - - 1618 

The crown is secured to the Austrian 

family by the treaty of - - 1648 

Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742 
Prague taken by the Prussians - - 1744 
The memorable siege of Prague - 1757 
Revolt of the peasantry - - -1775 

The French occupy Prague - - 1806 



See Germany. 

BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry 
VIII. , 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been 
poisoned by House, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the oftence of 
poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished by boil- 
ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, sufiTered in th« 
same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 



208 THE world's progress. [ BOO 

BOLOGNA. I^tinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of 
architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- 
dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made 
his triumphal entry iifto it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting 
(as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 
1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its 
pavement. Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth 
century. Taken by the French, 1 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the 
French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ; 
Austrians expelled by the people. August 8, 1848. 

BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- 
erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by Wil- 
liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the 
three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were 
lost, Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. 

BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a 
century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously 
used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in 
France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, 
and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- 
inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 

BONDAGE, OR VILLA NAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in 
ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this 
species of servitude Avas ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See 
Villain. 

BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- 
perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at 
Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science 
— Freind's Hist of Phi/sic. 

BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and 
bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- 
ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that 
country. Books whose leaves were vellum, M^ere invented hj Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. 
The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted 
together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of 
Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in 
profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still 
more ancient are preserved. 

BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy 
of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, 
by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30Z. ; 
and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and 
they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at 
prices varying from lOZ. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value 
of some volumes is very great. A copy of MackUii's Bible, ornamented by 
Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more 
supei-b copy is at present insured in a London oflSce for 3,000Z. — Times. II 
Decamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- 
burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260Z.. June 17, 1^12.— PJiillips. 
A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever 
printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was !?old at auction in London 



BOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 

in April 1846 for 5001. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 
in pubhc libraries, is now in a private library in New ifork. 

BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and 
bein? printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The 
first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and SchsefFer, his 
son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; 
but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed 
works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity 
on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, Avhich was finished in 
1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustus. The second printed was Cicero do 
OJiciis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Gavie and 
Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, 
.in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vita'., 
in 1762. Lnician's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America 
(at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- 
stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — 
Stowe's Chronicles. 

The above is from HaydM; but according to Pettigrew, (Biblio. Sussex.) 
the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by 
John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; 
and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- 
work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions 
for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible^ 
as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies 
are now known to exist— all but one being in public libraries in Europe. 
[See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved 
wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, 
done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of 
New York. 

BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is 
supposed to have been bound about a, d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards 
was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the 
book on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation 
oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet 
was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum 
Avas introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- 
mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth 
binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831, Caoutchouc, 
or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- 
keeping, was taken from the course of algebra Avhich was published by 
Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial stale, in the fifteenth century. 
It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- 
keeping in 1569. — Anderson. 

BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new 
works published in successive years is thus stated : 

Gt. Brit. France. Germany. Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 

1S28 - 842 - — - 5,654 ia36 - 1,332 - — . 7.891 

1830 - 1,142 - — - 5,926 1849 - — . _ . '_ 

1834 - 1,220 - — - 6,074 1850 - — - 7,208 - — 

The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under 
the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 
55,474, or 1681 each year. 

England. — The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, 
from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550 ; equal to 253 yearly ; — but deducting the 



210 THE world's progress. [boo 

reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the anmml average of new 

books may be computed at much less than 100. 
The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts,'* 

issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern 

Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 

5,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. 
The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued 

during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 

each year. 

The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- 
cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding- pamphlets, was, 
according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, 
we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. 

Mr. McCalloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro- 
duced annually in Great Eritain (exchisive of reprints, pamphlets, and 
periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average 
impression of each volume at 750 copies ; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes ; 
— value at 9s. a volume, X506,250. " The number of reprinted volumes, 
particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the 
reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- 
papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new 
copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about 
£750,000." 

France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased 
since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive 
work {^Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the 
number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French 
press in 1816 at 66,852,883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483 ; and we beheve 
that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any 
thing inferior. 

The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly 
review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other 
languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. 

Germany. — The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- 
fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaslmas, which are attended by the 
booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, 
as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; 
the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but 
the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 
5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. 

•'An Augsburg paper states," (says the "Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) 
" that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed 
in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of 
more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now 
living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. The 
total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated 
from 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." 

Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were 
published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. 

Sv^eden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- 
holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several other 
places. 

BOOK-TRADE of the UNITED STATES. The number of new works which 
appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, forming 





.Ji-iginal. 


Reprint. 


Poetry - - - 


• i 


3 


Travels 


- 8 


10 


Fine Arts - 


- 8 





Miscellaneous works 


59 


- 43 



BOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 211 

1,300 volumes, and the cost of which may be estimated at S 1:220,000. In 
1836. the mmiber was considerably increased, and the cost of the books 
published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston, 
New York. Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. 
Another statement for thej^ears 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows :— originals 
1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ;— number of volumes printed (1,000 for 
each edition), 1,884,000. 

In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more 
frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted 
English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers 
of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale jf a 
book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four 
editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of 
The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled 
during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments 
amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. 
The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- 
ported literary productions in 1834 : 

Original. Reprint. 
Education - - 73 - 9 

Divinity - - -37-18 

Novels and Tales -19-95 

History and Biography - 19 • 17 
Jurisprudence - - 20 - 3 

Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful 
predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from 
foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the 
United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may 
be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- 
pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten 
years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent 
income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, 
the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly 
doubled. 

[The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in tne Booksellers' Advertiser., edited by 
G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi- 
cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register 
m the Literary Wurld.^ 

American Publications — January to June, 1849. 

Education 
Divinity - 
Novels and Tales 
History 
Biography 
Political Economy 
Medicine 
Science 
Poetry 

The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- 
sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. 

BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were 
made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their 
invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 
907 B. c. 

BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle op, one of the most sanguinary in the 
records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ; 
commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff. 



Original. 


Reprint. 


Original. Reprint. 


36 




7 


Travels - - - 21 - 7 


- 25 




25 


Metaphysics - - 3-8 


18 




28 


Miscellaneous - - 25 - 10 


- 20 




12 


Law ) 


15 




6 


Juvenile > not ascertained. 


. 3 







Periodical ) 


12 




11 




- 11 




9 


For six months -200 - 128 


11 




6 


Total, 328. 



212 THE AVORLD*S PROGRESS. [ BOl 

240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the 
loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, 
for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscoav to its fate. The 
road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little 
opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved 
the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the 
French military power over Europe. See Moscow. 

BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term 
has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the 
election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first 
admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the 
Irish, 1365. 

BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son 
inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to 
have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassaFs bride, 
and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- 
sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is 
mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished 
by Malcolm III. in 1062. — Haydn. 

BOSPHORUS, now called Circassla. The history of this kingdom is involved 
in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- 
actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by 
order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- 
oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- 
vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the 
Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- 
miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. 

BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- 
menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. 
The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- 
liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- 
ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more 
actively sustained than by the peoj)le of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was 
born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration 
of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. 
Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18.038; in 1810, 33.250 ; in 1820, 43,298; 
in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. 

BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of 
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. 
The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the 
battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had 
the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- 
tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient fiimilies in the king- 
dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost 
their lives. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. 
The Historia Plantaruvi of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors 
on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of 
the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study 
was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, between 
1535 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, 
the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sy.s- 



BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 

tern, in 1758. At the time of Linnseus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of 
plants actually described amounted in number to 11.800. The number of 
species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. 

BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. 
The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived 
at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- 
tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of 
herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, 
al)0ut tliirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and 
Transportation. 

BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The 
art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans 
at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found 
in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was 
blov>'n, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. 

BOULOGNE, Francb. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France 
upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, 
and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here 
with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See 7iext article and France. 

BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited 
much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration v/sls made in 
1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses, 
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17. 000 sailors to invade England. The 
coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of 
defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into 
volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely 
for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriousl}^ intended the inva- 
sion. 

BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the 
Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions,- 
Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of 
Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostook, 1838-9, 
suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New 
Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. 
army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- 
ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern 
boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, 
June 1846. 

BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- 
ties — a new principle introduced into commerce bj^ the British parliament. 
The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in 
England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been 
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Eleme7its of Commerce. 

BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, 
armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put 
their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, 
one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of 
Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 
4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The mu.ti- 
neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three 
were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. 

BOURBON, House of. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of 
Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage 
with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly 



214 THE world's progress. [ BOI 

styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589, The 
crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- 
teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact 
took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were 
restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch 
was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, 
a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that 
year. — See France. 

BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French 
first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered 
to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are 
styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 
1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the 
Island. See Mauritius. 

BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of 
England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black 
Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the 
battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, 
Richard 11., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian 
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the 
victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, 
who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, 
Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong partj^ and 
some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity 
does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- 
ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the 
World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and tauglit her 
pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. 
She died in 1680. 

BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth 
century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. 
played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at 
Tunbridge. — Memoircs de Gravimont. 

BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to 
Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was 
again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- 
aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- 
bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the boAv was six feet, and 
the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and 
were discharged by a trigger. 

BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatiis of the Romans, and a favorite 
sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm an 
advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- 
ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and 
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, 
behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach 
boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," 
selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., 
the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing 
have declined. 

BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi 
Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his 
genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures 
in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- 



BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215 

Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and 

September to November — endowed 1691, 

BOYNE, Battle of, between king William III. and liis father-in-law, James II., 

. fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 

1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James 

immediately afterwards fled to Dulilin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to 

France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. 

BPv-ABANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- 
bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip 11. of 
Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 
seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, 
and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the 
great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 
— again in 1794 by their Repubhc ; and it now forms part of the kingdom 
of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgmm. 

BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read 
of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillcE, were usually 
distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. 
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are 
female ornaments to the present day. 

BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and 
bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off 
the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of 
Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbe 
Vertot. 

BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- 
Miagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- 
sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
India on pui'pose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive 
their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to 
their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. 
They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- 
ments. — Straho. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- 
positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. 

BR ANDEN BURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say 
it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which 
signifies Giiard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified 
Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- 
stowed the gov(irnment on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of 
Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. 
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- 
berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. 

BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- 
cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell 
to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. 

BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the 
seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the 
early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted 
with its iise. — WhittaJcer. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the 
ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- 
gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, 
formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- 
ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists 
had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 



216 THE world's progress. [brb 

and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that 
Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles 
made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig- 
nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. 

BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was 
driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the 
Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red 
wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The 
goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- 
ered 1730 (see Diamo7ids). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, 
the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution 
took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don 
Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the 
throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant 
son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil 
war ensued. — See Portugal. 

BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the 
first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hlsi. 
Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. 
Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which 
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made 
from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — 
Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of 
barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; 
and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been 
eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of 
land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- 
isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat 
a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. 

BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work 
was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the 
great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, 
and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 860 feet in breadth at the 
bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of 
granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a 
million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of 
the lighthouse on its Avestern extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. 

BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The 
breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in 
the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. 

BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the 
Spaniards in 1625 ; a-nd again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided 
here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoratio7i. Breda was 
taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The 
French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of 
France ceased here. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was 
worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, 
it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Ho- 
norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from 
Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other conn- 
tries, and at length it became general. 



BRlJ DICTIONAPwY OF DATES. 217 

BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of 
Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven 
out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen 
was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- 
dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. 

BRESLAIT, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under 
prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on 
both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the 
same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- 
rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. 

BREST. It Avas besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English, 
A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a 
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. 
The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 
1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot 
of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
during the late war. 

BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting 
formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- 
try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of 
England, 1066. 

BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- 
land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, 
Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- 
sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to 
receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long 
prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. 

BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church 
of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and 
both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among 
the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils 
of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The 
qualit}^ of tjq^e in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the 
type called brevier at the present day. 

BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo 
Saxon ancestors. — Tindal. " One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, 
of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Slotve. There 
are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in 
Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which 
there are in England about 1400; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c., 
who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, 
many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brew^ers and 
the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. 

BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- 
tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the 
land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- 
liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery 
in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000^. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. 
Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord 
Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- 
citing a bribe, January 1784. 

BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable 
offence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 

10 



218 THE world's progress. [ BRi 

an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; 
and several similar instances have occurred since. 
BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, 
Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made 
under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chron. The 
size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of 
bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 W4is 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the 
number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. 
See Building. 

BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 
Ihe ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her 
spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the 
Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on 
her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her 
parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. 

BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a roj^al palace of king JoLn, near 
Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was 
given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this 
name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality 
near to Bride's well ; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- 
lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. 

BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so 
various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient 
bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos 
is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. 
Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was 
built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its 
frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could 
scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were 
invented to account for it. At Shaflfhausen an extraordinary bridge was 
built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet v/ide : there was a pier in the 
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a 
man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons 
heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroj^ed by 
the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 
29, 1848. 

BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and 
were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built 
at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest 
erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in 
China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are 
Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; South wark, of iron, 
1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, 
in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the 
Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was 
begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in 
that couutrj^ in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- 
mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is 
an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the 
navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. 

BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain 
date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on 
public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are 
without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are 



BRI J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 219 

distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always written on 
parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St. 
Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces 
and dispensations, as well as business. 

BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and 'Prussia, and 
the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The 
ahies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which 
the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. 

tJRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, 
a prince of the Britons, 880 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a 
distinct county in the reign of Edward III, Taken by the earl of Glouces- 
ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 
1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. 
Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the >ecorder, into 
the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the .sessions. 
He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- 
sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate 
until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some 
of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, 
and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four 
were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during 
his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. 

BRITAIN. The earhest records of the history of this island are the manu- 
scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the 
Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- 
tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, 
the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to 
only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar, 
55 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- 
erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty 
pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- 
pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. 
First invasion of Britain by the Romans, 

under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 

Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 

Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 
London founded by the Romans - 49 

Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 
The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 

70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 

A vast army of Britons is defeated by 

Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 
Reisr. of Lucius, the first Christian king 

of Britain, and in the world - - 179 

Severus keeps his court at York, then 

called Eboracum - - - 207 

He dies at York - - - - 211 

Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne 

of Britain - - - - 286 

He is killed by Alectus, who continues 

the usurpation - - - . 293 

Constantius recovers Britain by the de- 
feat of Alectus .... 296 



Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at 
York - ' - - - A. D. 306 

The Roman forces are finally with- 
drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 

The Saxons and Angles are called in to 
aid the natives against their northern 
neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449 

Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- 
ons attack the natives themselves, 
driving them into Wales - - 455 

Many of the natives settle in Armorica, 
since called Brittany - - - 457 

The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided 
into seven kmgdoms - - - 457 

Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 

Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and 
establishment of Christianity - - 596 

Cadwallader, last king of ihe Britons, 
be-jfan his reign - - - 678 

The Saxon Heptarchy ends - - 823 

See England., and also Tabular Views, p. 
75, &c. 

That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- 
lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- 
stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For mstance, 
a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. 
Phillips's Annals. 

FTUTISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was tho 



220 THE world's progress. [ BR» 

grant by parliament of 20,OOOZ, to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- 
ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature 
and art, which had cost him 50,000Z. The library contained 50,000 volumes 
and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- 
alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same 
year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- 
tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased 
to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of 
curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its 
rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, 
&c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- 
ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. 

BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the 
crown, by Edward.the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Citron. 

BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- 
riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- 
nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. 
— Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, 
in 1757. 

BROCOLI: an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which 
are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of 
Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The 
cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- 
land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. 

BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- 
land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was 
enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 
William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 
6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- 
brokers. 

BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various 
other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian 
statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 

10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight 
of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added 
one fifteenth of lead and silver. 

BROTHELS, were formerlj^ allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, 
under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- 
side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- 
ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest 
penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 

11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope 
SixtTis IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, 
which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron. 

BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert 
Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- 
tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other 
connnunions. But the foimder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a 
benefice in the church of England. — Colliiis's Eccles. Hist. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The 
illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Ti'aveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- 
ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the 
desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, pa.ssed some months in Arabia 
Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital o/ Abys- 



'^UC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 

sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtamed the great object of hia 
wishes— a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 
1773, and died in 1794, 

BRUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of 
Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his Mife Cunegonde (the heiress of 
Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who Avas Guelph IV., the great-grand- 
father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. 
of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of 
any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- 
sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. 
The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family 
of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he 
retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg 
were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several 
branches. The present duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the 
eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this 
last sprang the royal family of England, A revolution took place at Bruns- 
wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to 
retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. 

BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The 
memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches 
and 4000 houses Avere destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. 
Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 
25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and 
tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur- 
ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 
feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly 
furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- 
play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising 
money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- 
trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such 
projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and 
Law's Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and 
Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon 
after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. 
The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, 
Basco, and Morgan, Avho murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The 
expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, Avas undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont, 
in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. 

BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, folloAvers of Margaret Buchan, 
who promised to conduct them to the ncAv Jerusalem, and prophesied the 
end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, AA'hen 
her folloAvers dispersed. 

BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place 
between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be 
the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent 
war between those poAvers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703. Avas 
pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and after 



222 THE world's progress. [bxti. 

expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- 
pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. 

BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri- 
sius, of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- 
nites, he took from them their bucklers, Avhich were of gold and silver, 309 
B. c. See article Armor. 

BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II. ; 
but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, 
wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were, 
however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. 

BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman II. at 
the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, 
and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- 
gary A\as annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- 
ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See 
Hungary. 

BUENA VISTA, Battle of, between the American force, of about 5.000 men, un- 
der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under 
Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. 
American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- 
cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. 

BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It 
was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was 
retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British 
suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, 
July 6. 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816: 
the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- 
nos Ayres and Monte Video, Englai>d and France blockaded the port of Bue- 
nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, 
defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. 

BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The 
shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- 
ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesfe?-s, who are described 
as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they 
were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- 
verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; 
Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. 

BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, 
and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone 
Avas early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every 
nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be 
referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a, d. 670. The first 
bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick 
was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it 
in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl of 
Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase 
of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by 
Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. 

BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687 ; and are subdued by the 
emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 
15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one 
eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen 



BUO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223 

home, Bulgaria Vas governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by 
Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. 

BULL, OR EDICT of the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient 
use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, 
deriving its name from bulla, 'and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and 
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the 
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden 
bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal ; 
and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of 
Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- 
tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 
1588. 

BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of 
Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights 
of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- 
ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a 
sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter 
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and 
huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the 
Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish 
bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence 
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- 
tom. May 24, 1802.^Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Crii- 
elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260: abol-. 
ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was 
a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- 
tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. 

BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d, 1514 ; and iron ones are first 
mentioned in the Fadera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close 
of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for 
musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, 
instead of iron. — Ashe. 

BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, 
and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 
1054 killed and wounded ; iVmerican, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for 
want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has 
always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and 
is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which 
the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. " It was finished 
July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary 
contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- 
cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 50,00C 
people present, June 17, 1843. 

BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most 
extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most 
of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. 
See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads 
"/hroughout the volume : — 

Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy, Deposes the French directory, and be- 

Aug. 15, 1769 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 

He first distinguishes himself in the Sends overtures of peace to the king of 

command of the artillery at Toulon - 1793 England - - - .Jan. 1, 1800 
lie embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798 His life attempted by an " infernal ma- 
Is repulsed before Acre • May 27, 1799 chine" - - - Dec. 21. 1800 
He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 



je24 



THE WOKLD's progress. 



[bur. 



BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, continued. 

Is defeated at Waterloo 



Elected president of the Italian, late 

Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 

Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 
Made first consul for life - Atig. 2, 1802 
Accepts the title of emperor from the 

senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 
Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 
Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 
Divorced from the empress Josephine 

Dec. 16, 1809 
Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 
A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, 

and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 
His overtures of peace to England re- 
jected - - - April 14, 1812 
[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow 

in quick succession.] 
He renounces the thrones of France 
and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of 
Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 
Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 
Arrives at Elba • - May 3, 1814 

Again appears in France ; he quits Elba 

and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 
Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 

Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 
Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 
The allies sign a treaty for his exter- 
mination - - - March 25. 1815 
He abolishes the slave-trade March 29! 1815 



June 18, 1815 
Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 

And abdicates in favor of his infant 

son - - - June 22, 1815 

Intending to embark for America, he 

arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 

He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the 

Better opho7i - - July 15, 1815 

Transferred at Torbay to the Northum- 

berland,and sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 
Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- 
creed by the allied sovereigns he shall 
remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1815 

The family of Bonaparte excluded for 
ever from France by the law of am- 
nesty - - . Jan. '2, 1816 
Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 
His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 
His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832 
The French chambers decree, with the 
consent of England, that the ashes of 
Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- 
na, and brought to France - May 12, 1 840 
They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 
The Belle Poule, Fi'ench frigate, arrives 
at Cherbourg with the -«mains of 
Napoleon, in the care of :he prince 
de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1840 
They are interred with great solemnity 
in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 



Leaves Paris for the army • June 12, 1815 

BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with 
its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ; 
in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident 
in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 
1413. — Vr/ier^s Statutes. See Borough. 

BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- 
ished with death. 

BURGOS. Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, 
which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British 
and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but 
the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- 
tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. 

BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger- 
many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- 
nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed 
the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- 
gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip li. 
of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the 
Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to 
France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. 

BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth. 
The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- 
ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See 
Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210.— 
Eusehius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in 
cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758, Vaults were 
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- 
land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen 
shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries. 

BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in- 



BUPv J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 

stituted in Englapd by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536.— 5^^^^^. A tax 
was exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, £50 and foi 
that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo III 1783 — 
Statutes. See Bills of Mortality. 

BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It 
was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- 
trated bemg called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by 
pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose 
of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February 1829. The 
crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. 
Ihe monster named ^isAo;? was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- 
cuted with Williams., one of his accomphces, for the murder of a poor Italian 
boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as 
being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar 
murders), December 5, same year. 

BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- 
pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty.— See India 

BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among tlK Romans, Jews 
and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest 
m the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burn- 
ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- 
ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio animce to burn 
the soul.— See Suttees. 

BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn- 
ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished 
heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehen^e. This 
punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered 
in this manner.— See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- 
count of religious principles. The first sufferer Avas sir William Sawtree 
parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401 In the 
reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley bishop 
of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer. archbishop of 
Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others 
suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* 

BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- 
ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- 
mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was 
very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the 
dead m graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead 
IS practised m many parts of the East and West Indies. 

BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown 
to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful 
,y,i^® modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen. 1680; of Buffon 
1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- 
ments of the fu.'*ion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens or burning 
mirror : ' ^ 



»«^ -IJu *^°'PP"^^'^^' that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shockin<^ violences 
^Inl^ I'^^fn'^^'^^^'"^'^ on, t^ere were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides "those who 
^b Ih^nf o{ ?i "^ ^•^P^-i^^T''''' ^'?^'' '-^nd ,co"fi>^cations. Among those who suffered by fire were 
5 l)ishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers 
dLriTnd'BonneV^Thri^t J'^' unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishopTGar: 
^"k' nlSr^-n I^lS f^r.':^}LZr.t ^^^y-^ ^^h--^--' -^o seemed to d'enve a 



earage pleasure m witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 

10* 



226 THE world's progress. [ BYZ 

BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued. 



Substances fused. Weight. Timt 
A topaz ... 3 grains 45 seconds. 



An emerald - • 2 grains 25 seconds. 

A ci^stal pebble - 7 grains 6 seconds, 

Flint - - • - 10 grains 30 seconds. 

Cornelian - - 10 grains 75 seconds. 

Pumice stone - • 10 gi'ains 24 seconds. 



Substa/ices fused. Weight. Time. 

Pure gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver • - - 20 grains 3 seconds. 

Copper - - - 33 grains 20 seconds. 

Platma • - - 10 grains 3 seconds. 

Cast iron - - 10 grains 3 seconds. 

Steel - - - 10 grains 12 seconds. 

Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are 
calcined ; and things, not capable of melting-, at once become red-hot like iron. 

BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, where Creon ordered 
Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman 
vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress 
or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia 
was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia 
was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives 
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- 
mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- 
dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls 
built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this 
species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greece. 

BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is 
the same with the hermcE of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts 
from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about 

A. D. 1466. — Vasari. 

BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there w^ere three classes : the Suarii pro- 
vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The 
butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, 
although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — 
Annals of London. 

BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the 
early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- 
tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- 
tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow 
dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable 
butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, 
than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park. 

BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were 
prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- 
tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement 
from any quarter of late year.s, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- 
proved. — Phillips. 

BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round 
the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- 
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- 
gust 16; 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack." — 
Bellchambers. 

BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 715 

B. c. — Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins 
by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after 
him it, received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople 



CAD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 227 

c. 

CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists, 
and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- 
tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, 
supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation 
of the CabaL, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Chfford, the lord 
Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- 
dale, 22 Charles II. 1670.— Hume. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign 
of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; OfFa, king of the Mercians, 758, 
and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret 
deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the 
great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now 
styled the privy council, Avas instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. 
Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- 
structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members:* 

Lord president. 

Lord chancellor. 

Lord privy seal. 



First lord of the treasury. 
Chancellor of the exchequer. 



Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 

President of the board of control. 

President of the boari of trade. 

Master of the mint. 

First lord of the admiralty. 



In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods 
and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of 
Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of 
the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of England. 

CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making 
the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented 
in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making 
cables for ships of large size. Chain cables Avere introduced into the British 
navy in 1812, 

C ADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence 
in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 
to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray 
league, 1424. 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- 
try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 
20,000 Kentish men, who armed "to punish evil ministers, and procure a 
redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time 
bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and 
several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing 
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- 
serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- 
sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451, 

CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley. 
One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, 

The term cabinet council is of comparatively modern date, and originated thus : the afiairs 
of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the 
earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington; to these were added tlie earl of Northumberland, for or- 
nament; the bishop of I^ondon for his place, being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries, Va;:?e and 
Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, 
meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of 
Btate, reproachfully called the junto, and aftervvards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Ciji- 

REND ON. 



228 THE world's progress. [cal 

against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587. 
Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, 
September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he 
failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, 
under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by 
the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. 
Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca 
in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. 
Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. 
C^SARS, ERA OF the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 
38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was 
much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held 
in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. 
Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John 
of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 
1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- 
dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the 
year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. 
CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- 
mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to droAvn the enemy, 
broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of 
the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by 
the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming 
flood, A. D. 1642. 
CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for 
the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in 
what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 
969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- 
saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their 
empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 
1754, when 40,000 persons perished. Set on fire by a lady of the beglerbeg, 
Dec, 1755. Taken by the French imder Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 
1801. 
CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held 
by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, 
and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it 
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- 
barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long 
exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. 
CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It 
was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta 
was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, 
in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed 
into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence 
twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- 
taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supremo 
court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See 
Bengal and India. 
CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived 
from Gael or Gaehnen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, 
who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of 
Caledonia; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- 
able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded 
by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear 



Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 
founded by Fergus 1., about - b. c. 330 

The Picts from the north of England 
settle in the southern borders - - 140 

Agricola carries the Roman arms into 
Caledonia, with little success, in the 
reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- 
bred II. - - - a. d. 79 

He is signally defeated by the forces of 
Corbred - - - - - 80 

Christianity is introduced into Caledonia 
in the reign of Donald I. - - 201 



fJAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 229 

to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, avI,o passed 
over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
century of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- 
rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven 
the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to 
the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, 
customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders 
and the inhabitants of the southern borders. 

The countiy is invaded by the Scuyths, 
or ^cots, and the government is over- 
thrown, about - - A. D. 30o 
The Caledonian monarchy is revived by 

Fergus II. - - . ..40^ 

After many sanguinary wars between 
the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- 
neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, 
unites the whoje country under one 
monarchy, and gives it the name of 
Scotland - - - 838 to 843 

See Scotland. 

The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- 
tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed 
Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- 
able fictions. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means 
of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between ihe western 
ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- 
tic, IS shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum 
exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, 
and opened in 1822. 

CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by 
almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into 
ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was 
of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than 
the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with 
any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by 
adding two months ; and Julius Csesar, desirous to make it more correct, 
fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- 
ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. 
The calendar of Julius Csesav was defective in this particular, that the solar 
year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 
365 days six hours. This difierence, at the time of Gregory XIII. had 
amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead 
of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, 
that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- 
larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis-^ 
sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 
1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 
2000 Mali be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 
years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to 
correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronoloey are 
a scolded. See Neio Style. 

CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India 
which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought 
to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 



230 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAL 

Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro- 
hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first 
made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. 

CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror 
of Mexico, 1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate 
Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by 
Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego 
and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. 

CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- 
bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used 
natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 
1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New ""alifornia 1769. 
Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a pro-vince of Mexico, 
1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- 
plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with 
that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 
1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by 
Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper 
California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- 
ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c., 1846. Cali- 
fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold 
placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. 
Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Con- 
vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- 
stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, 
Dec. 1849. 

CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of 
Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- 
sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of 
the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of 
time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the 
title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. 
Herbert. 

CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- 
tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 
B. c. The modei'u specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and 
beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, 
creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he 
presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, 
enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- 
rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, 
the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. 
— Holi7ished. 

CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, 
and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. 
The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, 
with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to 
whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. 

CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by 
Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously 
known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced 
by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimat-e was known somo 
centuries before. 



cam] dictionary of dates. ■ 231 

CALVARY", Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33. 
Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated 
to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time 
of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount 
Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the mang-er at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. 
Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all 
Christian countries. 

CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- 
former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal 
errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- 
ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angouleme, where he composed his Insti- 
futio Christiana Religionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He 
subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he 
differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider 
themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A 
formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561, 
where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs- 
burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric 
takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- 
prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war 
of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, 
when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to 
surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to 
fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. 
Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day. and was 
occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. 

CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic 
of Venice, comprising the pope, thQ emperor, and the kings of France and 
Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in 
the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. 

CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for rufiies. — Shakspeare. Cambrics 
were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- 
beth, Ib^^.Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and 
Avas totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 
1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now 
allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- 
quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. 
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of 
king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by 
Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during 
the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains 
thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most 
ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the 
chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. 

CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674— Wood's Ath. Ox. 
Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- 
scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger 
Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural 
magic, about 1600.— Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent 
invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- 
nent ; the last was produced in 1839. 

CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, 
and continued to hold their religious meetings in the iie\ds.—Bur7iet. 



232 THE world's progress. [ CAH 

CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently 
most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are 
told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- 
trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments 
are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The 
last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. 

CAMPE ACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- 
lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- 
booters of St. Doraingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up 
the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 
1662. 

CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south 
of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral 
Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter 
losing fifteen ships, which Avere either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. 

CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the 
latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, 
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- 
able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the 
Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the 
Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. 

CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d, 
1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously 
visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- 
stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was 
confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two 
provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates 
on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke 
and Mr. Fox arose. 

CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- 
treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St, 
Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were 
repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, 
governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, 
April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- 
ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at 
Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes 
took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several 
hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- 
bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of 
Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of .£1,000 for Papi- 
neau. Dec. 5, 1837. MLeod (charged Avith the destruction of the Caroline _ 
American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 
1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United 
States against meddling v/ith the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- 
calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, 
took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- 
ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying 
losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves). Aug. 15, 1849. 
Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against 
such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, 
the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. 

CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes 
over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The 
canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean 



CAN ] DICTlONAR-y OF DATES. 233 

was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- 
menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 
1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between 
the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between 
the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was 
by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. 
That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 
are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8. 1847. In Eng- 
land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the 
length of those only that are navigable— total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there 
are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the 
Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles.— Williams. 

CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal 
in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. 
The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- 
peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. 

CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu- 
nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, 
about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, 
A. D. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which 
flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts 
of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. 

CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. 
It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken 
by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the 
Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200.000 
men perished, 1669. 

CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, 
or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the 
lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were 
little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The 
wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said 
to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of 
modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are 
made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which 
is fragrant, and yields a bright light. 

CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse- 
crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the 
year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of 
the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- 
sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, 
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice 
of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order 
of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 

CANNtE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to 
the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and 
Spaniards ; and Paulus ^Emilius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of 
whom 40,000 were ^IdJm.—Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels 
of rings, taken from the Roman" knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. 
Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the 
battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 
216 B. c. — Bossuet. 

CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform 
us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 



234 THE WORLD S r-ROG-RESS, [ CAJi 

American tribes anil natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the 
present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage 
nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the 
Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. 
The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in 
America. See Anthropophagi. 

CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According 
to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 134S ; but 
this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at 
the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by 
the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymer^s Fadera. Louis XIV"., 
upon setting out oh his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed 
upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Arlillery. 

CANNON, Remarkable, The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, case 
in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in 
Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen 
feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet 
four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge 
of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon^ 
in 1529, In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- 
pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 
feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, 
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, 

" Charge me well, and sponge me clean, 
I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." 

Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was 
fired three times In the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct, 23, 1788. — Phillips. 

CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. 
Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon 
existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. 
Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon 
law author, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — 
Stowe. 

CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the 
Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallenfs Tables. Saints have so 
accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Renault. 

CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, 
king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560, Its early cathedral was erected during 
the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous 
for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and Avithin it are interred Henry IV. and 
Edward the Black Prince, 

CANTERBURY, Archbishopric of. This see was settled by St. Austin, who 
preached the gospel in England a, d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of 
Kent. The king, animated Avith zeal for his new religion, bestoAved great 
favors upon Austin, Avho fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's 
dominions. The church Avas made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, 
although it Avas formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas k Becket, mur- 
dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- 
litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency ot 
all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had 
formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop Avas styled a patriarch. 
This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and 
to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St, 
Austin was the first bishop, 596 The see was made superior to York, 1073. 



cap] dictionary of dates. 235 

— See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at ;e2816. l*; 5. 9<^.— 
Beatsnn. 

CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver- 
ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into 
medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — 
Freind's History of l*hijsic. 

CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed 
up' to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- 
pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factorj^ at Canton, but that of Eng- 
land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating 
to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 
15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 
more than 1000 persons in October 1833. 

CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes 
by incision from two plants that grov/ in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, 
called HcBvia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe 
trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — 
See India Rubber. 

CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the >ead, 
and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a; one 
period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their 
slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark 
of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in 
France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear 
a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is leferred to the year 1449 ; 
the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. 
into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A 
statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 2M. (40 cts.) nor cap 
above 25. 8^. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. 

CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the 
French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and 
re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison 
and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven 
ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng 
land at the peace of 1763. 

CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to 
the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British 
settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the 
Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. . This Cape was confirmed to the English 
by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East 
Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally- 
called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea/' 
and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of 
Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having 
reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage 
to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the 
Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphlnstone and general 
Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by 
sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to 
England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 
1820. The Caffi-es have made several irruptions on the British settlementai 
here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown. in Oct, 1834, 
Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848. 



236 THE world's progress. [ CAP 

CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under 
the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered 
by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1416. 

CAPE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, 
and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, 
with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of 
the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being- 
in command of the Mediterranean fleet of flfteen sail, gave battle to the 
Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off" this Cape, and signally defeated the 
enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several 
others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English 
peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 
8000Z. a year. 

CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count 
of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- 
vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, 
A. D. 987. — Heiiault. 

CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built 
to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolimis. The foundation laid by Tar- 
quinius Prisons, 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to 
this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds 
were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- 
stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. d. 70. The Capitoline games in- 
stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. 

C APPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- 
cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of 
Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes H. 
became king of Cappadocia. 

Pharnaces is declared king - b. c. 744 



His successors are unknown for nearly 

three centuries. 

* * * * * * 

Reign of Ariarathes I. - - - 362 

Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- 
rathes is crucified - - - - 322 
Defeat of the Parthians - - - 217 
Irruption of the Trocmi - - - 164 
Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- 
cends the throne - - - 162 
Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 
Attains assists Philopator, and Oro- 

phei-nes dethroned - - - - 154 

Philopator joins the Remans against 

Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 
His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- 



ing the throne, poisons five of her own 
children, the sixth and only remaining 
child is saved, and th^ queen put to 
death - - - - - 153 

This young prince reigns as Ariarathes 

VII. 153 

Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. - 97 
Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96 

Cappadocia declared a free country by 

the senate of Rome - - -95 

The people elect a new king Ariobar- 

zanes I. - - - . . " 94 

His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns • 65 

He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 

Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, 

dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to 

the Roman empire • a. d. 17 



CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- 
rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, 
during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a 
STunptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir 
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 

CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, 
from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or 
hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- 
chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although the 



OAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 

rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their 
extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. 
CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The 
covered cars {curncs arcuati) were in use among- the Romans. Triumphal 
cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the 
Elder, according to others. 

CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a, d. 1498. The province 
declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by 
a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks 
and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or 
their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. 

CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for 
freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror 
in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- 
ment in Sept. 1820. 

CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, and constitute the 
conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or 
incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the 
eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the 
popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they 
ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes 
of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; 
and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1680 ; some saj^ in 1623. — Du Caiige. 

CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed 
that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. 
during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought 
him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an 
amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of 
wisdom. — MaUcvi. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Da'mes 
Barrington. Picquetand all the early games are French. Cards first taxed 
in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. 
In 1825. the duty being then Is. Qd. per pack, less than 150,00i packs were 
stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs 
paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th 
Jan. 1840.— ParZ. Reports. 

^CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he 
first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by 
bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — • 
De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; 
and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the 
• initials H. B., aro political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. 

CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a 
strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II.. was 
made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken 
by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. 

Carlsbad, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit of 
emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic 
government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come 
to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- 
nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies 
and free institutions, August 1, 1819. 

CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of thu 
four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. 
Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 



238 THE world's progress. [car 

interrupted succession from Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carmel has a monas- 
tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 
feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides : it is often 
referred to in Jewish histories. 

" See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, 
And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies," — Pope. 

CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, 
amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- 
lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See 
N. tf* /S. Carolina. 

CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of 
Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8, Carpets were spread on the ground, on 
which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses, 
even in the East, We have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- 
cles of luxury; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's 
splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in 
winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture 
of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of 
Henry IV,, between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France 
in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 
1750. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkej^ carpets, especially 
the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- 
minster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu- 
facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within 
fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. 

CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who 
j>roduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France 
in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, 
and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the 
art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used 
by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth centurj^ Hen- 
ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- 
rious : t^ey were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were 
then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; 
and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first 
let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name. 
See Coaches. 

CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Ren^ des Cartes, the French 
philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker : 
his metaphysical principle "I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke ; 
and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov- 
ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great 
singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent tiiought prevails 
throughout it, and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des 
Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — 
Duf?~esnoy. 

CARTHAGE founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 
869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took 
refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the eni]>ire of 
the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total dem-D- 
lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground. 146 b. c. 
when the flames raged during seventeen daj^s, and many of the inhabitants 
perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The 
Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of 
this once powerful republic, — Eusebius, 



CAS] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



239 



CARTHAGE, continued. 

Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa 

— Blair ■ • - b. C 

First alliance of the Carthaginians with 

the Romans 
The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated 

by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. 

Herodotus, I. vii. 
They send 300,000 men into Sicily 
The siege of Syracuse 
The Carthaginians land in Italy 
, Their defeat by Timoleon 



869 
- 509 



480 

- 407 

- 396 
• 379 

- 340 



, Jhey are defeated by Agathocles, and 

' immolate their children on the altar of 

Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 
The first Punic war begins - - 264 

The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- 
mans in a naval engagement - - 260 
Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 255 
Regulus is crucified - - - - 256 
Asdrubal defeated by Metellus - - 251 
Romans defeated before Lilyboeum - 250 
End of the first Punic war - - 241 
War between the Carthaginians and 

African mercenaries - - - 241 

Hamilcar Earcas is sent into Spain; he 
takes with him his son, tlie famous 



Hannibal, at the age of nine years, 
having first made him swear an eter- 
nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 237 
Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- 
tones - ... - 227 
Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 
Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as 

the Iberus - - - - 219 

The second Punic war begins - - 21 8 

First great victory of Hannibal - - 217 

Hannibal crosses the Alps, and ^ters 

Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 

Great battle of Cannse (tvhich see) - 216 
New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 
Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated 

and slain in Italy - - - 207 

The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 
Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege 

to Utica 204 

Hannibal recalled from ytaly - - 203 

Great battle of Zama {uhich see) • 202 

An ignominious peace ends the second 

Punic war .... 201 
The third Punic war begins - - 149 

Destruction of Carthage, which is burned 
to the ground - - - - 146 



CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Ca, tha- 
ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable 
march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, 
was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of 
.£1,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but 
he M^as obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. 

CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired 
from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of 
Dauphine. Their rules Avere formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and 
v^'ere peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not 
leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave-; and their clothing was 
cwo hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The 
general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, 
from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origines Carthus. 

CA.RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- 
tican, under Julius II. and Leo X., about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them 
that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of 
England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- 
sent— 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter 
and John healing the Lame at'the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- 
nias ; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to 
Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. 

CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- 
odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. 
and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and 
afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers 
and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- 
cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares, are mention- 
ed by Homer. 

CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls 
is described as being "the happy vallej^, and a paradise in perpetual spring." 
The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that 
Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well 
imitated by the spinning at Bradford^ and the looms of Huddersfield. 



240 THE world's progress. f CAT 

Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about 
the year 1650. — Bernier. 
CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, 
Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suflfered under the dreadful 
visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- 
ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded 
that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, 
looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 
persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. 

CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French 
arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, 
commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted live days successively, 
from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in 
this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 
000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. 

CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here 
about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 
1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the 
whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. 
See Arro.gon and Spain. 

CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and 
built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo 
Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oz 
steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the 
nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these 
were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possessions, 
on his accession, in 1154. 

CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted 
the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places 
of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, 
explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years 
ago : among others, a chef-d' auvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- 
maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental 
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- 
tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The 
Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- 
combs, especially those of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. 

CATANIA, OR C ATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony 
from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women 
were permitted to appear. This ancient citj^ is remarkable for the dreadful 
overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity 
to Etna, ^vhich has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava 
four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in 
a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 
1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- 
lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried 
in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number 
of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. 

CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- 
gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of 
the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with 
needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. 

CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense 
weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They 



^^^1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 241 

Tardon^^^^^ ""^ throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards )cngth.-, 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre^ 

i'-^™l39'''^irSt^^^^ T thereupon furnameV^^rcSlt 

See Spain Catholv, was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family 
having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and eXvaZce' 
and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the Svcf 
his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of t^ie Romans 

Romf on t."' T^'^^' '" "^"^P"'^ '^^ ^^"^^^' ^^''^^^' the trel^iy'^Z set 
Rome on fire This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero 

^rreTiS^?e'?e«rlt?o^rrt^' \"^ '\^-^^^"^ ^^^ ^^ his'accomS 
Slfr ' ^^®.^f ^f d to Gau , where his partisans were assembling an armv 
Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home whilf PetreTus 
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them and the conspk 
ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December 63 bc 
His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence 

l^ Tf'A^^ "" 7^.' ^^' ^^ ^^^^^ t^^ ^^^^'der of" his own brother and it is 
said that he and his associates drank human blood to rende? theh oathS 
more firm and inviolable.— ^«ZZ«5^. ^^®" ^^^^^ 

^^P; ^Yk^?^ °'^- Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome " 
alone "ts^al^rtr '"'' and philosopher, considered freedom as that Xch 
alone sustains the name and digmty of man :" unable to survive the inde- 
pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of 
suicide mdependently of all moral considerations, Cato can led his pat? ot 
ism to the highest degree of political frensy: for Cato dead couirb of 
no use to his country; but had he preserved his life, his couS mL^^^ 

aSrtf t '^t:^^^^^^^^ '^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^-^ ^-^ '^ ^^ 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and 
the'^'^w^wftrrv^ "^r^ '"^r' ^^^ ^^^ assas^atlon of thi minlstlrrof 
and he ovprlhinw T.T ^"^ ''"'^' sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, 
2? l^'^O .i^ Ti ^f the government: the conspirators were arrested Feb 

CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridg-e of 
Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited ancifntly 
by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the ea?th S 

JZf^lZf^T'' 'T""^ '1 r^^ P^^'^«' ^"^ i^ others was va^lgated with 
fiuitful orchards and plantations: its people were at one time supposed to 
gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- 
out making use of money. Prometheus w^s tied on the top of Caucasus bv 

Isls^V" T^^'"^""^^ ^'"?r ^ ^^ ""^^"^'^«' ^^^<^rding to'^ancienraXr^ 
1045 B. c. I he passes near the mountain were called Caucasi^s Porta' and 
It IS supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Z?s made M? 
way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome,' a. n. 4A1 .-Strabo h71 

CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of 
burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of S icy on was 
the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mStress 
k/ds o/'flnT ^' ^'^Pf %^«ted as sitting on the ground, and making gar 
lands of flowers: and from this circumstance the picture, whici wai 



242 THE world's progress. [ CEM 

bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of Stepha- 

noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinii Hist. Nat. 

CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those 
who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought 
Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- 
heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. 

CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for 
their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the 
Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmas ; the com- 
mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In the 
early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field ; 
they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon., 490 b. c. : and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Phitarch. 

CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. II 
was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. 
These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by 
the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 
1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne 
pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egj^t, 
368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. 
The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. 
The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, 
and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in 
diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is 
eighteen feet. See Globes. 

CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by 
pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the 
same period. 

CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about 
A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate 
places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at 
the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 
692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 
1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, 
held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- 
ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, 
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the folloAving 
among the moderns: — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon. Hume, Adam Smith, 
Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, 
Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, 
Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, 
Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham, 

CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding al) 
their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre 
cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom 
of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans 
were at a distance from their tou'ns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in 
gardens — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — 
Mattheio xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by.^the Romish 
clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being 
interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- 
some and agreeable, and it is owing chieflj'' to the many fine plants that 
grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only 



^^^] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 243 

Within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in these 
countries, although the crowded state of our many churchvaiTls nnr th« 
danger to health of burial-places in the midst of SLse poprtS.rcalled 
for some sn^ilarnjstitutions to that of the celebrated pL t cLS at 
l\ ^^1 P-'^^'*" cemeteries have been recently opened in Son 
suburbs. The mclosed area of each of these cemeteries is pknted and la^S 
out m walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme 
tenes m Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns; an n Ireland at cSk 

S't a?Mount lubm^' tl 'TTr''''''. V""^ ^"^^^^ StSfe^pecia f^ 
tliat at Mount Aubuin, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill Philadelphia 
(183-), and Greenwood, near New- York ClSSe^ arp f-.r rinVi lio^tf -f i • 
theirnaturalfeaturesthananyof thosiiarLondo^^ ""'"'''^^"^ ^" 

CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate and 
correct the manners of the people; their power was also extended over 

S"; a;Sed'4S^^^^^^ extravagance. The two &st censo 

^^ere appomted 443 b. c. The office was abohshed by the emperors 

ce™u'^%°84 "*'* ''"' '"'' ''"'' '*^ ^"^«'« 18". 1«21. ^d 183l" and tSe nTj 

CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a sutdivision of a Ro 

man legion, winch consisted of 100 men and was cM^li^l.iZi^ u 

distinguished by a branch of vine which he Inied in Ws haid IvThe 

CFNTrr™'^-!' ''* ^""^'^ °' *"« P^°P'^ ™^ called a .'"J'^b'o"' 

'"= Je^LSS, hLtrrra-^coX^^rromThe^'^L^^^^^^^^^ 

b^;S:rhL"SripUi-. " '^ " '--'°' "^'^' '^ particu\alJ^:e^Lrd^ 

^^^M^ P- '^•"'* ^^''"''*' '''^'^^^ ^' ^"^^ 1^^ ^iles in diameter, was discovered bv 
M Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan 1801 To the 
naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very SA mao-nifvW 

roibtrisitn/ta^er^^^^^^ ^^-^^- p'^^^'^^^^"^ 

^^^J!:^^A J\^. """n ''f ""^^'"^ ^^'' *^"« ^'^^a^cl the seat of paradise • it was dis 
covered by he Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans Tn 

Hollanders inSrof"'' ', '^ ^^^ '^^^ ^^i^^^^^' ^^^^^^^^^ wL taken by the 

hi/conSs;fr.''Hfdi?d^fnl70S-™^^^^^^^^ f ■^""' who^^a favorite oTT^Iii^^^nd 

this beautiful cemefery. I wa^ a praa1ce% L^h anHm,h^ ^^^"^^ ^^ "°^^ occupied by 

graves of the dead. The women in E^ypt % Sfv tc? Jv^n^'"""' ^''\^^^^ flowers about thi 
Uien usual to throw a sort of herb (ou/?weet bSh , mm Yhf IT'^ ^l•^° sepulchres, and it is 
Turkey in Europe, are also adorned e heTwi h the^ieave of the n.f^ T^'""^] '" f'''^ '^"""- ^"^ 
cypresses planted at the head and feet. BetS sLe oHh" n mh?t^"/''''^', ^°!'°'''-' "^ ^^^^'l^' o^ 
stone, filled with earth, in which are phmtedS,^^^^^^^ '' Placed a che?t of ornamented 

tivated by females, who assemble in Vroups brthahuv a a "''''''■ , ^^^'^ ^'''^ '-^Snlavly cul- 
which they diligently propagate, because they are b'auifn I f f '^^P''-' ''f'''^ Sfow many myrtles, 
tV.ir gvaves—Mailet; Chandler ■ Butler ''^^''"^"1' ^'^'^ le^am long green, to jut about 



244 THE world's progress. [ CHA 

wero seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in 
Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens 
in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned 
by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- 
reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 

CH-^^RONEA, Battles of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, 
and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chasronea, in v\'hich 
Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- 
erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle 
of Chseronea in Avhich Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by 
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to 
be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of 
one. mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst 
chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the 
chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of 
Wales, July 1818. — See Meiiai Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the 
Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belg« of Britain in the time 
of Cassar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the 
royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an 
enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- 
pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a 
light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Caesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- 
lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, 
about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chariot. 

CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 
2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 
331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- 
thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed 
from the original Hebi'ewinto these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. 

CHAMP DE MARS an open square space in front of the Military School at 
Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to 
the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here 
was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous "federation," or solemnity of 
swearing fidelity to the "patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- 
ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by 
the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- 
nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held 
here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the 
country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced 
abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under 
the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Chavip de Mai. 

CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- 
tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion 
still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one 
that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary 
in tlip Dj'mocke family. 

CHANCELLORS LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks 
after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerlj^, the 
office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards 
bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who 



cha] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



245 



1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lord 

Somers. 
1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 
1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 
1710 In commission. 

1713 Lord Harcourt. 

1714 Lord Cowper again. 
1718 In commission. 

1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of 

Macclesfield. 
1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord 

Kins. 
1733 Lord Talbot. 
1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 
1761 Sir Robert Healey, afterwards lord 

Henley, and earl of Norihington. 
1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 
1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next 

day. 

1770 In commission. 

1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- 
j ed as earl Bathurst. 

I 1778 Lord Thurlow. 

1 1783 Lord Loughborough and others 



was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own 
judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was 
more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very 
ignorant, on which accoimt the first reference was made to a master in 1588, 
In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it 
was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancellor 
was permanently held. 

LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, I 

(From the time of Cardinal Wolsey.) \ 
1515 Cardinal Wolsey. j 

1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). I 

1533 Sir Thomas Audley. } 

1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 
1545 Lord Wriothesley. | 
1547 Lord St. John. i 
1547 Lord Rich. 

1551 Bishop of Ely again. : 

1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Loi'd Keeper. I 

1653 Bishop of Winchester. i 

1555 Archbishop of York. 
1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 
1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 
1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. 
1.592 Sir John Packering. 
1596 Si *Thomas Egerton. 
1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord 

Verulam. 
1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 

1639 Sir John Finch. 

1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord 

Littleton. 
1645 Sir Richard Lane. 
1648 In commission. 
1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 
1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 

Clarendon. 
1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K. 

1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 

1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of 

Nottingham. 
1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 
1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 
1690 In commission. 
1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- 

son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. 

CHANCELLOR of IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by 
Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The 
office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- 
ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, 
being so named, 1232. 

CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned 
a. d. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes 
assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the 
nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for 
keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
nicht. at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, 
afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the 
office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. 

CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a 
better footing by William I., in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in 
the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other 
courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or 
against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 



(in commission) - 


April 9 


1'83 Loi'd Thurlow again - 


- Dec. 23 


1792 In commission. 




1793 Lord Loughborough again. 




1801 Lord Eldon. 


April 14 


1806 Lord Erskine. 


- Feb. 7 


1807 Lord Eldon again. 


March 25 


1827 Lord Lyndhurst. 


- April 2C 


1830 Lord Brougham. 


Nov. 22 


1834 Lord Lyndhurst again 


Nov, 14 


1835 In commission. 




1836 Lord Cottenham. 


- Jan. 16 


1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - 


Aug. 31 


1846 Lord Cottenham agaiii 


- July 6 



1770 . 


Amount lodged 


1780 


ditto 


1790 


- ditto 


1800 


ditto 



1810 - 


Amount lodged - 


je-26,212,000 


1820 


ditto 


- 34.208,785 


1830 - 


ditto 


38,38G,135 


1840 


ditto 


- 39.772,746 



246 THE world's progress. [ CIIA 

women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches 
of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common law, are 
relievable here. — Blackstone. 

EFFECTS OP StriTORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS. 

£5,300,000 

- 7,741,000 

13,338,000 

- 19,834,000 

There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number 
of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari, 
Returns. 

CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the 
souls of the donors. — Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement of 
the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant- 
ers. — See Chanting. 

CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of 
inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of 
the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power 
of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom 
the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely 
drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. •,":. 
See Geology. 

CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses 
to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot 
racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian 
officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in 
the form of our modei'n chaise with four wheels. Caesar relates that Cassi- 
belaniis, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 
war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients Avere like our 
phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, (f-c. 

CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevolence. In England there are tens 
of thousands of charitable foundations ; and the charity commission reported 
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to 
£l 500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted 
in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic 
seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. 

CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French 
refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- 
scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 
1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until JNIay follow- 
ing. Population in 1790, 16,359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820. 24,780 ; in 1830, 
30,289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 
slaves. 

CHARTERS of RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of 
England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry I. 
A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known &s Magna Charta 
or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215. 
The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified 
by Henry III. in 1224, el seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of 
frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. 

CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 
1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles II., 



CHE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 

1G84; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an 
0.1k to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of 
charter governments in America, 1688. 

CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient 
chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating 
to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry 
III., about 1243. 

CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so 
called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the 
law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. 
Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838, 
Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, 
defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- 
ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near 
London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in 
Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni- 
versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual 
parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. 

CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- 
tial charts, about 670 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theorj^ respect- 
ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken 
as a plane, was drawn, 1556. 

CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another 
whirlpool called Scylla. on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- 
ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation 
of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- 
ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the 
ancients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vuU vitare Charybdim, became a 
proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. 

CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa- 
gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in 
churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory 
the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church 
song. — Diifresnoy. 

CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- 
sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted 
against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning 
at any time more than lOZ., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, 
and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- 
stone's Comm. 

CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the 
process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts 
with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. 
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu- 
ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- 
don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyere of Switz- 
erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, 
a quantity exceeding 10.000 tons. 

CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish 
Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, 
and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- 
tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine? 



248 THE world's progress. [ CHI 

and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an 
early acquaintance Avith chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo- 
sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c. 
The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, 
who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the 
production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with 
Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, 
and other distinguished men. 

CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 
B.C. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia; the finest plums from 
Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons 
from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree 
was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were 
brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an 
orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year .£1000, a. d, 1540. See 
Gardening. 

CHESAPEA.KE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bsry of that name, between 
the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the 
naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 
1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet 
in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British 
frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1818. 

CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c. ; and ac- 
cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and 
Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that 
the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player 
was exhibited in England in 1769. 

CHEVALIER DEON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in 
a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial 
had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be 
Si woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years; 
yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of 
his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — 
Bio. Die. 

CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the uDnatural custom of expos- 
ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on 
highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases 
they were taken care of and humanely protected by the state. The custom 
which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to 
the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — 
Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury 
with her, in the same grave, such of her children as vere unable, from their 
tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- 
I)erstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants 
to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to 
prevent them from immediately drowning. 

CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conqoerors of Peru. a. d. 
1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, r^j^arding the Span- 
iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected lOr them gold and 
silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to .^L;? sul)sequent 
cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, bin not wholly, 
in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, .aiv^ with various 
8UccesS; until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by Pun ivlsrtin over 



CHl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



249 



the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- 
pressors, and declared independent, 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain 
of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- 
hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members 
of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an 
office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again 
returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. 

CHIiMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- 
neys, Avhich were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when 
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the 
stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of 
stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among 
them ; but this is disputed. 

CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed 
many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- 
ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By 
others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of 
the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the 
sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, 
which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until to\i€rds 
the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes 
more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, 
the Chinese aided the latter, and aftervi'ards ravaged the countries on the 
coasts of the Caspian, Avhich is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. 

Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- 



The Chinese state their first cycle to 
have commenced - - b. c 2700 

The first of the 22 Cliinese dynasties 
commenced .... 2207 
***** * 

In the history of China, the first dates 
which are fixed to his narrative, by 
Se-ma-tsien, begin - . . 651 

Confucius, the father of the Chinese 

philosophers, born - - . 551 

Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 
The dynasty of Han - - - . 206 

Literature and the art of printing encou- 
raged - - - - - 202 
Religion of Ta tse commenced - - 15 
Religion of the ,'bllowers of Fo, com- 
menced about - - A. D 60 
Embassy from Rome - - . 166 
Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 
The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, 

flourishes .... 449 

The Nestorian Christians permitted to 

preach their doctrines - - - 635 

They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 
The seat of the imperial government is 

transferred to Pekin - - • 1260 

Wonderful canal, called the Yu Ho, 

completed about - - . 1400 

Eur:;" sans first arrive at Canton . 1517 

Macao is granted as a settlement to the 

Portuguese - . - - 1536 

Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope 

from Rome .... 1575 
The country is conquered by the East- 
ern Tartars, who establish the pre- 
sent reigning house - - - 1644 
An earthquake throughout China buries 
300,000 persons at Pekin alone - 1662 

11* 



blish Christianity - - - - 1692 

The Jesuits are expelled through their 
own misconduct - - - 1724 

ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. 

Earl Macartney's embassy ; he leaves 
England , - - Sept. 26, 1792 

He is ordered to depart from Pekin, 

Oct. 7, 1793 

Edict against Christianity - - 1812 

Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves 
England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 

[His lordship failed in the objects of 
his mission, having refused to make 
the prostration o\' i\\e kou-tou, lest he 
should thereby compromise the ma- 
jesty of England.] 

The exclusive rights of the East India 
Company cease - April 22, 183>i 

Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- 
intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 

Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, 

Nov. 7, 1831 

Commissioner Lin issues an edict tor 
the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 

British and other residents forbidden to 
leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 

The factories surrounded, and outrages 
committed - - March 24. 1839 

The opium destroyed during several 
days by the Chinese - June 3, 1S39 

The British trade with China ceases, by 
an edict of the emperor, and the last 
servant of the company leaves the 
country this day - - Dec. 6, 133? 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all 
trade and intercourse with England 
for ever - - - Jan. 5, 1840 



250 



THE world's progress. 



[ciu 



CHINA, continued. 

Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 
15 sail and several war steamers, hav- 
ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders 
from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 

Seizure of ('apt. Anstruiher - Sept. 16, 1840 

Lin deprived of his authority, and 
finally degraded; Keshin appointed 
imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 

Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the 
Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 

IIong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great 
Britain, and 6,000,0^0 dollars agreed to 
be paid within ten days to the British 
authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841 

Imperial edict from Peldn rejecting the 
conditions of the treaty made by Ke- 
shin - .- - Feb. 11, 1841 

Hostilities are in consequence resumed 
against the Chinese - - Feb 23, 1841 

Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 

Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
50,000 dollars to be given for ring- 
leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 

Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- 
mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 
guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 

• Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of 

the army - - March 2, 1841 

Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 
guns captured - - May 25, 1841 

The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 
of which 5,000,000 are paid down, 
and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 

British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 

Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Poltin- 
ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- 
claims the objects of his mission ; 
Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and 
destroyed - * - Aug. 27, 1841 

The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 

The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 guns 
captured, and the island of Chusan 
re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 

Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many 
of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 



Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, 
on board the CoritwuUis by sir Henry 
Pottinger for England, and Keying 
Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of 
the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1842 

CONDITIONS OF THE TREATY. 

Lasting peace and friendship between 
the two empires. 

China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, pait 
forthwith and the remainder within 
three years. 

The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo- 
foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be 
thrown open to the British. 

Consuls to reside at these cities. 

Taritfs of import and export to be esta- 
blished, (fee. &c. 

The emperor signifies his assent to the 
conditions - • Sept. 8, 1842 

Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Poitinger 
as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844 

Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar 
and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar- 
tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 

Treaty between China and the Uci 
ted Slates negotiated by Caleb 
Gushing, American Commis- 
sioner - • July 3, 1844 

ratified at Washington 

^Jan. 16, 1845 

Alexander H. Everett appointed 
commissioner to China from the 
United States - - - 1845 

John W. Davis appointed commis- 
sioner from the United States - 1847 

CHINESE EMPERORS. 

The following is a list of those who have 
reigned for the last two centuries : — 

Chwang-lei 1627 

Shun-ciie - - - . - 1644 

Kang-he 1669 

Yung-ching .... 1693 

Keen-lung 1736 

Kea-ding 1796 

Taou-kwang - - - - - 1821 

Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850 



The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic 
information respecting this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- 
vinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole country is 
given at 333.000,600 ; its annual revenues at i;66, 000,000; and the army, in- 
cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the religion 
is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, Avith the ai-ts and sci- 
ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and 
influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's ''Middle. 
Kingdom." 
CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; 
it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain 
was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at 
Bow in 1758; in various other parts of England, about 1760; and by the 
ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, 
in Staffordshire, 1762 etseg. 

CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, iabulous, and mythological. 
Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- 
dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events 



CKO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 25 1 

said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have hved, 
more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of 
course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their 
empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. 

CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were de- 
feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- 
tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the 
latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. 

CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif- 
teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of 
most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties 
of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- 
self to speak the truth, to maintam the right, to protect the distressed, to 
practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous 
adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the 
feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. 

CHIVALRY, Court of. It Avas commonly after the lie-direct had been given, 
that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of 
James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court 
of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter 
and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are 
found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by 
the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account 
of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into 
the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William 
de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he maij have the xolfe of 
Geoffrey de Fancre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in 
custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer 
ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. 

CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It 
is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used 
in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish- 
ment, 1650. — Taller. 

CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time 
of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- 
biu-y, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. 
— See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient 
chorus. — Warhurton. 

CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form 
as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries 
of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in fne countries of Asia, where 
alone it had carried oflf more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two 
years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. 
Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform 
quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- 
burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London, 
February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was verj 
great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 
18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this 
continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- 
lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It 
again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- 
don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- 
peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 



252 THE world's progress. [ CHS. 

May. and continued more or less in various parts of the United States 
until November of that year. 

CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer 
of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- 
siuh in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom 
they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This 
appellation is commonly put to our Jhsus (signifying Saviour), the name of 
the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, 
the earliest father, according to St, Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on 
the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before 
the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first 
Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity 
of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred 
and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. 

CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of 
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, accord- 
ing to Butler ; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other 
authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, 
presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistol, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who 
were to be exorcised, 

CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it 
dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th 
Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4'7l4th of the Julian 
period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very 
generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era 
A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516. 

CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was 
given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a 
distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions 
obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons 
were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign. — He^ianlt : Fleury. 

CHRISTIANITY, Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of 
the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first 
taught in Britain about this time ; and it Avas propagated with some success 
in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- 
tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in 
England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time 
it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into 
Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. 
Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 
201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. 



Constantine the Great made his solemn 

declaration of the Christian religion a.d. 312 
Christianity was established in France 

under Clovis the Great - - 496 

In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries • 643 
In Flanders in the seventh century. 
In Denmark, under Harold - - 827 

In Bohemia, under Borzivoi • - 894 

In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - • 940 

In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - - 992 
In Hungary, under Geisa • - 994 

In Norway and Iceland, undet Olaf I. - 1000 



In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries. 

In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights, 
when they were returning from the 
holy wars - - - a. d. 1227 

In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- 
lished, about - - - - 1380 

In China, where it made some progress 
(but was afterwards extir])ated, and 
thousands of Chinese Chrislians were 
put to death) - - . . 1575 

In Greece, where it was once more re- 
established .... 1628 



* It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one 
day to pass through the slave-piarket at Rome, and perceiving some children of gi-eat beauty who 
were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and findmg they were English Pagans, he is 
•aid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed Angeli,forent, si essent Christianif'* 



CHU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253 

Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea^ Angola, 
and Congo, in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some 
progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the 
world. 
CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com- 
memoration of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ- 
mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to 
express that he was the Messiah, or The Ajiointed. It was first observed as a 
festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be 
performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* 
In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {vj/iich see) were 
detuned but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally 
keeps a continued feast within those limits. The he Uy and misletoe used 
at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so 
with many other like customs. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, 
Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all 
well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally 
priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. 
— Phillips. 

CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- 
tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the 
Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- 
dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived 
at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is 
the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the 
first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the (liferent eras through the 
volume. 

OHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first 
century; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See 
Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains ol 
an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be- 
lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral 
at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- 
tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- 
light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early 
churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 
1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of 
Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- 
don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- 
yards were permitted in cities in 742. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, 
and M'as formallj established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church 
consists of two archbishops and twentj^-four bishops, exclusively of that of 
Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- 
drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor 
canons, and priest vicars; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, 

tftat IS, "they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he waa 
struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named 
Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the 
year 596 — GoldsmUh. 

* Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the 
Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the 
doors to be shut, and the chuich to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in th<; burning pile. 
This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, A. n 303. 



254 THE world's progress. [ CIN 

and chctpelries, make the number of preferments of the established church, 
according to the last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches for 
Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. 

CHURCH OF IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the 
United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- 
ralities Act of William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and 
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that act 
providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord- 
ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- 
estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other 
houses of prayer. See Bishops. 

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its 
distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuiary of 
faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1660. It 
was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by 
an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was aftei'wards secured by the 
treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- 
pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- 
oprics, which were then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The 
Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the 
Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. 

CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the 
Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- 
terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century. 
Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir: Chanting. 

CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first 
canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish Avere also 
appointed \>j the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti- 
tuted. — Johnson's Canons. 

CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, 
A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any 
signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley. 
It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days 
after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the 
expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a 
young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. 
See Purification. 

CIDER, Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine, 
about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, 
he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that coun- 
try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in 
England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — 
Butler. 

CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus 
Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius. on the banks of 
the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans are slain, 105 b. c. The Teutones are de- 
feated by Marius in two battles at Aquae Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are 
killed, and 70 000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by 
Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000 
are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk 
in that of the Teutones or Saxons. 

('INCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the 
United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and 



CIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255 

New Jersey. Population in 1795, 600 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,540 ; in 1820, 
9,6i2 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338. 

CINCINNATI, Society of. Establislied by the officers of the American army, 
in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- 
ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- 
ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed 
away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. 

CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- 
ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated "^imur ; but in the six- 
teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the 
Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little 
Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is 
the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, 
and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the 
merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener- 
ally Jews. — Klaproth's Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened 
by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had 
little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — Fergu- 
soii's Blog. 

CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- 
firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician 
and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- 
covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit 
of mankind. — Freind's Hist, of Pity sic. 

CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant 
made hy God with Abraham. — JosepJms. Even to the present day many of 
the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to 
salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary 
by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious 
rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave 
of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted 
by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to 
which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced 
into the Liturgy in 1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- 
terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was 
first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this 
illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed 
to their names. See Navigators. 



Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who 

entered the Pacific ocean - a. d. 1519 
Groalva, a Spanish navigator - - 1537 

Avalradi, a Spaniard - - - 1537 

Mendana, a Spaniard - - - - 1567 

Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 

Cavendisli, his first voyage • . 1586 

Le Maire, a Dutchman - - - 1615 

Qui ros, a Spaniard - - - 1625 

Tasman, Dutch - - • - 1642 

Cowley, British - - - - 1683 

Dampier, an Englishman - - 1689 

Cooke, an Englisliman - - - 1708 



Clipperton, British - - A. d. 1719 

Roggewein, Dutch - • - 1721 

Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740 

Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764 

Wallis, British - - - - 1766 

Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 

Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768 
On the death of Captain Cook, h s last 

voyage was continued by King - J779 

Bougainville, French - • - 1776 

Portlocke, British - - ■ 178S 

Wilkes, American - - • - 1837 

D'Urville, French - • -18.37 



* The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was 
Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a 
westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- 
pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at 
the Philippines, in 1521. — Butler. , 



256 THE world's progress. [ en 

Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj 
the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else- 
where. 

CIRCUS. There Avere eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; 
the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which was built by the 
elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia 
and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman 
feet. This circus was enlarged by Caesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and 
was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and 
Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could 
be covered with in infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. — 
Pliny. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- 
knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of 
Campo Formio {which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution 
in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- 
leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- 
roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. 

CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh 
century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe 
in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- 
stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most 
austere. — De Vitri. 

CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at 
which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland 
is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in 
the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- 
tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, 
manners, and arts. — Robertson. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England 
a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade 
therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as 
freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- 
zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlev,^omen by descent) 
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, 
with the peaks projecting three or four inches bej'^ond their foreheads; alder- 
men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stouoe. The title of 
citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. 

CIUD AD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French 
June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained 
in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded 
by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon 
Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from 
the position. 

CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body 
of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first 
collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and 
a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The 
Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and tlie 
Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the 
emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian 
code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil 
law was restored in Italy, German}^, &c. 1127. — Blchir. Civil law was intro- 
duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards 



CLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 

archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts 
only, and in maritime affairs. See Laios. 

CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the 
kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The 
entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000^. and that of Charles I. 
was but 800,000/. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on 
the new king and queen of 700,000/., the parhament taking into its own 
hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list 
of George 11, was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th 
year of his reign, was 1,030,000/. By the act 1 Wilham IV. 1831, the civil 
list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000/. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 
1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000/. ; and Prince Albert 
obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000/. per ann. 4 Victoria, 
1840. > r ^ 

CLANSHIPS. These were tribes»of the same race, and commonly of the same 
name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feiidal Lmos. They may be 
said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. 
Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- 
land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty 
of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 17iQ.—Bi(ffhead. 
The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's 
feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — 
Chambers. 

CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament 
held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous 
power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of 
Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up 
under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted 
without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to 
prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical 
affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, 
threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume. 

CLARION. This instrument originated Avith the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 
800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their 
tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the 
common trumpet. — Pardon. 

CLASSIS. The name was first given by TuUius Servius in making divisions of 
the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of 
eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 
573 B. c. 

CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- 
tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he 
succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor.— 
Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 

• years, then merged into a common monk. 

CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted 
for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the 
others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of 
Clenaent VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various 
interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiflTs ; the courts 
of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 



258 THE wop>.ld's progress. [clo 

England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the 
death of Gregory XL 1378. — Hwrne. 

CLERGY. In the first century the clergy M^ere distinguished by the title o^ 
presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher 
functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: 
this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under 
Constantino, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- 
lar power. 

CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh 
century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was 
forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fruits 
of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler- 
gy were ^excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tho 
Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenct. Two 
thousand resigned their benefices in the thurch of England, rathei than 
subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- 
nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The 
Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had 
been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under ^iames II., 1689. 
The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. 

CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen 
after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the officers being cler- 
gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- 
stone's Comni. 

CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 
158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- 
bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Caesar on invading Britain, 
55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope 
Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, 
invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, 
was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century. 

Thescapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A. D. 1000 I den) and the younger Galileo con- 

A clock constructed by Richard, abbot I structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641 

of St. Alban's, about - - -1326; Christian Huygens contested this disco- 

A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his'pendulum clock 

A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 I some time previously to - - 1658 

The first portable one made - - 1530 i Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the 

In England no clock went accurately j pendulum, about - . - 1C59 

before that set up at Hampton-court i Repeating clocks and watches invented 

(maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1540 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 

Richard Harris (who erected a clock in ; The dead beat, and horizontal escape- 

the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- I ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 

The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and 
the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled bj^ Facio ; 
the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, 
Arnold, Earnshaw and others. 

CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. 

CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse 
woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of 
doth -workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward ITI.'s in- 
vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer^s Fee- 
der a. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- 
factured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 
1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun- 
trieSj 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen 



coa] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



259 



countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. 

Woollen Cloth. 



See 



CLOVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- 
narchy was Clovis I., Avho commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike 
prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and pub- 
lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, 
he exclaimed, "O, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would 
have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, 
and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed 
the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of 
his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henmdt. 

COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- 
temporary with our Henry VIII. , there Avere but two in Paris, one of which 
belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but 
without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account 
of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France 
travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode 
behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of 
Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — 
Andrews'' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of 
Arundel, in 1580. — Slowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making 
them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament 
to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. 
See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 

COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the 
French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out 
of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They 
were entered into as follows : 



1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- 
nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 

2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 
sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, 
signed - - - June 22, 1799 

3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 

and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 



4th. By Great Britain, Russia. Prussia, 

and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806 

5th. By England and Austria ■ April 6, 1809 
6th. By Russia arid Prussia ; the treaty 

ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 
See Treaties. 



COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated min- 
istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an 
extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- 
like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards 
the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, 
same year. See Administrations. 

COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they 
are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use 
by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro- 
hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human 
health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stotce. Coals 
were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard IT. 
1381. — Rymer's Fozdera. Notwithstanding the many previous complainls 



* In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever 
Bmcc the Gunpowder Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about 
with six hors&s in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that raannei 
passed from tins tower through the city. — Rapin. 



1650 . - 160,000 chald. 
1700 - 317,000 ditto. 

1750 - - 510,000 ditto. 



1830 - - l,e88,360 chald. 
1835 - 2,299,816 toas. 
1840 - - 2,638,256 ditto. 



260 THE world's progress, \_coa 

against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lon- 
don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign 
of Charles I., 1625. 

NUMBER OP CHALDRONS OF COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS : 

1800 - - 814,000 chald. 

1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 
1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. 

The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in 
extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are 
also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. 
The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, 
supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there are 
now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips. 
Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries 
there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- 
kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from 
Newry, in 1742. — Burns. 
COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- 
nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. 

COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen ; they held, 
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this Avorld, 
after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian 
faith, 1665. 

COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards 
soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in 
Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. 
The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 
1,081,776, in 1845. 

COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. 
It was instituted at Rome after a victor}^ over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and 
was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the 
reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and 
again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few j^ears there was 
a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- 
couraged hj the law. 

COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (7) practised upon the credulous 
multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance 
was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she 
was a ghost : the deception, Avhich arose in a malignant conspiracy, was 
carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but 
it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory 
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 

COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1600. 
The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need 
of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, 
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, 
fiordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. 

CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 e. c. : those 
of Lycurgus, 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus 
Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- 
vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian 
and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 
435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529 — a digest from 



C.'OI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 26 1 

this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation 
of the common lav/ of England, 887. — See Laws. 

CODICILS TO V/ILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civihan of Rome, was the 
first who introduced, the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, 
about 31 B. c. 

CCEUR DE LION, OR THE Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan- 
tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. 
Tiiis surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized 
himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This 
latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given irim. 

COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a 
beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia 
Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, 
in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M, 
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which 
country he retiirned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- 
fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus. a Cretan, who 
made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson. 

COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods 
is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac. 1848) 
thus : — 



1821 


- Tea, 4,586.223 lbs. 


- Coffee, 11.886,063 lbs. 


1830 - 


" 6,873,091 lbs. - 


" 38,.363.687 lbs 


1885 


- " 12,331,633 lbs. 


" 91,7.53;002 lbs. 


1S42 - 


" 13,482,645 lbs. - 


" 107,-387 ;567 lbs. 


1&1(5 


- " 16,891,020 lbs. 


" 124,336,054 lbs. 



COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, 
in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first 
house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom- 
bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the 
first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near 
Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. 
Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles 11. , 1675. The 
proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea 
and coffee. 

COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616 ; 
and wore carried to the V/est Indies in the j^ear 1726. First cultivated at 
Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the 
plantations about 1732. 

COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree ; ow- 
ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydid.es. Coffins of 
marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been 
buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. 
The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the buriaf of 
king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542 
— Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of 
coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money 



• Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- 
formed by a goat-herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then 
wake at night, and sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He ac- 
cordingly tried it on his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matiiis, and he found that it checked 
Iheir sluinbera. 



262 THE world's progress. [ COl 

was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 
B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullins, about 573 b. c. 
The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but 
others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor Qoined silver), a sign that 
little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver 
were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used 
in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresyioy. Julius Ciesar was the 
first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait 
on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more 
simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon 
their money: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- 
ceived divine honors. 

(JOIN IN ENGLAND. The fiist coinage in England was under the Romans at 
Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as 
square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, Avhen round coin only was 
used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a, d. 1351. Coin was 
made sterling m 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stowe 

The first gold coins on certain record, j end to the circulation of private lead- 



struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257 

Gold florin first struck, Ed. HI. {Cam- 
den) ■ - ■ - - 1337 
First large copper coinage, putting an 



en pieces, «kc. - - - - 1620 

Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665 

Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 

Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 

Half-farthings - - - - 1843 



Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles 
followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee: after- 
wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size ; 
but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for 
more. SeeGutJieas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826. 
See Gold. 

MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. 



Elizabeth - - £5,83-2,000 

James I. - - 2.500,000 

Charles I. - - - 10,503,000 

Cromwell - - 1,000.000 

Charles II. - - 7,524,100 



George III. and regency, 

gold - - i;74,501,5S6 
George IV. - - 41.782,815 
William IV. - - 10,827,603 
Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.814 



.lames II. - - £3,740,000 

William III. - - 10,511,900 

Anne - - - 2.691,626 

George 1. - - 8,725,920 

George II. - - 11,966,576 

The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was 
estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- 
ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. 
— PMltips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic 
currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of 
coin, 1830. — Dioke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching 
forty-five millions. See Gold. 

COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was estabhshed in 1792. The coinage ft-om 
that time to 1836 was thus: — 

Pieces. Value. 

Gold - - 4,716,325 - - #22,102,035 

Silver - - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 

Copper - - 77,752,965 - * . 740,331 

Total - 197,891,502 - - $69,581 ,.549 

1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 • - $81,436,165 



Totalin 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 
The gold coinage consists of double eagles i$20, eagles, half eagles, quarter 
eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- 
posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 
ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. 



COL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263 

COINING. ITiis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed 
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was 
invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- 
gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements 
of the art were efi'ected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. 
The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery 
at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. 

OOLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- 
tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, 
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 
1740. a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and 
in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- 
est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 
16" below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See 
Frosts, Ice. 

COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in 
the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 
72. The splendid Colisasum of London, and one of its most worthy objects 
of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. 

COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which 
were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- 
ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said 
to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but some 
authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date 
is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at 
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first 
doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. 



Cheshunt College Ibunded - a. d. 1792 

Doctor's Commons, civil law - - 1670 

Durham University - - - * * 

Edinburgh Universily - - - 1580 

Eton College 1441 

Glasgow University • - - 1451 

Harrow - - • - - 1585 



Mareschal College, Aberdeen - a- d. 1593 

Maynooth College - - - 1795 

Physicians, London - - - - 1518 

Sion College - . . . 1329 

Sion College, re-founded - - - 1630 

Surgeons, London - - - 1745 

Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591 



Highbury College - - - 1826 i University, London - - - 1826 

King's College, Aberdeen - - - 1494 | Winchester College - - - - 1387 

King's College, London - - - 1529 

OQLLEGES IN THE United States. The first established was Harvard, at 
Cambridge. Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- 
portant and best endowed in the United States. The second M-as William 
and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, 
College of New Jersey. Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Coluvibia, New- York, 1754. 
Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadeli^hia, 1765. Seventh. Brown 
University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. 
Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the 
Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 
1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. la 
1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 
12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard 
College opened Jan. 1, 1848. 

COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled 
from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into 
ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In 
the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of 
St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- 
gins said to have been put to death along with her, 

COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 



264 THE world's progress. [col 

declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chiefi 
have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prey 
to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. 

New Grenada, discovered by Colum- i Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly 



bus - - - - A. D. 1497 

Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 

1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, 

under a captain-general - - 1547 

The history of those provinces under 
the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- 
niards, presents but one continuous 
scene of rapine and blood. 



overthrown - - June 24, 1821 

Bolivar is named Dictator bv the Con- 
gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1821 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 

formed - - - June 30, 1824 

Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825 
Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- 
sident of the republic - Aug. 1826 
Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 1826 
He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 
Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1823 
Conspiracy of Santander against the 

life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 

Bolivar resigns his office of president of 

the republic - - April 11, 1829 

He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 



Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 

Independence formally declared - - 1811 

Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 

Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 

Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of 
Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 

Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- 
nezuela • - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840 

COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it 
is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by 
Thrasyniachus about 373 b. c. — Siddas. It was known to Aristotle. Our 
punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. 
The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the 
sixteenth century. 
COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. 
The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, 
amounts to about 2,500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- 
tion, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van 
Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been 
ascertained. The act for the abolition of slaverj'' throughout the British 
colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (.£20,000,000 sterling) 
was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 
1834. 
COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free 
people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- 
ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- 
cated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the 
legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod 
Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry 
Clay Liberia purchased 1821. 
COLOSSLS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, 
erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake 221 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens 
.on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg 
being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could 
enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be 
discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. 
The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been 
repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded .900 camels in 
transporting it to Alexandria — Dii Fresnoy. 
COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- 
ginia and Marylaiid to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, 



OOM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 

and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- 
tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons, 
and 4,694 slaves. 
COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and 
Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed 
the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, 
for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine.— 
Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 
434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are 
extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Csecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- 
dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Laelius and Terence 
were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- 
land about A. D. 1651. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy 
(the School for Scandal)^ the best opera (the Duenna)^ and the best after- 
piece (the Critic)^ in the English language. — See Drama. 

COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by 
Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets 
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- 
dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or 
the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was 
seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stoioe. These phenomena Avere first 
rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- 
fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, 
by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared 
in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. 
Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. 

COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account 
of the nearness with which it has approi,ched, not the earth, but a point of 
the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 
Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- 
dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. 
Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage 
was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1889, and its fourth in 1845. 

COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly 
named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting 
its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the 
three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 

COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest 
astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of 
the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies, 
and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet 
of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of 
the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to 
the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. 
— Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
about seventy-six years : it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on 
March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. 

COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in 
the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- 
eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241. — See Hanse Towns. The discoveries of 
Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 

12 



266 THE WORLD S I'ltUGlvt-feS. ^ "^^^ 

sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage 
extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this subject. 

COMMERCE. See Navigation. 

COMMERCE, New- York Chamber of, instituted 1783. 

COIMMERCJAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- 
land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward 
I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. — 
Anderson. See Treaties. 
COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208, 
The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote^ this being a Saxon appella^ 
tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the peoijle, 
COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has 
given the force of law, or rules generally received and helJ as law, called 
lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law 
derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), a. d. 890. 
The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See 
Custom. Laws. 
COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of 
parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- 
liament, and the Directory {vjhicli sec), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- 
clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. 
COMMONS; House of. The great representative assembly of the people of 
Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet 
the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen 
his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was 
the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commo^js 
were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. 
— Goldsmith. Stotoe. According to other authorities, the first parliament 
formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265 ; and 
writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the 
first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The 
first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was 
killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent 
members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminsur was 
not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, 
or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following 
is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the 
Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832 : — 

English and Welsh - 500 

Scotch. — County members - 30 

Cities and Boroughs - - 23 53 

Irish. — County members - - 64 

University - - - - 2 

Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105 

English and Welsh - 500 

Total (see Parliament) • 658 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the 
decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the 
government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 
1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- 
well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person 
of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. 

COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown- 
ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the goveriv 



English. — County members - 144 

Universities - - • 4 

Cities and boroughs - - 323—471 

Welsh. — County members - - 15 

Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 



CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 

mentof kin^-s ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh 
and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome 
advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy 
received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- 
ria Eo-ypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- 
dued 1)y her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the 
Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; 
Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, 
in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- 
til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement 
of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. 
COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in 
the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is 
said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth 
Lateral! council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at 
least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the 
church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. 

COMPANIES. Anions- the earliest commercial companies in England may be 
named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company 
was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 1248.— S^ow^. The third was 
the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thvre are 
ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 

1 Mercers 

2 Grocers - 

3 Drapers 

4 Fishmongers 

5 Goldsmiths 

6 Skinners - 

COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have 
been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, 
was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, 
in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of 
families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 
]825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for 
taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- 
curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were 
totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankmpts. 

COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 
1115 B. c ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- 
moved, pointed towards the so^dh. and safely guided travellers by land or 
water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the 
invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 
1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of 
Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid vipon a 
couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja m- 
troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation 
was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- 
pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- 
vine and natural philosopher, in l&^S.—Biog. Die. The measuring compass 
was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. 

CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in 
honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or 
without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of 
Dec. by the church, in 1889. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, estabhshed 
1488. 



A. D. 1393 


7 Merchant Tailors - 


A. D. 1466 


- 1.345 


8 Haberdashers 


- 1447 


-1439 


9 Salters - 


- - 1558 


- - 1384 


10 Ironmongers - 


- 1484 


- 1327 


11 Vintners - 


- - 1437 


. . 1327 


12 Clothworkers - 


• 1482 



268 THE world's progress. [ con 

CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 
1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and 
talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- 
ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and 
frequent. 

CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and 
Phnj^, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It 
was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published 
nis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was t)u.blished in 
1685; and that of Largius in 1722. 

' DNCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small 
cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the 
cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used 
for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a 
pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at 
Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years imable to agree in the 
choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the 
magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at ViterbO; shut the 
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical pi^lace till 
they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while 
they elect a pope. 

CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all 
the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- 
tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made 
under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 
monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abb^ Lenglet. 

CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a 
prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat 
between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul 
was made, in effect, the head of the Galilean Church, as all ecclesiastics 
were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 
1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff" was sign- 
ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. 

CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d. 
1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, 
both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very 
different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is 
formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and cnWe^ half -marriage, 
is still in use in some parts of Germany. 

CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this 
memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- 
tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the 
people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790, See 

Chavvp de Mars, Bastile. 

CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- 
ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, 
tl?e minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to 
serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. 
See Germanic Confederation. 

CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court 
palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting 
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2 
James I. 1004. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which 



con] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 



was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in genert* ( use in England and the 
United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy- 
were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was 
^ done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same 
view was held in 1661. 

CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted 
about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, 
in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- 
nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done 
with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in 
heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, 
by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clKirch 
of England. — Burnet. 

CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian .hurch; it was 
used by Peter and Paul; and was general, according to some church au- 
thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion 
by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the 
church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into 
a sacrament by the church of Rome. 

CONGE DELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to cha|)- 
ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the 
interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had 
an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were 
elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIIL, 1535. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- 
ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses Avere held 
during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable 
congresses of Europe : — 

Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad • Aug. 1, 1819 



Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 

Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 

Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 

Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 



Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 

Congress of I.aybach - May 6, 1821 

Congress of Verona • Aug. 25, 1822 

See Alliances, Conventions, Sfc. 



CONGRESS, U. S. A. .The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates 
from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S, 
Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765 .-Tim. Ruggles, Prest, The Continental Congress 
met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774: again May 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 
1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. 
Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince- 
ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; 
at N. York, Jan. 1785; and that continued to be the place of meeting until 
the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- 
ington, 1800. 

CONVENTION, The, for forming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. 
May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same j^-ear, 

CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. 
They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, 
when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they 
were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- 
charged by a corps called rocket-men. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known 
to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of 
them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise 
was written by Aristseus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were 



270 THE world's progress. [ CON 

written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo j 
the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. 

CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by 
various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against 
them in England in former times. See Sivticle Witchcraft. Conjuration was 
felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 
1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- 
meanor. — English Statutes. 

CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by 
a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the 
Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently 
hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New 
Haven and Hartford unitedby a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- 
ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, 
near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in 
the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by 
the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, 
adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788. by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- 
ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237,946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 
309,978. 

c!ON QUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke 
of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the 
crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the 
Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been 
erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England 
by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated 
his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against 
him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- 
toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- 
merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- 
liam I. — Selden. 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the 
Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic 
and the Csesars : because their names were written in the registers of the 
senate. 

CONSECRATION. Tha' of churches was instituted in the second century, 
the tempfe of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a 
patron s^vint. Tl>? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- 
ted in the reforrLcd religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in 
the la^tor church in 1549. — Stowe. 

CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with 
the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is f3und in a law 
of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- 
sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called 
the Court of Arches. 

CONSPIRACIES and INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the 
recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- 
able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- 
ties of note : — 



Of Anthony Babington and others, 
ikgainst Elizabeth - - a. d. 1.586 

T' J Gunpowder Plot iwhich see) - 1605 

Iii'currection of the fifth monarchy men 
cgainsr, Charles II. - - - 1660 

O* Blood and his associates, who seized 



the Duke of Ormond, wounded him, 
and would have hanged him ; and 
who afterwards stole the crown - 1671 
The pretended conspiracy of the Frencli, 
Spanish, and English .Jesuits to assas- 
sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- 



con] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 27 i 



mous Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and 
others - - - - - 1678 

The Meal-tub plot 1679 

The Rye-house plot to assassinate the 
king on his way to Newmarket. (See 
Rye-house plot) .... 1683 
Of Simon Fraser. lord Lovat, against 
Queen Anne. ' - « - " . 1703 



Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- 
turn the government - . - 18U2 

Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, v/hen 
lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 

Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, 
against Bonaparte . l-'eb. 15, 1804 

Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the 
king's ministers. (See Cato-streef) ■ 1820 



CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. 



Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the 
United States .... 1807 



John Henry's secret mission from the 
British government, to undermine 
the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 
CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of (^m?tes (!) which con- 
demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt 
alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, 
on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- 
cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in 
that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, 
he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend 
him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of 
his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and 
treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of 
Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration 
is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. 

CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to 
Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French 
occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French 
and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, 
but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantino the Great, who removed the 
seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders 
who put the emperor Mourzoulle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. 
Retaken by Michael Palteologus, thus restoring the old Greek hne,' 126l! 
Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantino Palseologus, the last 
Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453, The city, taken by as- 
sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing 
the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, 
and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred 
by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- 
or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 
years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Euro[/e 
See Eastern Empire and Turkey. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. 
It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used 
in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- 
tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. 
To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 
5509 from September to the end. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, 
are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained 
in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. 
Ptolem^us, about a. d. 140. 

CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends the 
whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 



272 THE world's progress. [con 

it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. 
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in 
this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought 
to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at 
any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated 
on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the 
co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in 
the LAW. — Sheridan. 
CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- 
gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states 
at different times. See the respective states. 
The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New 
York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced 
an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. 

CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, 
capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- 
riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, 
British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to 
the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important 
naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see 
Naval Battles. 

CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed 
regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius 
Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the 
first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 
9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambac^re, and Lebrun, were made consuls ; and 
subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life. May 6, 1802. Com- 
mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 
1485. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions 
to a vast amount were, several times made by the British people in aid of 
the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that 
in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- 
ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, 
sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000^. ; and 200,000/, 
were transmitted from India in 1799. 

CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and 
were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from 
the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the 
schools of Wicklifte. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time,, 
were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. 

CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through- 
out the volume. 

CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d. 
270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — 
Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took 
the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. 
Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that 
of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More 
than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The 
emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 
31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all 
the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in 
Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 conA^ents. 



OOP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 

rON"\ICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany 
Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- 
portation. 

COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the 
Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- 
ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir 
Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, 
accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to 
explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. lu 
his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-wliy 
hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- 
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 

COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems 
to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were 
incorporated in 1501. 

COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more 
than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, 
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- 
sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arse^ial, 
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- 
barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their 
engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen 
were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- 
])ardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- 
ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- 
boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- 
posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the 
planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are 
here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to 
have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 
This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530; and may in many points be 
regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. 
COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have 
preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this 
metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, 
soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in 
water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water 
touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The 
mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the 
world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now 
forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty 



* A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 176S, setting forth the advan- 
tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit 
of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, 
prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant .lames Cook. He sailed 
m .July 176S, touched at Madeira and Rio de .Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous 
voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparisf;n of the observa- 
tions made on tliis transit (June 3. 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed 
by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the 
distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at 
108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,tX)0. — Butler. 

12* 



274 THE world's progress. [ GOl 

mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil. 
liam 111, 
COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used 
rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money is 
of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into 
use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined 
by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- 
ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- 
land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- 
menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. 

COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in 
Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- 
vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a 
mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- 
per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. 

COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber 
regarding it, a. d.1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 
1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the 
consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- 
acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and. engraving, 17 George 
III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- 
thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- 
lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 
17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International 
copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- 
facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary 
Properly . — Haydn . 

COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary 
property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah 
Webster, the lexicographer. May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, 
April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 
years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for 
International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Cla3^ Feb. 1, 1837. 
Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books 
to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library 
of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. 

COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid 
to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. 

POETRY. 

Byron's Works (in all) - - j620,000 

Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000 

Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000 

Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after 

ten years' publication) - - 1,000 

Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 

FICTION. 

It was estimated that Scott's novels 
produced for copyright at least - 250,000 

Bulwer received for his novels, each 

1,200 to 1,500 

Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 

Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. 
Johnson for - - - - 63 



Fragments of English History, by 

C..T. Fox- - - - ^£5,000 

History of England by Sir J. Mackin- 
tosh - - - . . 5,000 
Ditto, by Lingard - - - - 4,633 
Life of iSfapoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 
History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 
1 and remainder, j6600 per annum 
for ten years, say - - - 3,000 
Prescott's Historical Works are said to 
have produced to the author (who yet 
owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 

BIOGRAPHY. 

Life ofWilberforce - - - je4,000 

I<ife of Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 

Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 
Irving's Columbus (paid bv Murray) - 4.000 



Goldsmith received for " Animated 

Nature" - - - - 800 

Noah Webster is said to have derived 
.$1000 per annum from his Spelling 
Book. 



COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 

CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of 
leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the 
third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed 
and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See 

Hemp. 

CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of 
the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of 
Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. 

CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus 
in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was 
rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- 
braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acro- 
corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. 
The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the 
Eye of Greece^ and declared, that of all the cities knoAvn to the Romans, 
Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. 



Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, 
iAbhe Lenglet) . -B.C. 1520 

Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first 
called by its name - - - 1410 

Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon 
the city (idem) - - - - 1375 

The Pythian games instituted, it is said 
by Sisyphus .... 1375 

The reign of Bacchus, whose successors 
are called Bacchidae, in remembrance 
of the equity of his reign - - 935 

The Corinthians invent ships called 



A colony goes to Sicily, and they build 

Syracuse - - - b. c. 732 

Sea fight between the Corinthians and 

Corcyreans - - - . 664 

Periander rules and encourages genius 

and learning - - - - 629 

Death of Periander - - - - 585 

The Corinthians form a republic - 582 

War with the Corcyreans - - 439 

The Corinthian war (which see) - - 395 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus 242 
The Roman ambassadors first appear 



triremes ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth .... 228 

benches of oars - - - 786: Corinth destroyed by lAicius Mummius 



Thelestes deposed, and the government 
of the Prytanes instituted : Auto- 
menes is the first on whom this dig- 
nity is conferred - - - 757 



who sends to Italy the first fine paint- 
ings there seen, they being part of the 
spoil (Livy) - - - -146 



CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, 
aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- 
cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it 
is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. 

CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles 
were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 395, by a 
confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against 
the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- 
tra, which see. 

CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who 
having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — ■ 
Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making 
bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c — 
U'liiv. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest 
ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. — 
See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, 
by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation 
of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its 
importation into England, in 1686. 

CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'* 
or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its 
importation when corn should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- 
scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842; act fixing 



276 THE WORLD'S PROGHbw ■■ [ COR 

the duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and aftfe/ that jk ^ . per quarter, 
passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of thb €orn Laws— 
and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- 
fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. 

CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at 
Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was 
introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation 
of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, 
October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the 
crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, 
in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew 
Paris. Rymer. 

CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the 
kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards 
canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that 
now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The fetes 
given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- 
onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of 
former times. 

CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every 
county in England were first appointed by statute of "Westminster, 4 Edward 
I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mai 
colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of 
illness. Aug. 22, 1843. 

CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish 
the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry 
III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. 
But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of 
the degree of earl who wore a coronet. 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when 
the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. 

CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- 
quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from 
Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- 
arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized 
by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and 
members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in 
law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Cov^el. Corporations 
were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- 
ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d, 
1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them 
to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, 
and conditions. — Blackstone. 

CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this 
island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- 
thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans, 231 b. c. In modern times, 
Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold 
to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first 
and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in 
the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- 
nevolence of private, friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency 



COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 

in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hia 
creditors, and died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel-street, Soho. 
The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his 
grave, in St. Anne's church. Dean-street : — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 

The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, 
in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. 
The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 
1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and iie opened a parliament 
in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was -elin- 
quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the 
French. 
CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution oi 
Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a 
long interval of years, Sept. 21, 1810; and they settled the new constitution, 
March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- 
general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- 
ularly convened. 
CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who 

was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. 
COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, 
and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- 
cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- 
ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. 
Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered 
women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, 
and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint 
more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on 
cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- 
tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take 
out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. 
COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, 
and relation of the parts of the Avorld, or the manner of representing it on a 
plane. — Seld,en. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the 
earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record 
of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- 
resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geogro/phy 
respectively. 
COSSACKS. The Avarlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, 
Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys 
and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- 
phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions 
of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body 
of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- 
vincibly. 
COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote 
antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and 
graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, 
wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, 
and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, that 



278 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ COT 



their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As relates to costume 
worn on the stage, ^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who 
erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited 
to their characters, about 436 b. c, — Parian Marbles. 

COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but 
about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny 
with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- 
ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of 
machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton 
invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- 
ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since 
made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- 
nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that 
more than one thousand millions sterling have be.>n yielded by it to Great 
Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- 
ed in 1774. — Haydn. 

HISTORY OP COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 

The following brief items of the history of cotton, from 1730 to 183G, are taken from a South 

Carolina paper : — 



1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn 
in England by macliinery. 

1735. The Dutch first export cotton from 
Surinam. 

1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 
at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses; 
but not successful in its operations. 

1749. The fly shuttle generally used in 
England. 

1756. Cotton velvets and qmltings made 
in England lor the first time. 

1761. Arkw^right obtained the first patent 
for the spinning frame, which he further 
improved. 

1768. The stocking frame applied by 
Hammond to making of lace. 

1773. A bill passed to prevent the export 
of machinery used in cotton factories. 

1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 

1782. First import of raw^ cotton from 
Brazil into England. 

1782. Watt took out his patent for the 
steam-engine. 

1783. A bounty granted m England on the 
export of certain cotton goods. 

1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- 
wright — steam engines used in cotton fac- 
tories. 

1785. Cotton imported into England from 
the United States. 

1786. Bleaching first performed by the 
agency of the oxymuriatic acid. 

1787. First machinery to spin cotton put 
in operation in France. 

1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the 
United States ; and upland cotton first cul- 
tivated for use and export about this time. 

1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the 
first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, 
Rhode Island. 

1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents 
the cotton gin, which he patents. 

1798. First mill and machinery for cotton 
erected in Switzerland. 

1799. Spinning by machinery introduced 
into Saxony this year. 



1803. First cotton factory built 'in New 
Hampshire. 

1805. Power-looms successfully and widely 
introduced into England. 

1807. The revolution in Spanish America 
begins to furnish new markets for cotton 
manufactures. 

1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the 
United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another 
by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 

1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa- 
tented by John Burn. 

1813. The India trade more free, and more 
British manufactures sent thither. 

1814. The power-loom introduced into the 
United States ; first at Waltham. 

1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — 
higher than since 1810. New method of 
preparing sewing cotton by Mr. Holt. 

1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama 
cotton lands. 

1820. Steam power first applied with suc- 
cess extensively to lace manufactures. 

1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 
1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt 
into Great Britain. 

1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 
25 cents per pound. 

1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented 
in England by Roberts. 

1827. American cotton manufactures first 
exported to any considerable extent. 

1829. Highest duty in the United States on 
foreign cotton manufactures. 

1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced 
a machine from the United States into Eng- 
land for the purpose of making cards. 

1832. Duty on cotton goods imported inti 
the United States reduced ; and in England 
it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, 
to work them more than ten hours per day, 
or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; in 
consequence they work at something else. 

1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 

1835. Extensive purchases made of cotton 
lands by speculators and others. 

1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. 



cou] 



DICTIOiNARY OF DATE%. 



279 



v.OTTONIA]\ LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great iudgment 
by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge 
alter having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans 
during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William 
III. 1701. It was removed to Esse^i-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Deau's- 
yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained 
damage by fire. The hbrary was removed to the British Museum in 1753. 

COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred to 
whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- 
ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils The first 
was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were 
admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the 
second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the 
present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was 
pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- 
tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right 
to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin 
of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments; but the 
term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- 
endon.— See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privij Cotmcil^ &c. 

COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable 
Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils 
(the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches 
or ecclesiastical government. Si?- Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils 



Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d 
Of the western bishops at Aries, in 

France, to suppress the Donatists ; 

three fathers of the English church 

went over to attend it - 
The first CEcuinenical or General Ni- 

cene, held at Nice, Constantiiie the 

Great presided ; Arius and Eusebius 

condemned for heresy. This council 

composed the Nicene Creed - 
At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana 

sius was canvassed 
The first held at Constantinople, when 

the Arian heresy gained ground 
At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which 

lasted eighteen months 
At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended 
Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and 

Constantine obliged them to sign a 

new confession of faith 
The second General at Constantinople ; 

350 bishops attended, and pope Da- 

masius presided 
The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce 

lestine presided 
Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar- 

cian and his empress attended 
The fifth at Constantinople, when pope 

Vigilius presided 
The sixth a! Constantinople, when pope 

Agatho presided 
Authority of the six general councils re 

established by Theodosius 
The second Nicene council, seventh Ge- 
neral ; 350 bishops attended - 
Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the 

emperor Basil attended 
The first Lateran, the ninth General ; 

the right of investitures settled by 

treaty between pope Calixtus II. and 

the emperor Henry V. - -11^ 



50 



314 



- 335 
in 

- 337 

342 

347 



359 



381 

- 431 
451 
553 
680 

- 715 
787 

- 869 



The second Lateran, tenth General, In- 
nocent II. presided ; the preservation 
of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, 
the principal subject, which occa- 
sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- 
thers of the church - - A. D. 1139 

The third Lateran, eleventh General ; 
held against schismatics - - 1179 

Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 
bishops and 1000 abbots attended; 
Innocent III. presided - - - 1215 

Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under 
pope Innocent IV. - - . 1215 

Ot Lyons, the fourteenth General, under 
Gregory X. - - - -1274 

Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth 
General ; Clement V. presided, and 
the kings of France and Arragon at- 
tended. The order of the Knight 
Templars suppressed - - - 1311 

Of Pisa, the sixteenth General ; Gre- 
gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, 
and Alexander elected - '. 1409 

Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; 
Martin V. is elected pope ; and John 
Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
demned to be burnt - - - 1414 

Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431 

The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- 
ral, begun by Julius II. - - 1513 

Continued under Leo X. for the sup- 
pression of the Pragm.atic sanction of 
France, against the council of Pisa, 
&c. till - - . . . 151, 

Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- 
ral council, styled CEcumenical, as re- 
garding the affairs of all the Chris- 
tian world ; it was held to condemn 
the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, 
Zuinglius, and Calvin.—Abbe Lenglet 154* 



280 THE» world's progress. [ CQV 

COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly 
of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 
1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a 
Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. 
Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls pro- 
visoires. — See Prance. 

COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion 
were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- 
sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William HL 1696. 
Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 
6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. 

COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king 
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The 
division of Ireland, into counties took place in 1562. County courts were 
instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- 
liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See 
Commons^ and Parlia7nent. 

COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and 
Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But jt does 
not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of 
Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are 
said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. 
The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the 
reign of Louis XL of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- 
ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 
1463. — Henault. 

COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopa- 
gitce. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 
B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other 
countries. 

COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., 
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to 
prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April. 1819. In these 
countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- 
stitutions. 

COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons 
who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby 
mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of 
the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between 
England and Scotland, Avas formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by 
parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. 

(JOVENTRY, PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its 
origin to the following tradition: — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such 
heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, 
importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her 
riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to 
consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and 
ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- 
dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to 
curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been 
famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown 
to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair 
the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom- 



cre] dictionary of dates. 281 

panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her 
limbs. 

COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security 
against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general 
in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the 
teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- 
warded by parliament with the munificent grant of i;10,000, June 2, 1802. — 
See Inoculation^ Small-Pox, Vaccinatio7i. 

CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow will 
the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII, 
in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one 
side and the patriotic people on the other several times, Kosciusko expel- 
led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to 
the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- 
pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831, 
Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- 
corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. 

CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may 
be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c, are also his, 
220 B. c. — Livtj. 

CRANIOLOGY, The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, 
started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803, Dr. Spurzheim fol- 
lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems 
to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all 
countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The 
science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- 
ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. 

CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the Hst of Eng- 
lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and' Lati- 
mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555»; and Cran- 
mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556, His love of life had in- 
duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a 
paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the 
stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, 
with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before 
the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, '• This unworthy hand !" 
Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first 
martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" 

CRAPE. A light kind of stuff" like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and 
twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said 
some crape was made by St. Badour, Avhen queen of France, about a. d. 680. 
It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used 
for mourning. 

CRAYONS. They were known in France before a, d. 1422— improved by 
L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREATION OF THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy, 
4004 B. c. Josej^hus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees 
with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old 
Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation : 
some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- 
logue entitled Crilias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried 
in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- 
nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of 
years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal- 



282 THE world's progress. [CRi 

deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 
years. 

CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found 
convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting 
before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at 
a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right 
time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 
4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud 
make it 5344 ; and difierent chronologers, to the number of 120, make it 
vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the 
Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- 
rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener- 
ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. 

CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while 
after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship 
in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. 
This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The 
Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in 
A, D. 325, The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 
340. — See Apostles\ Nicene, arid otiicr creeds. 

CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- 
ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, 
king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs 
ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of 
Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French 
nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the 
English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich 
feathers, with the motto '"/cA Dien" in English, "I serve ;" and in memory 
of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- 
land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. 

CRESTS. The ancient wai-riors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies 
by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of 
crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- 
tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume 
of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns 
above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well 
on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. 

CRETE. Now Candia, lohich see. This island was once famous for its hundred 
cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 
B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- 
ders of the world. Crete became subject to the' Roman empire, 68 b. c. It 
was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed 
into the hands of the Venetians, 1194 : and was taken from them by the 
Turks, in 1669. — Priestley. 

CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a 
one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- 
sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth 
have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and 
every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- 
nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, 
as an almost necessary consequence, into crime." A comparative view of 
foreign countries ,with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and 
ignorance on the great mass of the population. In North America pauper- 
ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- 



CRO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283 

meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several 
states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly 
rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, 
are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- 
able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- 
ence is painfully exemplified : — 

Scotland. England. Ireland. 
Instruction to the people - - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 

Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - I in 920 - 1 in 468 

There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several 
acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- 
gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law 
of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and 
revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, 
passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by 
statute 4 William IV., 1834, See Executions, Hanging, Tria'u^ &c. — Haydn. 

CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. 
The Genoese were expelled by the Grim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were 
tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took 
possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following 
year; and secured to them in 1791. 

CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus 
were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- 
velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian 
religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- 
y tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the 
town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On 
this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them 
as their tutelar saints. 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c. — Blair. Of this class 
were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern 
times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- 
ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, 
ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published 
at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work 
of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term 
being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Wai^s of Litera- 
ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly 
Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in 
England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the 
Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American 
Revievj, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The 
North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818 ; the Ameri- 
can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New York Review, by 
Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See 
Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English 
courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought 
by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- 
termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however 
sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. 

UROCKERY^. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and 
Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, 
many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, 
of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faeuza, in Italy, 
about A. D. 1310; and it is still called /ayewce in French. See Earthenware- 



284 THE world's progress. [ CTJL 

CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a roj'^al croAvn is in the holy story 
of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selde7i. The first Ro- 
man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet 
tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- 
gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by 
pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 
1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- 
ed tlic tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown 
with two circles. — Rainaldl. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, 
Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on 
account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other 
tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- 
padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovei«;d among the prison- 
ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, 
and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year 
of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- 
tine, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. 

CRUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- 
tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, 
called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter 
the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted 
the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy 
Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in 
possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- 
gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at 
Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- 
tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a 
"general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 
000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The 
holy warriors Avore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of 
Croises, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's 
will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the 
end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, 
cost the lives of 2.000,000 of men. — Voltaire. 

CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered 
by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- 
gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by 
admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken hy admiral Pococke and lord 
Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of 
Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, 
defeated May, 1850. 

CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read 
of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holien. The Pe- 
brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' vsh 
feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe 
extremit^^ of the middle finger. — Calmet. 

CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and 
Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the 
poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. 
It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. 

CULLODEN, Battle of. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- 
berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the 
last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men 



CYc] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



285 



in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit 
while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- 
tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless 
inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the hattle.— Smollett. Immediately 
after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued 
wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- 
OOOZ. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix. 
and died at Rome, in 1788. 

CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the 
French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with 
the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It 
was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a 
British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. 

CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This wj.s a Norman institu- 
tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I., a. d. 1068. On the 
ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished, under a severe ^enaXiy. —Rap'm. The curfew was 
abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. 

CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 
1533. The hawthorn currant-tree {Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada 
in 1705. 

CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- 
sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands 
opposed to Lex scripta. or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, 
and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- 
red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, 
for 20,000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth.— >S/<??^'^. They were 
farmed by Charles 11. for 390,000Z. in the year IQ'o^.—Davenant. 

In 1748 they amounted to • jE2,000,00f) 

In 1808 ditto - - 9,973,240 

In 1823 ditto - - - 11,498,762 

In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540,323 

In 1835 ditto - - - 18,612,906 

In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 



III 1530 they amounted to - - £14,000 

In 1.592 ditto - - - 50,000 

In 1614 ditto . - 148,000 

In 1622 duto - . - 168,000 

In 1642 ditto . - 500,000 

In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600 



The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, 
Zd. ; on every last of hides, M. ; and 2d. on every barrel of' wma.— Annals 
of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified 
from voting for the election of .members of parliament, by statute 22 George 
III., 1782. See Revenue. 

CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected 
were, in 



1789-91 
1800 
1S05 
1810 - 
1815 



$4,399,473 
9,080,938 

12,9.36,487 
8,583,309 
7,282,942 



1820 
1825 - 
1830 
1835 - 
1840 



$15,005,612 

• 20,098,714 

21,922.391 

19,391,311 

13,499,940 



1845 
1846 

1847 
1848 



See Tariff. 



$27,528,113 
26,712,668 
23,747.861 
31,757,070 



JYCLE. That of the sun is the twentj^-eight years before the days of the 
week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen 
lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The 
cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the 
time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 632 years by 
Victorius, a. d. 463. — Blair. 



286 THE world's progress. [ DAG 

CYCLOP Ji:DIA.— See Encyclopcedia. 

CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which Ave have certain record. 
It was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, 
but smaller., Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- 
ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was 
used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. Tho 
ftistivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory-, 
bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. 

CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c. — Diog. 
Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- 
phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all 
sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did 
all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without 

. blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on 
the ground. — Diog. Laert. 

CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love 
and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the 
time of Cyrus, who subdued them ; it ranked among the proconsular pro- 
vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but 
recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of 
England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — 
Priestley. 

CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of 
the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme 
good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual 
kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, 
and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. 
— Laer. Ar. Cicero. 

CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristseus, who was the chief of the 
colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- 
olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- 
lonia, and Arsinoe, Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 
B. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. 

CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. 
Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and 
made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and 
returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King), 
— Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian 
Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. 

D. 

DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of 
Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon 
thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- 
tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An 
apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same 
time by M. Niepce, and about 5 years previouslj'' by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- 
don: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger 
Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above 
process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- 
portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the 
French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 600() 
francs. 



DAR ] .DICTIONARY OF DATES, 287 

"DAMASCUS. This city was in being- in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It 
is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, 
Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- 
ander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the 
Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane 
in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- 
lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the 
gospel, about a. d. 50, Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 

DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, 
and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being 
raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the 
Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture Avas brought to England 
by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between 
the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderso7i. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to 
go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the a ppoint- 
ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his 
engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, 
and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution; but at 
this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was 
so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, 
and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c. 

DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 
1534 B. c. — Eusebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to 
their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on 
the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced 
into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the 
first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country 
dance {contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
— Spelman. 

DANES, Invasions of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to 
England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon 
Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under 
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and 
ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy 
in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- 
mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. 

DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- 
ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king 
of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the 
French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- 
sit, it was restored to its former independence, under the protection of 
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after 
a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris 
it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to 
the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10,000 head of cattle 
and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 
1829. 

DARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called 
Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding 
the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor 
]Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous 
town of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the Dar« 



288 THE world's progress. L^^-* 

danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John 
Duckworth, Feb. 19, 180*7 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, 
which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, 
following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, 
each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. 

DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from 
the province of Dauphind, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert II. 
to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne 
should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. 

DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose 
name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585, 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- 
set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced 
at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the 
present time, reckon the day from sunset to simset, making their clocks 
strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all 
other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- 
tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, 
and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. 
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is 
the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and 
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of 
Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. 

DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the 
institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a 
long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The 
original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme- 
nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. 
Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb 
was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. 
Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. 
Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first 
regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in 
Edinburgh in 1773. 

DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. 
In 1840 there were 6,916 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population; 
7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979, 
There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 
2,840 patients. 

Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have 
promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the 
United States, are Dr. Amariah Brie-ham, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe, of 
Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. 
DEATH, Punishment of. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- 
ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stowe. The most eulogized 
heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered 
on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture 
many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the 
fate of Mithridates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia; 
see also Ravillac; Boiling to Death; Burning to Death, &c. Maurice, the 
son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first 
execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment 



DEL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 

of (ieath was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9, 
in other cases 1832, for forg-ery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases 
of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank- 
fort, same day, August 4, 1848. 

DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the 
year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year in 
March. Numa introduted January and February before the latter month, 
in 71 ? B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the 
year, 

DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- 
vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c.—Livy. 
The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the 
attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, 
the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- 
suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored.— See Virginia. 

DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the 
earhest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is 
that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, 
the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English 
tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be 
used in all law-suits in May, 1731. 

DEFENDER of the FAITH. Pldei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. 
on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church 
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Catholicce, and against Luther, 
who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave 
him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs 
of Great Britain : the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. 

DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded 
as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c.—Snellius. The first 
degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude 
was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- 
ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations 
have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; 
and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- 
wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. 

DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- 
teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to 
disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation 
than that of Atheism.— Virot's Instruction Ckretienne, 1563. Deism is a 
rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the hght 
of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and 
an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- 
ing. The first dejstical writer of any note in England, Avas Herbert, baron 
of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, 
Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin. 

DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settlerl 
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus 
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the 
Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the Englisli in 
1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wni. 
Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. 
This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suflTered mucli in 
the struggle, She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 

13 



290 THE world's progress. [den 

vote ill convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population,— 1790, 59,094; 1840, 78,085; 
including 2,605 slaves. 

DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire: :t is now in decay, hut 
contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah 
invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine 
followed : 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword ; and plunder to 
the amount of 62,000,000Z. sterling was said to be collected. 

DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of 
Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 
1268 B. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came 
to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- 
ple was burnt by the Pisistratidaj, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the 
Alcmseonidae, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered 
by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver ; and Nero car- 
ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning 
the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c n Delphi 
being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. 

DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the 
world 1536; audit began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark 
rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- 
ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following 
are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. 

Petavius - b. c. 2329 
Strauchuis - 2293 
Hebrew - - 2288 
Vulgar Jewish 2104 

■ Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction 
(!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built 
to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very fine 
dry one, a. d. 1524. 

DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according 
to Eusebivs. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the 
general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely 
a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose 
course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and 
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and 
some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. 

DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- 
dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it 
occurred before the deluge of I^eucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blab: Buffon 
thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from 
the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were 
taken by tlie British, 1796, but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara 
and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and 
commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. 

DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri 
and the Teutones, Avho were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones 
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were 
defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the 
Jutes ; and the general name of Denmai-k is supposed to be derived from 
Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi- 
. . fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. 



Septuagint b. c. 3246 


Persian - 


B.C. 3103 


Playfair - b. c 


2352 


Jackson - 3170 


Hindoo - 


-3102 


Usher 


2348 


Hales - - 3155 


Samaritan 


- - 2998 


English Bible 


2348 


Josephiis - 3146 


Howard - 


-2698 


Marsham - 


2344 



PEN 1 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



291 



DENMARK, continued. 

Reign of Sciold, first king - B.C. 60 

The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings 
to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750 

[Ragnor is killed in an attempt to i*:i- 
vade England, and for more thai '200 
years from this time tlie Danes were 
a terror to the northern nations of Eu- 
i-ope, and at length conquering all 
England, ^ee Dares. ^ 

Reign of Canute the Great - - 1014 

Reign of Waldemar the Great - -1157 

Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, 
makes immense conquests - - 1223 

Gothland conquered - - - 1347 

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
united into one kingdom - - 1397 

Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414 

The nations reunited - - - 1439 

Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 

Accession of Christian I., from whom 
the present royal family springs - 1448 

Christian 11. is deposed, and the inde- 
pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 

Lutheramsm established by Christian 
in. 1536 

Danish East India Company established 
by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 

Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- 
testant league - - - - 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades 
Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and 
makes large conquests • - 1658 

The crov/n made hereditary and abso- 
lute 1660 

Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, 
Tonningen, and Stralsund ; reduces 
Weismar, and drives the Swedes out 
of Norway - - - 1716 e^ sey. 

Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which 
consumes 16.50 houses, 5 churches, the 
university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 

The peaceful reign of Christian VI., 
who promotes the happiness of his 
sirbjects .... 17,30 

Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- 
denly confines his queen, Caroline 
Matilda, sister of Georse III. who is 
afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 



The counts Struensee and Brandt are 
seized at the same time, on the charge 
of a criminal intercourse with the 
queen ; and the former confessing to 
avoid the torture, both are beheaded 
for high treason - April 28, 1772 

The queen Caroline Matilda dies at 
Zell - - - May 10, 1775 

Christian VII. becomes deranged, and 
prince Frederick is appointecl regent 1734 

One-fourth of Copenhagen is destroyed 
by fire - - - June 9, 1795 

Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard 
Copenhagen, and engage the Danish 
fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of 
the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- 
ed. Tbe Confederacy of the North 
(see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- 
solved - - - April 2, 1801 

Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart 
bombard Copenhagen, and seize the 
Danish fleet of 12 shins of the line, 15 
fr fates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 

Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to 
Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 

Commercial treaty with England - 1824 

Frederick bestows a new constitution 
on his kingdom - - - 1831 

A new constftution offered by Christian 
VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 

Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de- 
mand separation from Denmark 

March, 1848 

The king grants freedom of the press 
and of public meetings - March, 1848 

Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
volt and join the great German na- 
tion - - - March 26, 1848 

Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- 
izes the Grand Duchy of Posen 

March 26, 1843 

Danes victorious over the Germans, 
April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswig 

April 23, 1848 

Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- 
ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- 
while) - - - July 10, 1848 

Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 18'18 
(See Copenhagen.') 



KINGS OF DENMARK. 



/4 Gormo I. 


1014 Canute II. the Great. 


/50 Ragnor Lodbrog. 


1036 Hardicanute II. 


770 Sisrefrid. 


1041 Magnus I. 


801 Godefrid. 


1048 Suenon II. 


809 Olaus I. 


1079 Harold IV. 


811 Hemming. 


1080 Canute III. assassinated. 


812 Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. 


1086 Olaus II. 


814 Harold and Regaer; the latter made 


1097 Eric III. 


prisoner in Ireland, and died in a 


1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 


dungeon there. 


1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 


849 Siward Il.deposed. 


11.38 Eric V. 


856 Eric ; killed in battle 


1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar 


858 Eric II. 


for assassinating prince Canute. 


873 Canute I. 


1157 Waldemar the Great. 


915 Frothon. 


1182 Canute V. 


920 Gormo II. 


1202 Waldemar II 


925 Harold. 


1240 Eric VI. 


928 Hardicanute. 


1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against 


930 Gormo III. 


the Prisons. 


935 Harold III. 


1252 Christopher I., poisoned by the bishop 
of Ai'lius. 


980 Suenon. 



292 



THE world's progress. 



[dia 



15'23 Frederick. 

1534 Christian III. 

1559 Frederick II. 

1588 Christian IV. 

1648 Frederick III. 

1670 Christian V. 

1699 Frederick IV. 

1730 Christian VI. 

1746 Frederick V. 

1766 Christian VII. 

1808 Frederic VI. 

1839 Christian VIII. lUed Jan. 2l\ 1&-18. 



DENMARK, continued. 

1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 

1286 Eric VIII. 

1319 Christopher II. (An inten'egnum of 

seven years.) 
1340 Waldemar m. 
1375 Glaus III. 
1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 

Norway. 
1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 
1439 Christopher III. 

1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 
1481 John. 
1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a 

dungeon, where he died. 

PENIS, St. An ancient town of France, six miles Irom Paris to the north- 
Avard, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — famous for 
its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolurion; the latter 
desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place of 
sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. 

" DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the 
policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition 
of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- 
temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at 
present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate 
those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at 
Paris, where printing Avas then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty 
crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- 
tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and 
lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity 
of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police 
against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great 
number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which 
the)'' were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously 
adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he 
would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned 
in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing. 

DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and 
which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or 
wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. 
Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — 
Tilleviont. 

DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the 
sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius 
Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times 
of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. 
They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. 

DIAMONDS. They Avere first brought to Europe from the East, where the 
mine of Sumbulpour was the first known: and where the mines of Golconda 
Avere discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. 
The mines of Brazil A\'ere discoA^ered in 1728. From these last a diamond, 
AA'eighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, Avas sent to the court of Portugal, 
and AA-as valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extraA^agant sum of 224 mil- 
lions . by others it Avas valued at fifty-six millions : its A^alue Avas next stated 
to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400 OOOZ. The diamond 
called the -'mountain of light," which belonged to the king of Cabul, was 
the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest Avater, and the size of 



cie] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293 



an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great dia- 
mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., 
troy. The empress Catharine II. oflered for it 104,166Z. besides an annuity 
for life, to the owner, of 1041i. which was refused ; but it was afterwards 
sold to Catharine's favorite, count OrlotF, for the first mentioned sum, with- 
out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- 
day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 
136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats; it Avas sold tc the king of France 
for 125,000/. in 1720. 

DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, 
built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect 
was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny saj^s that 220 years were employed in completing 
this temple, whose riches were immense. It Avas 425 feet long, 225 broad, 
and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons 
of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the 
night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him 
to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name 
to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the 
Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Univ. Hist. 

DICTATORS. These Avere supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in- 
stituted 498 B.C.. when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap- 
pointed. This oflice, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the 
Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. 
Caisar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion 
of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to 
exist in Rome, 44 b. c, 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing 
about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations 
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, Avho 
lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps 
the first, is by Ambrose Calepini. a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one 
in eight languages, about a. d. 1500. — Niccron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton 
was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to 
think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle 
of the arts, sciences, c&c, was published in 1728. The great dictionary of 
the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis 
Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768; and from 
this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. 
Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two 
quarto volumes, Avas first published at NeAv Haven in 1828. It was re- 
printed in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous 
abridgments and a neAv edition of the Avhole Avork have since been published. 
See Encyclopedia. 

DIET OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of ?Ms empire 
may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes undi.: this name. 
The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of c.ectors, the 
college of princes, and the college of imperial toAvns, commenced Avith 
the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise 
constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The 
diet of Wurtzburg, Avhich proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. 
The celebrated diet of Worms, at Avhich Luther assisted in person. Avas 
held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, Avas held in 1529; 



294 



THE world's progress. 



Dir 



and the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German 

princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- 
fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- 
solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This Avas the parde of 
the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, 
in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ; 
and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dicu et 7non droit'' 
the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained^ 
A. D. 1198. — Rymer's Fozdera. 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared 
by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Qidritil. Inst. Orat. 
Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of 
eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- 
nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the 
civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff". — Pardon. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were 
at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantino, a. d. 323 ; but 
Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long 
before. — Sirabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- 
diction are coeval v/ith Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of 
which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martja-s, was used by Christian 
writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and 
is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. 
It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- 
tians in the reign of Diocletian. 

DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an 
object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 
1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead 
of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture 
at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama 
and the cosmorama in the fidelity Avith which the objects are depicted, and 
in the completeness of the illusion. 

DIPLOMACY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Great Britain and France. 



List of ministers plenipotentiary to 



GREAT BRITAIN. 

1783 .John Adams. 

1739 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 

1792 Thomas Pinckney, ol"S. C, min. plen. 

1794 .John Jay, of N. Y. do. 

1795 Rufus King, do. do. 
1803 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly, 
1806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 
1803 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do. 
1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 
1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 
1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 
1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 

1830 Lou's McLane, Del. do. 

1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 

1832 Aara:. Vail, charge d'affaires. 

f?36 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 
1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. 

1S15 Louis McLane, Md. do. 

18-16 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 

1849 Abbott Lav/rence, do. do. 



FRANCE. 

1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'ra 

1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires. 

1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 

1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 

1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. } . 

1797 E. GerrY & John Marshall, \ '^"• 
1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, 

and W. Vans Murray, do. 

1801 James A. Bayard, Del. cd. 

1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co. 

1304 John Armstrong, do. do. 

1311 Joel Barlow, Conn. do. 

1313 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. de. 

1315 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. 

1323 James Brown, La. io. 

1330 Wm. (1 Rives, Va. do. 

1333 Edward Livingston, La. do. 

1836 Lewis Cass^ Midi. cb. 

1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. do. 

1849 W. C. Rives, V» do. 



^^^J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 295 

^^^^'^h^^^iolZ'ih^^^ ™ published in England 

liament, by an assembly of ivJL at W^slmin^/* the instance of the^par^ 
ministers might not be whollyTra lossMrtW 7''' T^^' ^^" °^>^^ ^^^^ the 
sion of the Book of Common Player TLlewpi"'^''^'''"' ^^*"^' ^^^^ «"PPres- 
whichwere to be managed at discretion fn^ff '^"'"^ ^^^'"^^^^^ 
form of prayer, nor manner of externa wof^hin ^"-^-^t.^^T prescribed no 
make any responses, except ^^;tfUTi?P'.''°' ''''J^^'^"^ ^^'^ People to 
ordinance of the parliament in S -^Sl^^'ISr ''"' ^^^^^^^^^^^d by an 

DIRECTORY, French. The French "nn-P.. 

embourg, at Paris, nnder a neTcoS itS ^f.^^^^^^^^^ at the little Lux- 
1, 1795, and held the execntivl preJ foir ve^ '^' government, November 
members, and ruled in connection wuVh, 7 f x. ^*^ '^^^ composed of five 
cients and Council of FivrE red ,1>^ ^^^^^^rs, the Council of An- 
with Cambaceres and Si^yfs bSr^tf^'r ^'^""''^ ^>' Bonaparte, who, 

models of church governmfn andXciS^ Th'^^"'^^ from the RonLsh 
the name of Puritans, on account of th?^^.% !l^ ^""'^^ reproached with 
worship and conduct andTe IgorL '^^^^^^^^^ "^'T''} ^^ ^'^"^^°^^« 

beth and James I. led multitndS nf +h . "^^^^^^^^'^d under Eliza- 
those reigns. The fiiTi. Iopp nf f f" l"" emigrate to this country in 

establishe'd atWandstrtCn^V^tV:; ^^iT?' ^^ ^"^^^"^ -- 
don alone, the number of chaDels me^t^^'a-^T ^'}^'V ^"^ "o^^' "^ ^on- 
senters^ amounts to near 20^ The Se2aorf.?'.t''' ^"r f "^^^^^« ^^ f^^^- 
from civil and religious disabilities^ wJ. ^t //'^"^ ''"^^^^^ «^ Dissenters 
c. 17. By this act callerl tha r!^ ' J-^ *^^® statute passed 9 George IV 
the several acts of rarliLent o^Kr^d"^ ^''' ^'^'''' ^^t' «° ^^cV of 
sity of receiving the sacr^S of th^p ? . i'"^c "^'^"^ ^' ^""'P^'^^^ ^^^^ ^^^es- 
certain offices, Ic. was repeS May 9 S ^Z^^'^^l^^^^^^^^^tior, for 
oratmg effect have been since passed '^^ ''*^^'' ^^^^ °f ^^eli- 

''''i™n'!- anS ft'fs m'iltloTeciry Itt 7t'''' "-^^f ^^ ^^^^--* kinds of 
tainedinthe hands of t ^m-iesi and nrSf/'"'''''!^^^^^^''- ^^ ^^^^ i'^- 
augurs, and oth.r hke ])rofessi s tilMhpr •^'''^'; ^^^ '''^^i, soothsayers, 
trines of Christianity and the snir of nhir'^'f ^f ^•^"'^' ^^^^^" the doc^ 
opinions. The oracles of DelTll^L^i^STj ^T'^'"'^ ^""^ ^^«^^"^^>^ 

DIVING bTl "T '/^' ' '■ '^^ ^■^^^^^^^'' ""''' ''''''^'' 

it is said, the first who by niea 7of f^ ^- ^f?/'^^ *^"' machine, and was, 
at the bottom of the sea ^ Etof apn iTed^ttf ' ^^^/^^^^^^ «« clry ground 
down air. Mr. Spalding and hlfa -^isirr f . 3 ^^^^^nsmg-pump tS force 
Ireland, were drowned June 1 178^1 t I "'f ^^''^^ ^" ^ diving-bell in 
was sunk off Portsmouth L 1782 was fetfrX'^r?^ man-of-wa1-, which 
bell, m May 1817 Jatplv ^r,ri 7- , \ ^"i^eyed by means of a divitjc- 
in sub-marfne su^^^vey; 'the fili'l^-inttf^ ^ '''.?' '' ^^^ ^^^^ «"^p"omJ 

DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY Of +t. t . • ^ 

cal and civil law, among tie ancients " Fh-s ^^^f^'^'^'^oth in ecclesiasti- 
vihus at Rome, 231 b.\.-X> At S f S^ "" ^'^f '"^ ^^ SP^^"^« ^^^r- 

that 3000 prosecutions for adulteiy^^reem^^^^^^^ Xn' '"'"' '° ^^^^^^^«^' 

J were enrolled. Divorces were attempted- 



296 THE world's progress. I DOG 

to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a. d. 1539, The bill to 
prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 
1801. 
DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- 
structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce," in the world. In Lon- 
don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the 
principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in 
July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 
27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, 
decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London 
docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. 
The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, 
and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks 
was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until 
they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 
DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church 
was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil. Gregory Nazianzen, and Chryso8- 
tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. JeromCj Augustin, and Gregory the 
Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title 
of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 
8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the 
time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it 
is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d, 725. 
See Collegiate Degrees. 
DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law 
residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- 
lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' 
Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- 
stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the 
old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, 
bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See 
article Civil Law. 
DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the Avhole 
race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," 
assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of 
instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in 
Europe, if Irish Avriters be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken 
from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, 
landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned 
to Vienna. 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end 
on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard 
the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause 
of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed 
as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not onl)' varies 
in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and 
later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same 
rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. HtUton. 

DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a 



* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixeJ stars ; 
and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. Thoy maintain that 
a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon ball, flying with 
its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523^211 years in its passage ther-ce *o our 
flobe. 



DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 297 

prince so named. Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against 
their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an 
aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying 
the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was 
observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- 
pensed with. See Adriatic. 

DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The 
city y>^as founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and 
nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. 
Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French 
colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died 
in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- 
tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- 
ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 
1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayii. in 
which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- 
mingo., acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. 

DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This 
island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the 
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the 
subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- 
ricane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently 
occurred. 

DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days 
of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as 
by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one 
of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin 
on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is 
G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter 
call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the 
fii'st Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap 
5''ears count two letters. 

DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- 
versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, 
and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and 
the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's 
rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation 
of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they 
erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called 
Blackfriars. 

DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Jiidiciarins vel Censualls 
AnsUce. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign 
of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register 
whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book 
the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still 
decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, 
consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the count'ies of 
England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- 
ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- 
day book was the tax-book of kinge W\\\\a.m"— Camden. The taxes were 
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu- 
rate surve}- was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day 
book. 

DORIC Ordkr of Architkcture. The most ancient of the five, the invention 
of the Doriaqs, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the nanif Kc 

13* 



298 THE wop^ld's progress. I^dra 

the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu! i took 
place 1104 b. c. Tliey sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies 
into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native 
covmtry. 

DORl , Here happened an awfal inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in 
tlie breaking down of the dj^kes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10 000 
persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- 
lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 
villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for 
ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- 
estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the 
differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- 
pally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the 
tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. 

DOUAY, IN France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spa,in, who 
founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay 
was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was 
taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the f^'rench 
next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of th. Bible, 
which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv,essive 
popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version 
authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes 
of Catholic divines, 

DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a 
code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be -written 
in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as 
murder; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could 
not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c.^ 
Sigonius de Repub. At ken. 

DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, 
No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many 
perilous adventures, Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral 
under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict 
with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over 
the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- 
rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the 
common sailors, even to Avedges of gold given him in return for his presents 
to Indian chiefs. — Stoive. Rapin. 

DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the 
Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, 
on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 
556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, 
on a Avagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- 
gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a 
goat, 536 b. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- 
troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- 
dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. 

DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion 
of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and 
C. Lucinius Stole. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- 
tuted the games called Scenici, which Avere amusements entirely new. 
Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. 
•Subsequently came satires accompanied Avith music set to* the flute; and 



DRO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 

afterwards plays were represented" by Livius Aiidronicus, who, abandoning 
satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy, 
Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- 
ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a yonnger 
exhibitor. — Lvvy. 

DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of 
minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. 
Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin 
of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 864, on the Passion 
of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to 
have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not 
clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that 
" London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- 
tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries 
were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the 
parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- 
rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual 
characters were introduced in Henry VII.'s reign. The first regular drama 
acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect 
in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England 
was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, 
to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- 
speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays w^ere opposed by the Puritans in 
1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two 
com.panies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's 
and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. 

DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- 
zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 
1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- 
tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an 
error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They Avere defeated with 
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme 
pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all 
his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal 
wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 

DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of 
Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. 
Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, 
and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and 
pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and 
buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with 
precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600/, ; and he had a suit 
bf a-rmor of solid silver, with swoi'd and belt blazing with diamonds, 
rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could 
afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the 
pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. 

DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to 
have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the 
fcx'Hh at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies 



300 THE world's progress. [ DUK 

have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane 
Society in England is very appropriate : — Laieat scintillula forsan — a small 
spark may luric unseen. 

DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, 
who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted 
as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with 
supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, 
that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- 
cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the 
administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and 
supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed 
Csesar's first landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending 
the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- 
linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland's 
Mona Antiqua. 

DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb. 
" Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice 
of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- 
ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. 
In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. 
Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. 
He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed 
from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the 
commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. 

DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d, 140. 

DUCAT. First coined \>j Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First 
struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Dii Cange. Coined by Robert, king of 
Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- 
S071. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that of 
the gold 95. 6d. — Pardon. 

DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- 
bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, 
took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 
1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. 
to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- 
duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should 
be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling 
was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Co?nbat, <^c. As 
many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- 
macteric. — Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in 
which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases 
both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- 
tence of the law. — Hamilton. 

DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In 
England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, 
duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign' of 
Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black 
Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was 
created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The 
first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, 
prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. 
DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and 
immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged 



EAR j DICTIONARY OF t)ATES. 30 1 

the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night ; 
and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope 
Pius V. in 1569. 
DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John 
Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- 
ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under 
Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. 

DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and 
French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24. 1658, the last yeai 
of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. to 
Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- 
tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the 
basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrechf in 1713. 

DUNSINANE, Battle op. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal 
Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle 
between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- 
land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., 
whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who 
was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in 
Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- 
ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. 

DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at 
Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen 
Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, 
who was vanquished, Fifteen thousand of Bruce's. soldiers were cut to 
pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- 
sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 

DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing 
and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their 
manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England 
for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries 
in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the 
north" (of England) 1628. 

E. 

EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the 
Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and 
sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a 
spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When 
Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added 
the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of 
Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- 
perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 
It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. 

EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages 
the his!;hest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard 
II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They 
had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the 
sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their 
title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or 
shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and 
their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for 
king. 



302 



THE WORl.D'S PROGRESS. 



EAR 



EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of 
Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n 
arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the 
sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all 
towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round 
the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- 
lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. 
Tlie experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to 
be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- 
covered hj Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. 

E A.RTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient 
nations. Various domestic articles M-ere made bj^ the Romans. 715 b. c. 
The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent 
ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staftbrdshire was extended to 
a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- 
poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a 
very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See 
China. — Porcelain. 

EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed ^rith 
any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- 
duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the 
vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, 
iand others, supposed that tliere were many vast cavities under ground which 
have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, 
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- 
men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, 
when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. 
Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to 
suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors 
or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. 
These principles at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with- 
out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukelej^'s discoveries, and the hypothesis has 
been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- 
ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into 
steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which 
occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the 
most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from 
the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all 
that have occurred : — 



One which made the peninsula 'of 
Eubof a an island - - b. c. 425 

Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, 
swallowed up ... 372 

One at Rome, when, in obedience to 
an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and 
mounted on a stately horse, leaped 
into the dreadful chasm it occasion- 
ed {Livy) - ■ - - 358 

Duras, in Greece, buried with all its 
inhabitants ; and twelve cities in 
Campania also buried - - 345 

Lysimachia totally buried, with all its 
inhabitants .... 283 

Awful one in Asia, which overturned 
twelve cities - - - a. d. 17 

One accompanied by the eruption of 
Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and 
Herculaneum buried - 79 

Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a. id 
two in Galatia, overturned • - 107 



Antioch destroyed - - a. d. 114 

Nicomedia, Caesarea. and Nicea in 

Bithynia, overturned - - 126 

In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 

citiej and towns damaged. - - 357 

Nicomedia again demolished, and its 

inhabitants buried in its ruins - 35S 

One felt by nearly the whole world - 543 
At Constantinople ; its editices destroy- 
ed, and thousands perished - - 553 
In Africa ; many cities overturned ■ 560 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and 
Asia ; more than 500 cities Vv^ere de- 
stroyed, and the loss of lil'e surpass- 
ed all calculation - - - 742 
In France, Germany, and Italy - 801 
Constantinople overturned, and all 

Greece shaken - - - 936 

One felt throughout England - •- 1083 

One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- 



EAS] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



303 



EARTHQUAKES, contmued. • 

ed : arn^ng them, Mnriseum and Ma- 
mistria - - - a. d. 1114 

Catania in Sicily overturned, and 
15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 

One severely felt ai Lincoln - - 1142 

At Calabria, when one of its cities and 
all its inhabitants were overwhelm- 
ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1186 

One again felt throughout England - 1274 

At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- 
ants perished .... 1456 

One feft in London : part of St. Paul's 
and the Temple churches fell - 15S0 

In Japan, several cities made ruins, 
and thousands perished - - 1596 

Awful one at Calabria - - - 1638 

One in China, when 300,000 persons 
were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 

One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 

One at .lamaica^ which totally destroy- 
ed Port Royal, whose houses were 
ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 
persons perished - - - 1692 

One in Sicily, which overturned 54 
cities and towns, and 300 villages. 
Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabit- 
ants, not a trace remained; more 
than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 

Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 
persons perished - - - 1726 

Again in China; and 100,000 people 
sv/allowed up at Pekin - - 1731 

One in Hungary, which turned a 
mountain round - - - 1736 

Lima and Caliao demolished ; 18,000 
persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 

One at Palermo, which swallowed up 
a convent ; but the monks escaped 1740 

In London, the inhabitants terrified by 
a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 

Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed - 1752 

At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 
40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 

Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about 
eight minutes most of the houses, 
and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, 
were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
Oporto, and Kraga, sutfered dread- 
fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- 
turned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of 
Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
more than 12,000 Arabs perished 
there. Above half of the island of 
Madeira became waste : and 2,000 
houses in the island of Meteline, in 
the Archipelago, were overthrown : 
this awful earthquake extended 5000 
miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 

One in Syria extended over 10,000 
square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 

One at Martinico, when 1600 persons 
lost their lives - . Aug. 1767 

At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- 
habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 



1780 



1783 

1784 



1789 
1791 



- 1794 
1794 



1800 
1804 

- 1805 



1810 



A destructive one at Smyrna - a. D 1778 

AtTauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, 
and multitudes buried 

One which overthrew Messina and a 
number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 
40,000 persons perished 

Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 
12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening 
of the earth swallowed up many 
houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 

Another fatal one in Sicily 

One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing 
forth its flames overwhelmed the city 
of Torre del Greco 

In Turkey, where, in three towns, 
10,000 persons lost their lives 

The whole country between Santa Fe 
and Panama destroyed, including the 
cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of 
whose people were, in one second, 
hurled into eternity - - - ]79i3 

One at Constantinople, which destroy- 
ed the royal palace and an immen- 
sity of buildings, and extended into 
Romania and Wallachia. 

A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 

In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 
persons lost their lives 

At the Azores : a village of St. Mi- 
chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling 
water appeared in its place - Aug. 

Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 

Several felt througlmut India. The 
district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons 
were buried with it - - June 1819 

In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many 
other towns ; great damage sustain- 
ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 

One faiil, at Messina - - Oct. 1326 

One in Spain, which devastated Mur- 
cia, and numerous villages ; 6000 
persons perished - March 21, 1829 

In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 
40 shocks were experienced at Bor- 
gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many 
houses were thrown down, and not a 
chimney was lelt standing Feb. 14, 1834 

In many cities of Southern Syria, by 
which hundreds of houses were 
thrown down, and thousands of the 
inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337 

At Martinique, by which nearly half 
of Port Royal is destroyed, neai'ly 
700 persons killed, and the whole 
island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839 

At Ternate : the island made a wasted 
almost every house destroyed, and 
thousands of the inhabitants lose 
their lives - - Feb. 14, 1S40 

Awful and destructive earthquake at 
Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts 
of Armenia 3137 houses were over- 
thrown, and several hundred persons 
perished - - July 2, 1840 

Great earthquake at Zante, where 
many persons perished Oct. 30, .1840 



EASTER So calloci in Eng-land from the Saxon goddess Eosire. The festival 

of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68 ; the day for the observance of it 

^ was fixed in Eng-land by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council 



304 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



ECL 



of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian 
world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after 
the 21st of March. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the 
defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. 
Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- 
tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by 
assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, 
seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the 
enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were 
massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the 
conqueror ; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- 
menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, 
in this vol. from page 61. See also Turketj. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and 
ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066, 
The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- 
nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, 
probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Rome. In 

A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, Avho erected it 
into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove 
into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the 
same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800, 
cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of 
Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This 
power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his 
temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; 
but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. 

ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogeiici, and Pkilaletkes, 
or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they 
chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- 
andria, about A. D. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian 
church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of 
the doctrine of the Christian. 

ECLIPSES. The theo^-y of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 

B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to 
be the effect of magic; hence the custom among them of drumming during 
its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. 
at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with 
accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary 
eclipses of the sun and moon : — 



OF THE SUN. 

That predicted by Thales ; observed at 
Sardis (PZmz/, /26. ii.) - b. c. 

One at Athens {Thucydides, lib. iv.) - 

Total one ; three days' supplication de- 
creed at Rome ( Livy) 

On-3 general at the death of Jesus Christ 
(Joscphus) ■ - - A. D. 

One at Rome, causing a total darkness 
at noon-day {Livy) 

One observed at Constantinople 

!n France, when it was dark at noon- 
day iDu Fresnoy-) - June 29, 1033 



585 
424 



33 



291 
968 



In England, where it occasioned a total 
AaiXknQssXWvi. Malmsb.) • -1140 

Again ; the stars visible at ten in the 
mornmg (Camden) - June 23, 1191 

The true sun, and the appearance of 
another, so that astronomers alone 
could distinguish the difference by 
their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) • 1191 

Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1,331 

A total one ; the darkness so great that 
the stars shone, and the birds went to 
roost at noon ( Oldmixon's Annals of 
Geo. I.) - . April 25. 1715 



EDU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 305 



Again, in Asia Minor {Polyhius) • 219 

One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius 

Gallus {Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 16S 

One terrified the Roman troops and 

quelled their revolt (J'aci'ius) a. d. 14 



ECLIPSES, continued. 

Remarkable one, central and annular 
in tlie interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820 

OF THE MOON. 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at 

Babylon {Ptolemy ^ lib. iv.) - b. c. 721 
A total one, observed at Sardis {Thu- 

cydidesjlib. vii.) - - - 413 

The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 
336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, 
Avho died 323 b. c. 

EDEN., GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- 
tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some 
in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in 
Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts 
that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a 
peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below 
the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 
27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may 
have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden 
extended into Armenia. — Calmet. The Almighty constructed EdeuAvitha 
view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good 
for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — 
Genesis ii. 8, 9. 

EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and 
the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; 
Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded 
the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. 

EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- 
voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to 
France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 
industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of 
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalflelds, where their descendants yet 
remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued 
the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they 
excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- 
derson's Orig. of English Commerce. 

EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were 
two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public 
and private Avorks and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; 
they also took cognizance of Aveights and measures, and regulated the mar- 
kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they Avere acted, and 
treated the people Avith games and shoAvs at their OAvn expense. The duties 
of ediles have suggested similar offices in our OAvn polity, and served in 
many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. 

EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest 
cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records, Dun Edin, 
signifying the "hill of Edin"— from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, 
king of Northumbria, Avho, having greatly extended his dominions, erected 
it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of 
the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by 
Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
standing at the Avest end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before 
the use of great guns, Avas a fortification of considerable strength. 



306 



THE world's progress 



[egy 



EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In- 
struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New 
York, Oct. 20, 1830. 

EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000Z. for national education, pro- 
posed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, 
and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the 
grant, July 11, 1839. 

EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the 
infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the 
abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of 
Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He 
was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. 

EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the 
son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; 
it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- 
ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The 
famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim 
I., emperor of the Turks, took Eg3q3t in 1517, and it was governed by Beys 
till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, 
under Bonaparte. In 1801,' the invaders ^vere dispossessed by the British, 
and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey., for modern 
events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. 



Mizraim builds Memphis (Blah-) b. c. 2188 
Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- 
per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and 
Memphis (^66,3 Lenglef, Blair) 
Athotes invents hieroglyphics - 
Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) 
Osymandyas, the first warlike king, 
passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, 
and causes his exploits to be repre- 
sented in sculpture and painting 
(Usher, Lenglet) 
The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt 

and hold it 260 years ( Usher) 
The lake of Moeris constructed 
The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt 

to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921 
Syphoas introduces the use of the com 



2125 
2122 
2111 



2100 

2080 
1938 



mon letters {Usher) 



country, hitherto called Mizraim, is 
now called Egypt {Blair) - b. c. 

Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the 
Greeks) who had the faculty of as- 
suming whatever form he pleased, 
as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 
fire ..... 

[These fictions were probably intend- 
ed to mark the profound policy of 
this king, who was eminent for his 
wisdom, by which his dominion 
fiounshed.— Blair.] 

Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages 
Judea, and carries otf the sacred ves- 
sels of the Temple 

The dynasty of kings called Tanites 
begins with Petubastes (Blair) 



1485 



1189 



Memnon invents the Egyptian letters 
(Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 

Amenophis I. is acknowledged the 
king of all Egypt (Le?z^/eO - - 1821 

Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt 
as a slave (Lenglet) - - - 1728 

He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 

His father and brethren settle here - 1706 

Sesostris reigns ; he extends his do- 
minion by conquest over Arabia, 
Pei-sia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- 
let)' 1618 

Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 

Rampses, who imposed on his sub- 
jects the building of walls and pyra- 
mids, and other labors, dies (Leiiglet) 1492 

Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the 
Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, 
Blair) 1492 

Reign of Egyptus, from whom the 



1891 j The dynasty of ^a«7es (Sto/r) 



Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the 
king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to 
be roasted alive ( Usher) 

Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 

He invests Azoth, which holds out for 
19 years, the longest siege in the an- 
nals of antiquity ( Usher) 

Necho begins the famous canal be- 
tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- 
terranean sea (Blair) 

This canal abandoned, after costing 
the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) 

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes 
Apries ( Usher) 

Apries taken prisoner and strangled in 
his palace (Diod. Siculus) • 

The philosopher Pythagoras comes 
from Samos into Egypt, and is in- 
structed in the mysteries of Egyp- 
tian theology ( C/s/ier) 



971 

825 
781 



737 
660 



- 647 



610 
609 
681 
571 



535 



* The epoch of the reign of Sesostrisi is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. 
As to the achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings, 
ittributed by thj Egyptian priests to Sesistris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 



ELE J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



307 



EGYPT, continued. 

The line of the Pharaohs ends in the 

murder of Psamznenicus by Camby- 

sesiBiair) . . B. c. 526 

Ureadlul excesses of Cambyses- he 

puts the children of the grantees, 

male and lemale, to death, and makes 

the country a waste (Herodotus) - 524 
He sends an army of 50,000 men across 

the desert to destroy the temple of 

Jupuer Ammon, but they all perish 

m the burning sands (Justin) . 524 

Egypt revolts from the Persians ; a-^ain 

subdued by Xerxes (Blair) - - 487 

A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - . 453 

Successful revolt under Amyrtfeus, 

who IS proclanned king (Lenglet) - 414 
Egypt agam reduced by Persia, and its 

temples pillaged (C7s/zer) - . 350 

Alexander the Great enters Eo-ypt 

wrests it from the Persians," and 

builds Alexandria (Btor) - - 332 

Philadelphus completes the Pharos of 

Alexandria (Blair) - . . 283 

The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- 
tament made about this time - 283 
The famous library of Alexandria also 

dajes about this period (Blair) - 283 
Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 

Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, 

and returns laden with rich spoils 

and 2500 statues and vessels of gold 

and silver, which Cambyses had 

taken from the Egyptian temples 

(Blair) . . - - 246 

Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 
At the death of Philometer, his brother 

I'hyscon marries his queen, and on 

the day of his nuptials murders the 

mlant son of Philometer in its moth- 
er's arms .... j^g 
He repudiates his wife, and marries 
her daughter by his brother (BteV) 130 | 

"ESSES? f|^"--»^«^ 

prevaiTed foi spvpi .1 ^Z. • •' ?^^ ^"^'^'^ ^^'^ ^^°^^"«e and anarchy which 

*^io-Vif ir. TT'T'T J ui xictiiuver, in ib\)A. Ihe number was reduced to 
Tii ^ilnf^'7-' ^""^ '""f increased to ten at the peace of Lunevilir n 1801 



His subjects, wearied with Ms cruel- 
ties and crimes, demolish his stat- 
ues, set fire to his palace, and he 
flies from their fury (Blair) b. c 

He murders his son by his new queen ; 
also his son by her mother, sendin'^ 
the head and limbs of the latter as a 
present to the parent on a feast day 

Yet, deleating the Egyptian army, he 
recovers his throne ; and dies 

Pestilence from the putrefaction of 
vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- 
sons perish in Esrypt - - . 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; the famous 
city of Thebes destroyed after a sie^-e 
of three years (Diod. Sicidus) - 

Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to 
his eldest sou, Ptolemy, and the fa- 
mous Cleopatra (Blair) 

During a civil war between Ptolemy 
and Cleofatra, Alexandria is be- 
sieged by Csesar, and the famous 
library nearly destroyed by fire 
(Blair) 

Cffisar defeats the king, who, in cross- 
ing the Nile, is drowned; and the 
younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra 
reign - - . . . 

Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 
years of age) and reigns alone 

She appears before Mark Antony, to 
answer for this crime. Fascinated 
by her beauty, he follows her into 
Egypt ..... 

Antony defeated by Octavius Ceesar 
at the battle of Actium (Blair) 

Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and 
Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the 
kingdom becomes a Roman prov- 
ince - . . . 



1^ 



129 

128 



128 



82 



J\ 



47 



43 



40 
31 



30 



308 THE world's progress. [ EM« 

was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the AU' 
rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. 

ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- 
vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries 
of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), 
and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is 
very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the Avhole science into a 
system which should rather be called Voitaism than Galvanism, 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were 
discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established 
in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, 
Germany, the United States and other countries 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, >aving more or less 
bearing upon its practical use in telegraj)hic communication, were made by 
Winclder, atLeipsic,1746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; 
Lomond, in 1781; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of 
''Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 
1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in 
telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great 
advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- 
netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented 
1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between 
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- 
gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842 ; applied in United States 
in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in 
Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. — See Supplement. 

ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- 
tory of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they .appointed 
1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants 
were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus 
were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- 
ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of 
enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. — 
Baker's Chron. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed 
by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- 
ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted bj' Eumol- 
pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one 
revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon 
him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis 
into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- 
dosius the Great, a. d. 389. 

ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art Avere derived 
chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, 
of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- 
dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during 
his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by 
the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in 
1816. 

EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many 
thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter 
were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. 
The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and 
wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptibl©. 



EMP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309 

but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal 

likeness. The}^ called the embalmed bodies micmmies, some of which, buried 
3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now 
lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last 
duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh 
and aloes to embalm his body. — Jok7i xix. 38. 

EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is 
rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to 
war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- 
tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all 
.Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, 
owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 

EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all ■ essels in the ports 
of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with 
Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- 
pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 
days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. 

EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to 
implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which 
penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four 
times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer 
to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. 

EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrj^gians; but we 
learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- 
larly excelled in this decorative species of needle- work. Of this art very 
early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. 
An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- 
try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of JEngland. See Bayeux 
Tapestry. 

EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in 
Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no 
true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Pern ; but there is a gen- 
uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., 
Avho died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred 
that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. 

EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- 
ble. In the ten 3^ears ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American 
colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales. Swan River, 
Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154 291. In the 
decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively 
of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- 
ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were 
registered as born in 



Great BritaLi and Ireland 


- 148,212 


Denmark 


- 210 


Germany 


- 58,0] 8 


Switzerland - 


- - 319 


France 


. - 7,748 


Other countries or unknown - 


-3,043 


Sweden and Norway 


903 







EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. 
This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet bj^ his daughter 
Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given 
the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers 
(another title being joined). 

EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode of putting criminals to 



310 THE world's progress. 1 ENO 

death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, pai ticularly 
by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through 
the body on a stalce fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in 
Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers Avere sometmies staked 
in this manner, previously to being buried, in England—Southern. Wil- 
liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, m Rat- 
cliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. 
This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Ahve. 
EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- 
nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus 
Csesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor 
of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of 
Germany crowned by Leo EI. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- 
ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia 
was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. ot Portugal 
was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. 
EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians Avho contended that all hy- 
pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was 
useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of 
the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of 
Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. 
ENAMELLING. Tlie origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was 
practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in 
Eno-land in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel 
whtch belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was 
made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. 
ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, 
after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bacheher, 
a. D. 1749. 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly 
given was that of Abulfarius. an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. 
Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- 
ically Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, 
in England first published in 1728. The great French work. Encydopedu 
Methodiq'ue, to which Voltaire. Diderot. D'Alembert, and other savans contri- 
buted was pubhshed in 1182 eiseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- 
cyclopedia printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the 
first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David 
Brewster was published, 1810 el seq., and republished in the United States\ 
Rees' Cvclopedia republished in the United States m 1822. The cost of 
the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Brilannica.. edited by Professor Napier, and 
pubhshed by A. & C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc., was stated to have been 
£\2^ 000 of which £22, 000 were paid to the contributors. This was pro- 
bably the most costly undertaking ofthe kind ever achieved by private enter- 
prise The Encyclopedia Melropolitanavf&s commenced m 1815 and finished 
in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished 
writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 
1796-1830. and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedm f ^"^'■^^^''.'■«^^^'^«, JJf * 
menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30. Penny Cycl. (Knights) finished 1844. 
ENGINEERS This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called 
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham ofiiciated as trench-master m 1622. 
The chief ene-ineer was called camp- master-general m l^'^^^.^^PH;" 
. Thomas Ruddhad the rank of chief engineer to the kmg about 1650. 1 he 
corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military 
force and directed to rank with the artillery, A\>vi\ 25, 1/87. It has a 



ENG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 

colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty 
colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The 
Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U, S. Army, established at 
Washington. 

ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- 
land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative 
had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- 
fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, 
and lond, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of 
Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England 
and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, 
and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated 
with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and 
the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 

ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Lang^iages. From the High Dutch or 
Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of tho 
most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- 
glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had 
been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English 
tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry 
VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the 
Latin disused. May 1731. 

ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- 
tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal 
rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- 
tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- 
dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The 
art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United 
States during the last ten years. 

ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their 
appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, 
surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way. 1450. The 
earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses 
for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it 
followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis 
Mazzouli, or Parmagiano is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532.— 
De Piles. ^ 

ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois 
Sennefelderniay be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced 
on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 
1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of 
London in 1817. 

ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- 
proved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; Sir Christopher Wren further improved 
it m 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced 
was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; he com- 
municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished 
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en- 
graving originated Avith the Germans, and was first practised by Mair one 
of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zvncogra.phy, i^c. 

ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, after 
it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in< 



312 THE world's progress. [ epi 

definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of 
Philadelphia, in 1819. 
ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief maklers, or manufacturers 
of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of 
printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See 
Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden 
in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, 
and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en- 
graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher 
carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. 

ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- 
ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnseus, a. d. 1739. The London 
Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the 
study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods 
of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. 

ENVOYS. They enjoj'' the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. 
Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of 
France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the 
royal carriages, a. d. 1639. 

EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was 
one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, 
and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings 
contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to 
perpetuate his memory, 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was 
richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — 
Univ. Hist. 

EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- 
trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as 
censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the 
kings, and even imprison them, if Ihey were guilty of irregularities. 

EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See 
Homer. 

EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the 
founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a 
happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but 
from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with 
itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his 
system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. 

EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the 
ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin 
epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all 
others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- 
ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine 
at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example : — 

" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." 
And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr. 
Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in 
our language : — 

" Live while we live !" the epicure will say, 

" And taste the pleasures of the present day." 

" Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, 

/' And give to God each moment as it flies." 
Lord ! in 7ny view let both united be, 
We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Doddridge. 



'€. 



era] dictionary of dates. 313 

EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhiis. Its early 
history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this E^overeign, 
who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- 
lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in 
the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. 

Reign of the great PyiThus - B.C. 306 
He enters into a league against Deme- 
trius ; the battle of Beraa - - 294 



Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first 

battle agains^ the Romans - - 280 

He gains another great battle - - 279 

His conquest of Sicily - - - 278 

His last battle with the Romans - 274 

He takes Macedon from Antigonus • 274 



Expedition against Sparta -B.C. 272 

He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, 
thrown at him from a house-top by a 
woman .... 272 

Philip unites Epirus to Macedon • 220 
Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 

******* 

Annexed to the Ottoman empire a. d. 1466 



EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It 
may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's 
chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second 
century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- 
tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. 
In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 
1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — 
Burnet. 

EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy estabhshed in New- 
York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of 
the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- 
sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First 
Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and 
Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. 

EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- 
mans, and most of the nations of antiquity; their date is referred in Eng- 
land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the 
epigram. — Boileau. 

EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial 
complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- 
ru,s from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — 

Bossiict. 

EPOCHAS. These are periods in history Avhich are agreed upon and acknow- 
ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to 
regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- 
larly adopted. — See Eras. 

Creation - • - • B. c. 4004 

Deluge .... .t>2348 

Calling of Abraham • • • 1921 

Argonautic expedition - - • 1225 

Destruction of Troy - - - 1184 

1st Olympiad - - . - 776 

EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places 
and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d, 130. When 
the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, 
the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; 
once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in 
the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. 

EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity 
and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See Chan' 
eery. 

ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order, 
a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 

14 



Building of Rome • • -B.C. 753 

Nabonassar . - . . 747 

The Seleucidas - • - - 312 

The battle of Actium - - - 38 

The Christian era • - a. d. 1 

Diocletian .... 284 



314 THE world's progress. ( EMB 

the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb. 
26, 747. The era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 
312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 
776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning 
A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- 
mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards 
from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted 
among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- 
ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from 
Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. 

ERAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians 
have had divers epochas ; but in liistorical computation of time are chiefly 
used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the 
World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians havo 
made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, 
when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot 
of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the 
birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — 
Cassiodoms Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- 
land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in 
this work. — See Creation^ and Chi-istian Era. 

ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most 
magnificent in the Avorld. It was commenced by Philip II. in tlie year 1562 ; 
and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms 
a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some 
notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according 
to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than 
four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way 
being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is alcove 120 English 
miles. Alvarez de Colnienar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 
11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. 

ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, 
or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires 
by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a 
pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the 
armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire 
was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. 
— Stowe. Meyrick's Ancient Armor. 

ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- 
covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the 
chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by 
count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by 
Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said 
to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by 
Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for 
about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist 
and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of 
Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- 
ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. 
It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, 
and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- 
ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- 
burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is 
inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first 
used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance 



EVE 



J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 315 



called chloroform, orig-inally discovered hj Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first 
employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. 

ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely 
more inculcated by rehgion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and 
government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with 
astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in 
the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand j^ears 
before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not 
only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. 

E'JNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called 
by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus 
Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions 
as occurring, 731, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 
B. c.—Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420.— Carrera. One in 1012.— 
Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15.00C 
inhabitants perished m the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eoually awful 
and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens 
of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled ovgr 
the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and 
in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava 
reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte 
destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. 

EUCLID, Elements oi^. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished 
there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- 
able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented 
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who 
reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- 
rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of 
geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynseus, 
in A. D. 1533. 

EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian 
and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in 
courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- 
ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c— Lens- 
let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on 
the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. 

EUSTATIA, ST. This island Avas settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken 
by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British 
forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It 
was recovered by the French under the marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same 
year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- 
stored in 1814. 

EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 
55; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil 
at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isfe of 
Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. 
—Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of 
the adopted Evangelists. 

EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward L. and 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were deft>ated, 
and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one 
period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who 
did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not 



316 THE world's progress. [ EXE 

kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke 
np the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. 

EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatonim, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. 
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind 
in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- 
nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, 
June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in 
Jan. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1844, 

EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site 
of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and 
finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, 
also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 

EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting of officers whose 
functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the 
first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the 
barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Faucon bridge, bishop of Lon- 
don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- 
ment from Jan. to^ May the 24th, Charles II. IQIS.—Stowe. The English 
and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 

EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- 
ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized 
as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an 
office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions 
to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was 
built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and 
customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782 
See Revenue. 

AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS^ 

1744 Great Britain - - ^£3,754,072 

1786 Ditto - • - 5,.540,114 

1808 Ditto - - - 19,867,914 

1820 Ditto - - - 26,364,702 

1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 

EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- 
tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of 
the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- 
gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to 
be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the 
Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian 
churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar 
punishments in aid of their respective veWgions.— Phillips. 

EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- 
cates by bell, book, and candle.— See Bell Book, and Candle. The popes 
have can-ied their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose 
sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant 
power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab- 
solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, 
" his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to 
bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ; 
and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all 
England lay under an interdict for six j^ears. The citizens of Dublin were 
excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to 
queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- 
gences were offered to all ^vho should assist in deposing her. 

EXECUTIOiVS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. fthirty-eight yean;) 



1830 United Kinsdom - jE18,644,385 

1834 Ditto " - - 16,877,292 

1837 Ditto - - - 14,518,142 

1840 Ditto - - - 12,607,766 

1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583 



EXP J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



317 



it is shown that no less a number than 72 000 criminals were executed.— 
Stotce. In the ten j^ears between 1820 and 1830, there v/ere executed in Eng- 
land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number 
of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, 
the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three yeara 
ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, 
they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. 



In the year 1820 - 43 
In the year 1825 - 17 
In the year 1830 - 6 



EXECUT10>S IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

nil 

2 
1 



In the year 1838 
In the year 1839 
In the year 1840 



In the year 1841 - 1 
In the year 1642 - 2 
In the year 1843 - 1 



In the year 1 835 - ml 
In the year 1836 - ?dl 
In the year 1837 - 2 

EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of 
war; Peacock, ditto: Porpoise, brig; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, 
smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, IJ. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, 
Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- 
tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers. July 25, 1846. The 
Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes 
(flag-ship) returned to New York,, after an absence of nearly four years, 
June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 
8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- 
pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 

EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. 



Years. Imports. Exports. 

1791 - $52,200,000 - #19,012,041 

1792 - 31,-500,000 - 20,753,098 

1793 - 31,100,000 - 26,109,572 

1794 - 34,600,000 . 33,026.233 

1795 - 69,756,268 • 47,989,472 

1796 • 81,436.164 - 67.064.097 

1797 - 75,379;406 - 56,850,206 

1798 - 68,.551,700 - 61,-527,097 

1799 - 79,^68,148 - 78,665,522 

1800 - 91,252,768 - 70,971,780 

1801 - 111.36.3,511 - 94.115,925 

1802 - 76,333,333 - 72,483,160 

1803 - 64,666.666 - 55,800,033 

1804 - 85,000,000 - 77,699,074 

1805 - 120,000,000 - 95,-566,021 

1806 - 129.000,000 - 101,536,963 

1807 . 138;500,000 - 108.343,150 

1808 - 56,990,000 - 22;439,960 

1809 - 59,400,000 - 52.203.231 

1810 - 85,400,000 - 66,757;974 

1811 - 53,400,000 - 61.316,831 

1812 - 77,030,000 - 38,-527,236 

1813 - 22,005.000 - 27,855,997 

1814 - 12,965.000 - 6,927,441 

1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 

1816 - 147,103,000 - 81,920,452 

1817 - 99,250.000 - 87,671,569 

1818 - r21,750;000 - 93,281,133 

1819 - 87,125,000 

EXPORTS, Great BRrrAiN 



Years. 
1820 
1821 

1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1826 
1827 
1828 
1829 
1830 
1831 
18:32 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 
18-37 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 
1848 



Imports. 
74,450.000 

- 62,585,724 
83.241,541 

- 77.579,267 
80,549,007 

- 96,-340,075 
84,974,477 

- 79,484,068 
88.509,824 

- 74,492,527 
70!876,920 

- 103,191,134 
101,029,266 

- 108.118,311 
126,-521,-332 

- 149.895,742 
189,980,035 

- 140,989,217 
108,486,616 

. 121,0-:8,416 
131.571,9-50 

- 127,946,177 
100,162,087 

- 64,753,799* 
108,435,035t 

- 117,2.54,5641 
121,691,797t 

- 146.545,6.381 
154,977,876t 

s encouraaren 



Exports. 
69,691.669 

- 64,974,'3S2 
72,160.281 

- 74,699,030 
75,986,657 

- 99,535,388 
77,595,322 

. 82,324,827 
72,264,686 

• 72,-358,671 
73 849,-508 

- 81,310,583 
87,176,943 

- 90,140,433 
104,336,973 

- 121,693.577 
128,663,040 

- 117,419,376 
113,717,404 

- 162,092.132 
104,805:891 

- 121,851,803 
104,691,534 

- 84,346,480* 
111,20G 046t 

- 114,64e ,606t 
113,48^5161 

- 158,64t ,622t 
154,032 .131t 

ent of trade, 



70,142,521 

Edward III., by hi 

turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance 
of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to294,000Z., 
and the imported to only 38,000Z. 

VALTJE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ : — 

_ --- - - -£102,180,517 

- 100,260,101 

- 117.877,278 

- 131..564,.503 
• 1-34,509,11(1 



In 1700 
In 1750 
In 1775 
In 1800 
In 1810 



i;6,097,120 
10,130,991 
16,326,363 
38,120,120 
45,869.839 



In 1820 
In 1830 
In 1835 - 
In 1840 
In 1841 - 



£51.733,113 

- 66:735,445 

- 78.376,732 

- 97;402,72G 

- 102,705,372 



In 1842 
In 1843 
In 1844 
In 1845 
In 1846 



* Only nine months of 1843. 



f For the year ending June 30, 



318 THE world's progress. [fal 

The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom 
of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and 
colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follov/s : 

In 1811 - -^ei 16,479,678 I 111 1813 - - £113,844,259 I In 1845 - -;£ 145,961, 749 
In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 \ In 1846 - - 150,879,986 

In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the 
United Kingdom was 85,281, 958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- 
land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65.598,028Z. But even this 
great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year 
immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — 
Brit. Revenue Returns. 

EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most 
bloody of Napoleon's Avars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- 
manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were 
so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians 
on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss 
in slain alone was 20.000. Feb. 8, 1807. 



FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from 
faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they 
were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and 
were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war Against 
the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in 
which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There 
only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. 

FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful 
as anj^ made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. 
xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- 
ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, 
called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. 
— Sb' William Jones. The well-known ^sop's fables (which see), were 
written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. 

FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- 
riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, 
a green, blue, red, and white ^ to which Domitian added two others, one in 
coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both 
the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- 
cular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, 
between the blue and green, when 40.000 were killed on both sides, the 
name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in 
religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. 

FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in 
England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spelman. ThejMvere established by order of 
Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Fericz, at which the monks celebrated the 
festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- 
mand for goods, Avares. &c. They were called wakes from the people making 
merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs Avere established in France and Eng- 
land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the 
first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and 
Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. 
FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, 
commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter Avere slain; 



PEU j DICTIONARY OF DATES. . 319 

the whole Scotch army Avas broken up, and was chased off the field with 
dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. 

FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famme of 
the seven years m Egypt began 1708 b. c— Usher ; Blair. In a fiimine that 
raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 
436 B. c. Livy. 

Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42 i voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, 

A.'i Rome, attended by plague - - 262 

In Britain, so grievous that people ate 

the bark of trees - - - 272 

In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 
In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 

Awfutone in Phrygia - - - 370 

So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate 
their children {Diifresnoij) - - 450 



and vermin - - - a. d. 1315 

One in England and France {Rapin) • 1353 
Again, one so great, that bread was 

made from fern roots {Stoiee) - 1438 

Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 

One general in Great Britain - - 1748 
One which devastates Bengal - - 1771 

At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- 



In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 ' sons perish .... 1775 
Again, when thousands starve - - 823 | One grievously felt in France - - 1789 
Again, which lasts four years - - 954 1 One severely felt in England - - 1795 



Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 
In England and France ; this famine 
leads to a pestilential fever, which 
lasts from 1193 to - - -1195 

Another famine in England - - 1251 

Again, so dreadful, that the people de- 



Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 
At Drontheim, owing to Sweden fiier- 

cepting the supplies - - - 1813 

Scarcity of food, severely felt by the 

Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 



FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc flabelhtvi et 
ventulnvihuic sic facito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies 
was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false 
hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England 
from France. — Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in 
church. — Pardon. 

FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows 
which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. 
These w^ere introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined 
form; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called 
comedies. See article Drama. , 

FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations 
from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other 
stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, 
to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as 
a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. 

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by 
Moses in the wilderness, 1490 e. c, but was celebrated with the greatest 
magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- 
mon, 1005 b. c. — Josc'pkus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, 
Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be 
observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. 
Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. 
See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- 
tled at the Reformation, ct seq.^ see Book of Common Prayer. 

FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a fea^T 
which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when 
sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to tiie shades of the 
dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- 
viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. 

FSRRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex 

cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. 
FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner 

of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a, d. 600. The 



S2C ♦ THE world's progress, [ FIR 

slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was 
done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain 
persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- 
ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XL 
in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- 
ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into 
Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 
20 George II. 1746. — Littleton ; Ruffkead ; Blackstone. 

FEUILL ANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues 
and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where 
their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins 
invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, 
Dec. 25, 1791. 

FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about 
A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M; rocco 
States. Leo African us describes the Mauri tani as containing more than 
seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth 
century. 

FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means 
of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became 
checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield. 
in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " no fiction of law 

SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO 

PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional 
maxim is now a rule of law. 

FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert 
I., A. D. 511. They Avere introduced into Italy by the Lombards, Into Spain, 
before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons 
(see Feudal Laios). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. 

FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet 
Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France,' May 31, 
1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with 
such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview 
(an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the 
king's attendants involved themselves in great debt^ on this occasion, and 
were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain 
splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the 
interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. 

FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of 
Cromwell, and v/lio supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at 
hand, when Jksus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal 
monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! 
Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. 

FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of 
computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900.. 
They Avere first known in England about the year 1253. previously to which 
time the numbering by letters Avas in use there. See Arithmetic. 

FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The 
poets suppose that fire Avas stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, 
king of Bactria, Avas the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshi])pers of 
Fire, since knoAvn by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- 
tries of the East, 2115 b.c. — Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the 
world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and 



FIR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321 



taught this theoiy about 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is 
said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the 
burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. 
John. The wratli of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, 
as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. 

FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were 
brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- 
land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the 
earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at 
the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who 
armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the 
Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the 
Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians aflSrm, that the English had guns at the 
battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the j^ear following at the siege of Calais. See 
Artillery. 

FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although flie forcing 
pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The 
fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 
the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the 
present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 
1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. 

FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most 
formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to 
destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of 
them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement 
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapvn. 

FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to tlie Chinese in remote ages : 
they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360; and were first 
exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 
in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- 
sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with 
a panic, trampled upon one another till Va^y lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected 
over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 
1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard 
ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by 
fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and 
dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. 

FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. 



In New York, destroying 600 warehou- 
ses and f^operty to amount of $20,- 
000,000 - - - Dec. 16, 1835 

At Washington, destroying the General 
Post Ofiice and Patent Office, with 
10,000 valuable models, drawings, 
&c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 



New York, destroying 302 stores and 
dwelling-houses, and property worth 
$6,000,000—4 lives lost - .hily 19, 1845 

St. .John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the 
whole town destroyed — 6,000 people 
made houseless - - .Tune 12, 1846 

Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons 



At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and burned to death - - June 14, 1846 



1,1.58 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1833 
New York ; 46 buildings ; loss. $10,- 

000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 

Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, 

$500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and 

property valu(;J about $6,000,000 

' April 10, 1845 
Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, 

immense loss of property, and se- 

veial lives. May 2S, 1845. Another, 

burmnr 1,300 dwellings; in all, two 



Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued 

$800,000 - - - .July 13, 1846 

Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 

18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 

At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides 

steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over. 

loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17,' 1849 

At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, 

$7.50,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848 

At St Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 

blocks of houses destroyed, loss about 

$3,000,000 - - May 17, 1849 



thi-ds of the city ■ .Tune 28, 1845' At Philadelphia, 300 houses July t>, 1850 

14* 



3^2 THE world's progress. [ FLO 

F^FxE OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroj^ed in the space of four days eighty- 
nine churches, inckiding St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the 
Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, 
besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened 
(not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three 
days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of 
houses. — Hume; Rapin; Carte. 

FIRST FRUITS. Primitice among the Hebrews. They were offerings which 
made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits 
were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in 
England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- 
land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the 
first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- 
sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of 
the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the ofTices of 
First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 
1838. 

FLAGELLANTS, Sect of. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d. 
1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- 
lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the 
cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad 
Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. 

FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgae; conquered by Juhus Caesar, 
47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by 
its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the 
house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders 
shook off the Spanish yoke In 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it 
was annexed to the German em\nve.— Priestley. Flanders was overrun by 
the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It 
was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected 
into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831.— See Belgium. 

FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many 
ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. 
A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the 
flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. 
See article Hemp. 

FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James IV. of 
Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. 
of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy; 
and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10 000 of his army 
were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, 
lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging 
Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513. 

FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla. and en- 
larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- 
buflt by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- 
aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the 
rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- 
emy, and the Accademia della Crvsca, were instituted to enrich the literature 
and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it 
rejects like braji all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the 
French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. 

FLORIDA, now one of the United States was discovered by Sebastian Cabot 
sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven« 



TLO ] 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



523 



turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539 
Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- 
sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut oft^ a few j^ears 
after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for 
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United 
States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the 
Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another 
protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 
1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it The 
Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34 723 • 
m 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. > - - 

FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A fioren was issued by Ed- 
ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337 —Cavi- 
den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because 
the latter was of the best gold.— ^sAe. The florin :f Germany is in value 
2s. U. ■ that of Spain 4s. i^d. • that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d. ; that of 
Holland 2s.—Ayliffe. 

FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our 
gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is 
said from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for 
the first time m the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of 
our gardens were conveyed by that channel— Beckvmim. With what good- 
ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even 
the most remote countries contribute towards them \— Sturm From the 
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were 
for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers 
in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects 
of frost m winter, and hastening their vee-etation in summer, was invented 
in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of 
whose_ introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the 
following: — * 



FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. 

Acacia, N. America, before - j 
Allspice shrub, Carolina - 
Anniseed tree, Florida, about - 
Arbor Vitas, Canada, before 
Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 
Auricula, Switzerland 
Azarole, S. Europe, before 
Bay, royal, Madeira 
Bay, sweet. Italy, before 
Camellia, China 
Chaste tree, Sicily, before 
Christ's thorn, Afi'ica, before 
Canary bell-flower, Canaries - 
Carnation, Flanders 
Ceanothus, blue. New Spain • 
Canary convolvulus, Canaries 
Convolvulus, many-flowered - 
Coral tree, Cape 
Cora] tree, bell-flowered, Cape 
Coral tree, tremulous. Cape 
Crjeper, Virginian, N. America 
Dahlia, China 
Dryandra, New Holland 
Evergreen thorn, Italy 
Everlasting, great-flowered. Cape 
Everlasting, giant, Cape - 
Fernbush, sweet, N. America - 
Fox-glove, Canaries 
Geranium, Flanders 
Gillyflower. Flanders 



D. 1640 

- 1726 

- 1766 

- 1596 

- 1774 

- 1667 

- 1640 

- 1665 

- 1548 

- 1811 

- 1570 

- 1.596 

- 1696 

- 1567 

- 1818 

- 1690 

- 1779 

- 1816 

- 1791 

- 1789 

- 1603 

- 1803 

- 1803 

- 1629 

- 1781 

- 1793 

- 1714 

- 1698 

- 1534 

- 1567 



Gold-plant, .Japan - . . 1783 
Golden bell-flower, Madeira - - 1777 
Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer- 
ica, before - • . . 1683 
Heath, ardent, Cape - - - 1800 
Heath, beautiful. Cape - . - 1795 
Heath, fragrant, Cape - . - 1803 
Heath, garland, Cape - - . 1774 
Heath, perfumed. Cape - . 1803 
Honeyflower, great. Cape - - - 1688 
Honeysuckle, Chine.se, China - - 1806 
Honeysuckle, fly, Cape - - . 1752 
Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America - 1656 
Hyssop, south of Europe, before - - 1548 
Jasmine, Circassia, before - - 1548 
Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - - 1629 
Judas-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 
Laburnum, Hungary - - - 1576 
Laurel, Alexandrian. Portugal, before 1713 
Laurestine, south of Europe, before - 1596 
Lavender, south of Europe, before • 1563 
Lily, Italy, before - - . . 1460 
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales . 1800 
Lily, red-colored. South America - - 1623 
Loblolly-bay, N. America, before - 17-39 
Lupine tree, Cape, about - - - 1793 
Magnolia (see Maffnolia), N. America 1688 
Magnolia, dwarf, China - - - 1786 
Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America - 1734 
Maiden-hair. Japan - • - . 1714 
Mignionette, Italy - . . 1529 



324 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[fo» 



Rose, tube, from Java and Coylon 
Rose without thorns, N. America, be- 
fore - - - - - 
Rosemary, south of Europe 
St. Peter's wort, North America • 
Sage, African, Cape 
Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - - 
Sassafras tree, N. America, before 
Savin, south of Europe, before 
Snowdrop, Carolina 
Sorrel tree, N. America, before - 
Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - 
Tamarisk plant, Germany - 
Tea tree, China, about - 
Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - 
Trumpet-flower, N. America - 
Trumpet-flower, Cape 
Tulip, Vienna . . - - 
Virginia creeper, N. America, before 
Virgin's-bower, Japan - 
Weeping willow, Levant, before - 
Wax tree, China 

Winter ben-y, Virginia - - - 

Youlan, China . - - - 



1629 

1726 
1548 
1730 
1731 
1724 
1663 
1584 
1756 
1752 
1548 
1560 
1768 
1739 
1640 
1823 
1578 
1629 
1776 
1692 
1794 
1736 
1789 



FLOWERS, continued. 

Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape • • 1713 

Milk-wort, showy, Cape - - 1814 

Mountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 
Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 

Myrtle, candleberry, N. America - - 1699 

Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - - 1776 

Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 1598 

Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730 

Olive, sweet-scented, China - - 1771 

Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - - 1724 

Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 

Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 1792 

Pigeon-berry, N. America - - 1736 

Pink, from Italy - - - - 1567 

Ranunculus, Alps - - - 1528 

Roses, Netherlands - - - - 1522 

Rose, the China, China - - 1789 
Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and 

south of Europe, about - - 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China - - - 1793 

Rose, the moss, before - - - 1724 

Rose, the musk, Italy - - - 1522 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from 

China 1821 

FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarck. 
The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; 
and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay 
claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru- 
ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- 
relli came over. — See Music. 

FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- 
nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, 
La Grange, and La Place. 

FLYING, Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- 
tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac- 
tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins saj^s, it will yet be as usual to hear a man 
call for his loings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him 
call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away pre- 
viously to the accomplishment of these predictions. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in 
1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and 
Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- 
poleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- 
tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon- 
tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here 
Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, 
April 5, 1814. 

FONTENOY, Battle of, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, 
and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought Avith great obstinacj^, and the 
carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and 
the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end 
defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which 
he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring 
his troops that the day would be their own ; April 30, 1745. 

FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned ofl* in 
a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early 



FOX? J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32,'l 

ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser- 
voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- 
tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167. 
FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and 
were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of 
absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed 
jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu- 
rope), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 6S 
forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- 
shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, 
pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, 
a. d. 1079-85. — Stowe. 

FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., 
made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut 
oft" the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual 
imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 
1634. 

FORGERY", Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- 
bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- 
uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200Z. : the greatest interest was made, 
and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came 
before the council, the minister of the day said to George IIL, " if your 
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he 
was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London 
banker, Avas hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- 
chant, suftered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for 
forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. 

FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — 
Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- 
son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he 
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it witli his 
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of 
using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate 
the Italian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified 
cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues 
were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about 
A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- 
ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. 

FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard 
III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death 
is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheade<! 
in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8, 
1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- 
land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. 

FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provision 
for the preservation of exposed children ; but foundling hospitals are a 
modern institution. That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1807 
had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings iu 
1784, was 40,000- in 1798, over 51,000; in 1822, 138,500. The increase 
in Europe during the last fifty years has been very great. In England 
these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine 11. built a 
costly one near Moscow, where 8000 infants were succored. 



326 



THE world's. PRuGREfeS 



[fra 



FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In 
the dechne of their power it was conquered by tlie Franks, a people of Ger- 
many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave 
the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, 
are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, 
France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, 
first into 81, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica 
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. To,b. Views, 65 et seq. 

1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
in London. 

1364. Charles v., sumamed the Wise; ths 
first prince who liad the title of dau- 
phin. (See article Dauphin.) 

1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 

1422. Charles VII., the Vict.,nous. 

1461. Louis XI., detested for his atrocious 

CT LlcltlGS 

1483. Charles VIII., the Affable. 

1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed 

the Father of his People. 
151.5. Francis I. 
1547. Henry II. : died of a wound receivea 

at a tournament. 

1559. Francis 11. ; married Mary Stuart, 
afterwards queen of Scots ; died 
the year after his accession. 

1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his 
mother, obtained tlie regency, which 
trust she abused. 

1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland; 
murdered Aug. 1, 1589, by Jacques 
Clement, a Dominican friar. In this 
prhice was extinguished the hous» 
of Valois. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbisn, 
king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- 
cis Ravillac. {See JRavillac.) 

1610. Louis XIII., the Just. 

1643. liOuis XIV., the Great, also styled 
Dieu-Donne. 

1715. Louis XV., the Well-Beloved; but 
which surname he lost. 

1774. Louis XVI., his grandson ; guillo- 
tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen 
Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 

1789. The Revolution commences with the 
destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 

1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. 

FRENCH EMPIRE. 

1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- 
ror, May IS, 1804 ; crowned by the 
pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes 
the iron crown. May 26, 1805. Re- 
nounces the thrones of France and 
Italy, Apr. 5, 1814. 

BOURBONS RESTORED. 

1814. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the throne, 
May 3, 1814 ; dies, Sept. 16. 1R24. 

1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, ia?Oj 
retires to Rambouillet same df.j, 
and subsequently seeks protection 
in England. 

MOUSE OF 0RLEA5^. 

1830. Louis-Philippe ; declared " king ot 
the French," August 9. 



The Franks, under their leader Phara- 
mond, settle in that part of Gaul till 
late called Flanders - - a. D. 420 

Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481 

[The Events in I'rench History and the 
succession of sovereigns will be found 
in the Tabular Views in this volume, 
commencing p. 65.] 
720. ChildericIL 
737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic 

sway during an interregnum. 
742. Childeric III., the Stupid ; turned 
monk. 

THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 
tel ; this race called Carlovingiaits. 

768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great ; 
also emperor of Germany. 

S14. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, 
the Debonnaire ; dethroned, and im- 
prisoned in a monastery. 

840. Charles II., surnamed the Bald; poi- 
soned by his physician Henault. 

877. Louis the Stammerer. 

879. Carloman and Louis III. The latter 
died, 882. Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. 

887. Eudes or Hugh. 

898. Char/es III., the Simple : deposed and 
died in prison. 

923. Rudolph. 

936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 
from his horse. 

954. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said by 
his wife Emma. 

986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by 

his wife Blancbe, and in him ended 
the "■•ice of Charlemagne. 

THE CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of 

kings are called Capevineians. 
996. Robert the Sage. 
1031. Henry I. 
1060. Philip I., the Fair. 
1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. 
1137. Louis VII., the Young. 
1180. Philip II., Augustus. 
1223. Louis VIII., the Lion. 
1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis; died in 

his camp before Tunis ; canonized. 
1270. Philip III., the Hardy. 
1^5. Philip IV., the Handsome. 
1314. Louis X., Hutin. 
1316. John, who reigned only eight days. 
1316. Philip v., the Long. 
1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; king of 

Navarre. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS 

1328. Philip de yalois. 



FRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 

FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an- 
ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, 
churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they 
were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun- 
ties on persons having 40s. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruff head's 
Statutes. See Electors. 

FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church 
of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some 
authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIIL, 
they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a, d. 1536-38. 

FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken 
several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the 
iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- 
anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was 
established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. 

FREDERIC KSH ALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable fcj- the death of 
Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, 
and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. 
He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer- 
book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generallj^ supposed that a pis- 
tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- 
brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North." 

FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves 
masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and 
harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build- 
ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, 
Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- 
tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been 
fixed at the year a. d. 674; although by other authorities it is assigned % 
much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free- 
masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424; but it afterwards rose into 
great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that 
of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- 
sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French 
laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- 
land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of 
Edward III., nQ2.—Stoive. 

FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the 
American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the 
British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- 
can commander and his troops were made prisoners. 

F'RENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng- 
land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The 
French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco. Me.. &c., 1690 ; but were defeated 
by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. " Queen Anne's 
war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish 
invade Carolina. 1706. Expedition from New England against the French 
in Port Roj^al, 1707 ; and against Canada, 1710 ; both failed. Peace of 
Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744 ; Louisbourg" and. 
Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en- 



328 THE world's progress. [fro 

croachinent on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3 
Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, (fee. taken 
by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Lonisbourg taken by the Eng- 
lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon- 
deroga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. 
Johnson and General Wolle), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, 
Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. 
French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 
1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the 
United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. 

FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, a goddess wor- 
shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same 
with Venus. Friga Avas the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, 
and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of 
our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. 

FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between, the allied Russian and Prussian armies on 
the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- 
pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 
50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by which 
Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender neaHy half hei 
dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, a. d. 1642. 
Visited by VVallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook, 
who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi- 
tion of the natives, 1773. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. England. These useful institutions originated in 
the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into 
importance thej^ have been regulated and protected by various legislative 
enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than 
twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly 
Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities. 

FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince 
Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han- 
over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- 
land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the Fiench empire; but 
Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Frise (some- 
times, though rarely, written Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse') is derived 
from Friesland, where it was invented. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng- 
lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. 
After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which 
has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher retui'ned to England, 
bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain 
gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and 
lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a 
third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. 

FROSTS The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a. d. 401. — Univ. Hist. 
A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued 
until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred 
miles from the shore. — Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day 
was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, IQob.— Speed. The 
frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that 
countrj' for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the 
French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable 



pun] dictionary of dates. 329 

year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the 
frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses 
fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the efFectg 
of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
more than 400,000 men. 

FRUITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned 
as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and 
flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought 
thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIIL, and of Mary and Elizabeth 
between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Floivers. Among 
others of less note, were musk-melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- 
dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saffron, woad, and 
other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with- 
out success. — Hackluyt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits 
whose introduction into England has been traced : — 

FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame- 

Almond-tree, Barbary - - a. d. 1548 rica, before - - - a. d. 1629 

Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry.thepaper, from .is pan, before 1754 

Apple, the custard, North Americe - 1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - . 1562 

Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the (Jape, Cape - - - 1730 

Apricots, Epirus - - - - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China - 1771 

Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges • - - - -1595 

Cornelian cherry, Austria - - - 1596 Peaches, Persia - - . - 1562 

Currants, Zante - - . . 1533 Pears, from various climes - - * ' * 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568 

Fig-tree, south of Europe, before -1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - -1525 

Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 : Plums, Italy - - - -1522 

Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 Plum, the date, Barbary - - - 1596 

Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 | Pomegranate, Spain, before - - 1548 

Lemons. Spain - - - - 1554 ! Quince, Austria - - . - 1573 

Limes, Portugal .... 1.554 i Quince, the .Japan - - - 1796 

Lime, the American, before - - 1752 Raspberry, the flowering, N. America - 1700 



Melons, before .... 1.540 
Mock orange, south of Europe, before - 1596 
Mulberry, Italy - - - - 1520 

M ilberry, white, C^hina, about - - 1596 

FUNDS 

A 



Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before- 1696 
Strawberry, Flanders - - - 1530 

Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724 

Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1629 



)S To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in 
D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 
■ 1340. The English fimding system, or the method of raising the supplies 
for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues 
(the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689.— ikfw- 
timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of 
the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea- 
ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three 
per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house, 1751. Three and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- 
ties, 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities. 1797, and 
1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. ' 

FUNERiVL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks 
they were chiefly horse races ; and among the Romans, processions and tne 
mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were 
abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- 
then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in- 
dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place a. d 
1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. 

FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, 
when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- 
ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus. 353 b. c. Po- 
pilia Aras the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral 



330 THE world's progress. [ GAR 

which was done by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Juliua 
CsBsar did the like for his aimt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, 
Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- 
tus, 580 B. c. 

FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- 
ury advanced, they were used by princes as Unings for their tents. They 
were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward IH. enacted that 
all such persons as could not spend lOOZ. a year, should be prohibited this 
species of finery, 1337. 

G. 

GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows Of rowers, tri-remes, were 
invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens, 
786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting 
in them, see Polybius. 

GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by 
Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani 
of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and 
from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani 
having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the 
contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon : and 
in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his obseiwations on this subject. 
Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- 
rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers. 
See Electro- Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles 
of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 
livres, in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesmerism. 

GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the 
north of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by 
William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of 
property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. 
Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they protested against 
ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 
1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume- 
rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. 

GAMING, Excessive. Introduced into England b}'' the Saxons ; the loser was 
often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. — 
Camden ; Slovye. Act. prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting 
tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 
33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act 
to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and 
the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George 11. 1739, 
— Ruff/lead's Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaminghouse in London 
for one season have been estimated at 150.000Z. In one night a million of 
money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. 

GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective 
heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on 
new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See 
the Capitoli/ie, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular, and other Games. 

GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of 
building^houses. — Walpole. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine. 
Of fruit, fiower, and kitchen gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt, 



OAR J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



331 



the prototype. — Idem. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par- 
terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one 
in that of our William III, — Idem. The art of gardening became better 
understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our 
vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign 
of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced abou^ 
1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : — 



ROOTS AND VEGETABLES. 


Carrots 


- Flanders 


Plums - 


Damascus 






Brocoli - 


- Cyprus 


Oranges - 


Spain 


Rice, from 


- Ethiopia 


Beans - 


- Greece 


Lemons 


Spain 


Buckwheat - 


- Asia 


Peas - 


- Spain 


Pink 


Italy 


Borage 


- Syria 






Provence-rose 


Marseilles 


Cresses 


- Crete 


FRUITS AND 


FLOWERS 


Convolvulus 


Canaries 


Cauliflowjr 


- Cyprus 






Arctopus 


Cape 


Asparagus - 


- Asia 


Jasmine 


- Circassia 


Bell-fower 


Canaries 


Lettuce - 


- Brabant 


Elder- tree 


- Persia 


Cherr, os 


Pontus 


Artichol:cs - 


- Holland 


Tulip - 


- Cappadocia 


Figs - 


Italy 


Garlic 


• The East 


Daffodil - 


- Italy 


Date-plum - 


Barbaiy 


Shallots 


- Siberia 


Lily - 


Syria 


Mulberry - 


Italy 


Horse-radish 


- China 


Tuberose - 


Java, &c. 


Nectarine - 


Persia 


Kidney-beans 


- East Indies 


Carnation • 


Italy, &c. 


Passion-flower 


Brazil 


Gourds 


- Astracan 


Ranunculus 


Alps 


Pomegranate 


Spain 


Lentils - 


- France 


Apples 


Syria 


Rosemary 


Italy 


Chervil - 


- Italy 


Apricots - 


- Epirus 


Laburnum - • 


Hungary 


Celery - 


- Flanders 


Currants 


- Zante 


Laurel 


Levant ' 


Potatoes • 


- Brazil 


Damask-rose 


- Damascus 


Lavender 


Italy 


Tobacco 


- America 


Hops - 


- Artois 


Peaches - 


Persia 


Cabbage - 


- Holland 


Gooseberries 


- Flanders 


Q,ui»ice 


Austria 


Anise - 


- Egypt 


Gilly-flowers 


- Toulouse 


Weep. Willow Levant 


Parsley - 


- Egypt 


Musk-rose 


- Damascus 


Fennel - 


Canaries 



Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and 
the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c., 
were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- 
rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead. 
in Sussex. 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were fii'st planted in Eng- 
land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several 
sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came 
from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by 
archbishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted 
flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose, 
&c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots 
from Vienna, 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 
1600. See Floioers; Fmits. 
GARTER, Ordp:r of the. This institution outvies all other similar institu- 
tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France 
and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, 
with a view .of recovering France, which descended to him by right of his 
mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and 
thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed 
a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of qualitj^ and courage to 
the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal 
letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour- 
naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor ; il 
was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- 
meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were 
entertained at the king's own expense of lOOZ. a week. In 1346, Edward 
gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with suc- 
cess (supposed to be Cress}^), and being victorious on sea and land, and 
having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner ; and Edward the Black Prince, 



332 THE world's progress. [ GEK 

his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so- 
vereig'n, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, 
A. D. April 23, 1849-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among tho 
ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with tho in- 
scription in old French — " Honi soit qui mal y pe7ise " — evil to him who evil 
thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled 
Equites aurece Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. 

GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. 
Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- 
nation w^as first tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis- 
play of gas-lights was made at Boultonand Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, 
on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently 
used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were hghted, 1805. Gas-lights 
were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16. 1807. They 
were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London 
in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- 
nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and roxmd London ex- 
tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) 
first hghted with gas, 1823-4. 

GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first 
printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because 
una gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. 
Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. — 
Tnisler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 
Vilb.—Nouv. Did. Hist. 

GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub- 
lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 
7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed 
to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. hondon Gazettes Extraordinary are 
used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter 
was forged with a view of affecting the funds. May 22, 1787. The fraud 
succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The 
Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the 
church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes 
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- 
sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates 
from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. 
To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its 
decision is final. See Church of Scotland. 

GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote 
times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the 
title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203. — Hencmlt. It is observed 
by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissivio, 
upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italv, in 
1629. 

GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub- 
lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. 
Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in 
consequence of it. applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- 
land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted 
50.000Z. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them 
lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came to 



I 



GEO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333 

Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it: at this period many 
Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge- 
neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. 

GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- 
mans. 115 b. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till 
A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other 
magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 
1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated 
Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. 
Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. 
Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of 
the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- 
querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without 
effect. Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The 
city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally 
starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren- 
dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The T.igurian 
Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801. and the doge solemnly 
invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25, 
1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18, 
1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection 
against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849. 

GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, 
the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- 
plied to them the terms ecuyers and gentilshovimes. This distinction of gen- 
tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the Avell descended, 
about A. D. 1430. — Sidney. 

GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge 
is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing 
the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the 
countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The 
priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the 
world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, 
about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- 
cal bases, a,bout 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of 
Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mari- 
ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern 
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England 
by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a 
western continent, a. d. 1489. 

GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical 
speculation from the time of Homer; and this science is said to have been 
'cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories 
and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, theyAvere condemned as 
being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the 
astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by 
scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries 
in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by 
Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that 
the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was 
framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, 
created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world 
into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible 
reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that 
man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand yoars 



334 THE world's progress. [ GEP 

upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to the 
same trutli ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken 
, of in tlie sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments 
drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- 
nomena, that there Avere former conditions of our planet, separated from 
each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teemiug 
with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been 
called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blovijield. 

GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations 
of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying awaj^ the landmarks, and the 
boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 
B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of 
curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic 
sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b c. The conchoid 
curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The science of geometry was 
taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- 
metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected 
with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Sto'we. 

GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general 
Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known 
by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- 
racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIIL, 
Feb. 28, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were 
sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was sutfered to leave 

r France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. 
In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, ivkic/i see. 

GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George .II. to Gen. Ogle- 
thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- 
nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war. Dec. 29. 1778 ; the town 
and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted 
tlie Federal Constitution, Jan. 2 1788. Population in 1790, 82 584; in 1840, 
691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, 
or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called should no longer exist ; but that 
instead thereof a confederation of states slumld be formed; and this ar- 
rangement was adopted in 1815 by the allied sovereigns ; and Germany is 
now gov^erned b.y a diet consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any 
alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- 
sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, 
divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See. Addenda. 

GERMANY. From Ger7nanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman 
historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several inde])endent 
stat<!S until 25 e. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans 
to subdue them although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated 
efforts of the Germans thej^ were entirely expelled, about a. d. 290. In 432, 
the Huns, driven from China conquered the greatest part of this extensive 
country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, 
became master of the whole, a. d. 802. 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the : Charles III. was the first sovereign who 

West at Ronie - - a. d. 800 i added " in the year of our Lord" t( 



He adds a second head to the eagle, to 
denote that the empires of Rome and 
Germany are united in him - - 802 

liOui s {Debonnaire) separates Germany 
frc ni France .... 814 



his reign - - - - 87S 

The German princes assert their inde- 
pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 
[The electoral character assumed about 
this lime. See Electors.] ■ - 912 



«ER J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



835 



GERMANY, continued. 

Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the 
Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, 
Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is 
crowned emperor by the pope - 962 

Henry III. '"onquers Bohemia, wasting 
It with fire and sword - - 1042 

Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders 
through Germ,any, where they mas- 
sacre the Jews - - - . 1095 

Henry IV. excommunicated by pope 
Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106 

Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- 
vestitures, with the pope - - 1122 

The Guelpli and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140 

Conrad III. leads a large army to the 
holy wars, where it is destroyed by 
the treachery of the Greeks - -1147 

Teutonic order of knighthood - -1190 

Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, 
chosen by the electors - - 1273 

The famous edict, called the Golden 
Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356 

Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected 
emperor. He beii-ays John Huss and 
Jerome of Prague, who are burned 
alive (see Bohemia) - - - 1414 

Sigismond being driven from the throne, 
Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 
(In his family the crown resides for 
three centuries) - - - 1438 

The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - 1439 

The empire divided into circles - 1512 

Era of the Reformation (Luther) - 1517 

Abdication of Chaiies V. - - 1556 

War of the two parties, the Evangelic 
union under Frederick, elector pala- 
tine, and the Catholic league, under 
the duke of Bavaria - - -1618 

Battle of Prague, which lost the elector 
palatine the crown - - - 1620 

Treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 

John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats 
the Turks in many battles, and obliges 
them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683 

The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 

The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 1722 

The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 
pied with wars against the Turks, and 
m establishing the Pragmatic sanc- 
tion, in favor of the succession of his 
daughter, Maria Theresa, married lo 
the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 1742 

Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries 
the heiress of Austria, the celebrated 
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; 
ana is elected emperor - " - 1745 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the 
dismemberment of Poland - -1772 

Again, by the final partition of that de- 
1 voted kingdom - - - 1795 

'■ [In the ruinous wars between Germany 

and France, the emperor loses the 
Netherlands, all his territories west 
of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 
1793, et seq.] 

Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 
ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804 

Dissolution of the German empire ; for- 
mation of the Confederation of the 
Rhine - - - July 12, 1803 

General agitation among the people, 



and demands for reform granted in 
various degrees by sovereigns of 
Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those 
of the smaller principalities of Ger- 
many - - Feb. and March, 1848 

A federal union of the German States 
demanded by Prussia Maich, 1848 

Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit- 
ter-Meyer, President March 31 , 1848 

German Parliament meets at Frank- 
fort - - - May 18, 184? 

The archduke, John of Austria, elected 
by the parliament as lord-lieutenant 
of the Empire - - June 29, 1848 

He is installed at Frankfort, and names 
his ministers - - July 15, 1848 

Great excitement in Germany on ac- 
count of the execution at Vienna of 
Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, 
for aiding the insurrection Nov. ? 1848 

A. D. EMPERORS CP GB JSIANY. 

800. Charlemagne the Great. 

814. Louis the Debonnaire. 

840. Lothaire. 

855. Louis II. 

875. Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 

878. Louis III., the Stammerer. 

879. Charles III., the Gross. 
887. Arnould. 

899. Louis IV. 

912. Otho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the 
dignity on account of his age. 

912. Conrad, duke of Franconia. 

919. Henry I., the Fowler. 

936. Otho I., the Great. 

973. Otho II., the Bloody. 

983. Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. 
1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria ; the Holy 

and Lame. 
1024. Conrad II., the Salique. 
10.39. Henry III., the Black. 
1055. Henry IV. ;' deposed. 
1077. Rodolphus ; killed in battle. 
1080. Henry IV. ; re-instated. 
1105. Henry V. 
1125. Lothaire II. 
1138. Conrad m. 

1152. Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned in Bo- 
hemia. 
1191. Henry VL, the Sharp. 
119S. Philip; killed at Bamberg. 
120S. Otho IV; deposed. 
1211. Frederic II. ; deposed. 

1245. Henrv VII ; killed. 

1246. William ; killed in battle. 

1273. Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, the 

first of the Austrian family. 
1291. Adolphus ; deposed. 
1298. Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. 
1308. Hem-y VIII. ; poisoned by a priest^ in 

the consecrated wafer. 
1314. Louis IV., of Bavaria; killed by a fall 

from his horse. 
1347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 
1378 Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. 
1399 Frederick, Duke of Brunswick. 
1400. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. 
1410. Sigismond, king of Hungary. 
1437. Albert II., duke of Austria and king of 

Bohemia. 
1440. Frederick III., archduke of Austria. 



336 



THE world's progress. 



[gib 



GERMANY, continued. 

1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress 

of Bursundy. 
1519. Charles V., king of Spain. 
1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 
1564. Maximilian II. 
1.57G. Rodolphus II. 
1612. Matthia.s I. 

1619. Ferdinand IT., Icing of Hungary. 
16.37. Ferdinand III., ditto. 
16.58. Leopold I., ditto 
1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 
1711. Charles VI. 
1742. Charles VII. 



1745. Francis!.; husband of Maria Theresai 
queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 

1765. Joseph II. 

1790. I,eopoId II. 

1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em- 
peror of Austria only, in 1806. 

1806. Confederation of the Rhme (which see). 

1815. Germanic Confederation. 

1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. 

(See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning 
p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavaria, 
Prussia, Wurtemburg, &c.) 



There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English 
counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine 
(one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the 
head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164:. 

GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- 
ward HI. of England, was born here, and hence named Joh^i of Gaunt. 
Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of 
Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- 
tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great 
Britain and the United States, w^as signed here, December 24, 1814. 

GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was 
also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, 
and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius. 
"The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara. 
who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. 
He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in 
Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, 
the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in 
height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of 
the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- 
es long; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 
20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is 
now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- 
ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with 
Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of 
Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English 
feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( GiAel- Tarik, Mountain of 
Tai'ik, whence its present name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of 
Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George 
Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, 
bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- 
ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since 
continued an appendage to the British crown. 



Gibraltar attacked by the Britisli on the 
21st July, and taken on the 24th, a. d. 1704 

Besieged by the Spanish and French ; 
they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- 
ous English but 400 - Oct. 11, 1704 

The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, 
and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 



20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the 
loss of the English is only 300 - 1727 

Memorable siege of the Spaniards and 
French, whose prodigious arma- 
ments* (the greatest ever brought 
against a fortress) were wholly over- 
thrown. The siege continued from 
July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 



• The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops 
of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, there 



CLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 

GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. The capitol was the first 
building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pl'my. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole 
ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — IVusler. A 
single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf 
that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole amiiiO' 
niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273, The art of gilding on 
wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. 

GJSORS, Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in 
which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the 
day was " Dieuet mmi droW — "God and my right;" and from this time it 
was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. 

GI ADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, 
or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral 
ceremonies of the Romans. 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom 
of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. 
Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When 
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- 
tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- 
tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- 
nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet. 

GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from 
James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest 
commerce was in salmon, about 1420. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass 
by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- 
houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for 
many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of 
Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were 
formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next 
France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses 
in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The manufacture 
was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557.— 
Stotve. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the 
reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- 
ted, 1845. 

GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles 
in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England 
towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 
1530. 

GLENCOE, Massacre of. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending 
and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering 
in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain; 
and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked 



were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 
212 guns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb- ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; 
while small craft for disembarking the foi'ces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 sheila 
were daily thrown into the town, and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex- 
pended by the enem.y. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, 
and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general 
Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss in munitions of wai*, on this ni^ht alone, was estimated at 
upwards of 2,600,000/. sterling. But their grand defeat by a garrison ofonly 7000 British, occurred 
Sept. 13, 1782. 

15 



S38 THE world's progress. [god 

in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black 
deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal 
circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar 
eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 
640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varjing altitudes of the stars 
by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an- 
tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and 
evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of 
the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, 
the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main- 
tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun ; 
which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- 
losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage 
round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- 
lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same 
enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See Circumnavigation, and Earth. 

GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, 
angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from 
the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. 
The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of 
Rome, and was called doxology because it began with 5o|a, glory, a. d. 
382. 

GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving 
of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and 
two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, 
A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- 
corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 
1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. 

GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. 
The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, \)Y the 
Priscillianists ; but the name, which Avas once glorious, at length became in- 
famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a 
complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to 
extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con- 
sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which 
they differed among themselves as much as they did from others. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the 
suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the 
chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to 
have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the 
scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the 
same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- 
tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for vrhich were drawn by 
the celebrated Le Brun, by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Fres- 
noy. 

GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir- 
cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose 
in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. 
It was first ordained to be used, according to some, hy pope Alexander; 
according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d. 



GOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 339 

130. In Catholic countries they havo godfathers and godmothers in the 
baptism of tlieir bells. 

GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reascn it has, 
from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most 
valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with 
copper or silver: in its pure state it is twenty-four carats; that used in our 
coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no 
metals were used but those foimd pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The 
smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to 
observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. 

GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the ear-th, but is most 
abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which Let gold was dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported 
into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- 
clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing 
ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, 
in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; 
in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- 
fornia, April 1848. 

GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as 
stated in the Mlnhig Journal : 

Gold. Silver. 

Mexico .£6,436,453 = £139,818,032 

Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,822,93-1 

Buenos Ayres 4,024,895 = 27,182,673 

Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,981 

jE 17,003,579 = £170,326,610 
The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3^ 
times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- 
phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, 
discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, S'4,377,500.. Tliose 
of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 
1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which 
Avas sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. 
mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in 
the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North 
and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago, 
4|, Africa 14. See Coin. 

GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from 
lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- 
cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^etes, king of Colchis, had seized, 
after murdering their owner. The ship in which "Phryxus had sailed to 
Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave 
occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for ttie re- 
covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. g. 

GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which sliows 
the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, 
about 432 b. c. — Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar 
cycle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the 
number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number, 

GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianit)^, this day has been 
held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on 
Friday, April 3, a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be pecuhar to 
the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Fri- 



340 THK world's progress. [ GOV 

day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- 
joined on this day. 

GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to 
the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia. 
V/hosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which Avere not discoverable, the 
oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a 
• military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora- 
cle, 330 B. c. 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George 
Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's 
Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition 
to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences 
to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but 
proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down 
the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several 
other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- 
tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overcc ming the civil 
power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of 
the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, 
then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- 
menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private 
mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; 
among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the 
rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in 
the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George 
was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. 
— Annual Register. 

GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; 
St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found 
buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 
485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was 
thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, 
and banished to the isle of Patmos.— /^e??i. The gospel is the glad tidings 
of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of 
Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for 
propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. 

GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wicklifle, who 
first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : 
it was afiixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of 
their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop 
Burnet. 

GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, 
Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 
251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After 
the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under 
Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
their dominion till a. d. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, 
Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- 
dom, which" continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and thr UNITED STATES. In an 
elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz. : 



GR^ ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



341 



in the United States : aggregate of 
national expenditure, lor each in- 
habitant - - - - $0 97 

Aggregate of State expenditure, for 
each inhabitant - - - 50 

Aggregate of town or city expendi- 
ture, for each inhabitant - ' - 92 

Total coft of Government in the 

United Stales, per head - - $2 39 

or $47,800,000 if tlie population is 
20 millions. 

In England, according to Maccul- 



loch, the average is equal, per 
head, to - 

In France, according to Chevalier, 
in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 
millions of francs, or 40 francs per 
head — say - - - - 

Thus, France pays about three 
times, and Gieat Britain five times 
as much for Government as the 
United States. (See Acbnmisti'a- 
tions of the United States.) 



$12 33 



©7 50 



GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the 
altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that Account. They would not 
partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, 
to their gods ; and hence came the short praj^er said before and after meat 
in all Christian countries from the earliest times, — Lenglet. 

GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- 
ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed 
at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- 
cero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, ./Elius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, 
Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenseus. and other distinguished men, were of 
this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- 
cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's 
said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- 
cover one error." 

GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure 
food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn 
from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- 
sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, 
thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- 
crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. 

GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the 
Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the 
Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 
horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. 
—Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, 
and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 
B. c. — Bossuet. 

GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their 
halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large 
stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There 
were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were 
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200. 
See Chimneys. 

GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the 
Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, 
about a. d. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615 ; and Hook pub- 
lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at 
Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, 
about 1687. 

GR.1ECIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies, 



342 



THE world's progress. 



[grb 



but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the 
southern parts of Italy ; and otliers suppose that Magna Grtecia coinpre- 
hcndcd only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was 
likewise peoi)led by the Greek colonists. — Lemprlcre. 

GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- 
cient world, were the jn-ogeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece 
was so called from a very ancient king named Gnvcus ; and another king 
named HelUn, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls 
the inhabitiints, inditierently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains, For 
ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. 



Sicyon foumlcd (Eusebius) • B.C. 20S9 
Uranus arrives ia (Jreece (Lenglet) • 2012 
Revdit of the Tilaas - - - * * 

Wiir of the Giants - - - * * 

Kinixdom of Argus begun (Eusebius)- 1856 
Reign of Ogyges in iJit'Diia {idviii) ■ 1711G 
S.ic.rilices to the gods lirst introduced in 

Greece by Plioroiieus- - - 1773 

Accoriling to some authors, Sicyon was 

now begun (Leiiglet) ■ - - 1773 

Deluge ol Ogyges {which see) - - 17(34 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 

under (Enotrus : the country lirst 

called (Enortria, afterwards Alugna 

Grmcia {Etisebins) - • • 1710 

Chronology oCthe Arundclian marbles 

comniences (Eusebius) - - 1582 

Cccrops comes into Attica (idem) - 155(5 
The Areopagu-5 insiitnted - - 150(3 

Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) - 1503 

Reign of Ilellon (/(/cw) • - -1159 

Caihiius, wiih the Phojniciau letters, 

settles in lUvotia - - - 1193 

Leiex, tirst Icing ol'Laconia, afterwards 

called Sparta" .... M90 
Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship 

ever seen in Greece - - - 1-1S5 

lie gets possession of Argos. His fifty 

daughters - ... 1475 

First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, 

by the Idu'i Dacti/li (Eusebius) - 1453 
Iron discovered by the Jdfbi Dactyli ■ 1 105 
Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 13S1 

Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches 

the art of 'uaking bread - - 1383 

The Isthmi^.i games instituted - - 132(3 

IMycenre created out of Argos - - i;513 

Argonttutic expedition (u^hich see) - 1203 
The Py(hi:m games by Adrastus - 1203 

War of (he seven Greek captains - 1225 
The Amazonian war; these martial fe- 
males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 
Rape of llelen by Theseus • -1213 
Rape of Helen by Paris - -1198 
Commenconieiu of the Trojan war - 1193 
Troy taken and destroyed on the night 

of the 7th of the month Tliargelion 

(27th May, or Uih .June) - - 1181 

iEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and 

arrives in Italy - - - llSl 

Migration of the /Eoliao colonies, who 

build Smyrna, &c. - - 1121 

Settlement of the lonians from Greece 

in Asia Minor . - - - 1044 

The first laws of navigation originate 

with the Rhodians • - - 916 

Homer flourishes about this time 

(Arundel inn Marbles) - - 907 

Olympic games revived at Elis - 8S4 



The first Messenian war - b. c. 

The seconil Messenian war 

Tiie capture of Ira 

The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and 

give their own name Alesse)ie to Zan- 

cle (now called Messina) 
Sea-fight, the first on record, between 

the Corinthians and the inhabitants 

of (Jorcyra .... 
Byzantium built by the Argives 
Sybaris, in Magna Graicia, destroyed, 
'100,000 Oroionians under Milo defeat 

300,000 Sybarians 
Sardis taken s.nd burnt, which occa- 
sions the Persian invasion 
Thrace and Macedonia conquered 
Battle of Marathon (which see) - 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 

at Thermopyla) by I.oonidas- 
Battle of Salamis (/()/?/(7j see) - 
Mardonius defe,i*»^d at Platrea - 
iSaitle of EuryiiKulon 
The iliird Messenian war 
Athens begins to tyrannize over the 

other states of Greece 
Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles 
The lirst sacred war 
Herodotus reads liis history !>" ♦.he 

Council at Athens 
The sea-fight at Cnidus • 
Battle of Mantinea 
Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes 

all the cities of the Phoceans 
Battle of Chreronea 
Alexander, the son of Philip, enters 

Greece; subdues the Athenians, and 

destroys the ciiy of Thebes - 
Commencement of the Macedonian or 

Grecian Monarchy 
Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the 

throne of Darius 



743 
085 
070 



668 



664 
658 



508 

504 
496 
490 
480 

480 
479 
476 
465 

459 
455 

448 

445 
394 
633 

348 
338 



335 

331 
330 
395 



Alaric invades Greece - - a. d. 
The empire under Nicephorus com- 
menced - - - - 811 
Greece mastered by tlie Latirs - • 1201 
Re conquered - " - - - 1201 
Invaded by the Turks - - - 1350 
Its final overthrow. See Etisfern Em- 
pire 1353 

[This country, so long illustrious for the 
military exploits, the learning, and 
arts ol its people, became of late 
years the scene of ilosperate con- 
flicts with the Turks, in onler to re- 
gain its independence, and the coun- 
cils of the groat powers of Europe 
were friendly to the design.] 
Great struggle for indepondence - J770 



m 



ore] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



343 



GREECE, continued. 

The first decided movement in these lat- 
ter times, by the Servians - a. d. ISOO 

The Servians deleat ilv; Turks at Nyssa 

April 2, 1807 

100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, 
overrun the country, committing the 
most dreadful excesses - - 1813 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- 
chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to 
shake ofl'the Turkish yoke March, 182] 

The Greek patriarch put to death at 
Constantinople - April 23, 1821 

10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- 
though not engaged in the revolt - 18'21 

Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- 
rest ; even the women and children 
not spared .... 1821 

Independence of Greece formally pro- 
claimed - - Jan. 27, 1S22 

Siege of Corinth - - . - Feb. 1822 

Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; 
most horrible massacre recorded m 
modern history' - April 23, 1822 

Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, 
Thermopyloo, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 

National Congress at Argos - April 10, 18:^3 

Victories of Marco Botzaris - June, 1823 

Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote 
himself to its cause - August. 1823 

Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- 
solonghi - - April 19, 182-1 

Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at 
Samos - - August 16, 1824 

The Provisional Government ol Greece 
instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 

The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- 
pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1325 

The Provisional Government of Greece 
invites the protection of England 

July 24, 1825 

Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging 
Turks are defeated in a formidable 
attack upon it - August 1, 1826 

The Greeks disperse tlie Ottoman fleet 

Jan. 28, 1826 



Ibrahim Pacha takes Mistolonghi by 
assault - - April 23, 1826 

The Greeks land near Salonica; battle 
with Ona'^r Pacha - June 1, 182fi 

Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the 
Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826 

Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. IC'l 1326 

Ticaty of London, between Great Bri- 
tain, Russia, and France, on behalf 
of Greece, signed - July 6, 1827 

Battle of Navarino {which see); the 
Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827 

Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- 
dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, J 828 

The Panhellenion or Grand Council oi' 
Siate established - Feb. 2, 1828 

National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828 

Greece divided into departments, viz. 
Argolis, Acliaia, Elis, Uppei Hcsse- 
nia. Lower Messenia, ijaconxa, and 
Arcadia, and the islands formed also 
_into departments - April 26, 1828 

Final evacuation of tlie Morea by the 
Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 

Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 

Greek National Assembly commences 
its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 

The Porte acknowledges the indepeijG- 
ence ol' Greece - - April 25, 1830 

Prince Leopold finally declines the so- 
vereignty - - May 21, 1830 

Count Capo d'Istria, President of 
Greece, assassinated by the brother 
and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote 
chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 

The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 

Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 
Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 
A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- 
force ministerial responsibility and 
national representation, is consum- 
mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843 
The king accepts the new constitution 

March 16, 1844 
[See Athens, Macedon, Sparta^ Thrace, and 
other states of Greece.] 

GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eig-hth century between the 
eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a 
half terminated in a separation : this cliurch is cahcd Greek in contradis- 
tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior-' 
ity as usmg the language in which the Gospel was first ])romulgated. and 
many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- 
lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli- 
gion of Russia. 

GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- 
nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, 



* The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire 
which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 
Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to sureender by a promise of amnesty, t'uar- 
anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every n)an of rnem, 
butchered I The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of tlie young and more 
beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- 
der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured citv. is too loiig 
and too shocking for transcrijition here. 



344 THE world's progress. I ttUA 

in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effecttd by the g-cneral 
of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 30.000 men were killed. The property 
of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac- 
cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- 
gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of 
copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- 
vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; 
but it is now lost. 

GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe 
about A. i). 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned 
English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- 
tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcf to teach Erasmus, 
1490.— Wood's Athen. Oxon. 

GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a, p. 980, 
and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter 
country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England 
to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 
James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind 
by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when 
the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing 
Company was incorporated in 1693. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore 
and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, 
so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- 
nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the 
meridian of this place, 1675; some make the date 1679. This observatory 
contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet 
by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector. 
The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- 
flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera 
obscura. 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregor^ XIIL, 
from whom it derives its name, a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic 
states of Europe in that year; into most other states in 1710; and adopted 
by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- 
lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to 
eleven days. See Calendar, and JS^ew Style. 

GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos- 
sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; 
the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered 
by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the 
French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was 
ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in 
1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the 
French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this island, which 
was not finally quelled till June, 1796. 

GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant 
" ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The 
Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- 
don, incorporated in 1429. 

GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493. It was colonized by 
the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794. and 1810; and in order to ailure 



GUY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 

the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, 
however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have 
been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegibliu, the names of towns. The desig- 
nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies 
din-ing the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the 
Ghi])eUnes were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present roj^al 
family of England.— See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood 
was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV., in 1816. 

GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise 
obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be 
seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicce Questiones of Achilles 
Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there 
called the Maymaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; 
Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the 
regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, 
from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his 
name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- 
father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some 
hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a 
prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the 
Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, 
enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. 

GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first 
coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were 
then valued at 305. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced 
in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parhament in 1717. Broad pieces were 
coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of 
an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- 
tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- 
wick, in Germany, about a.d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was 
known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- 
nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, 
moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his 
treatise Da Nullitate Magiot, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT m ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracv known by 
this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- 
troying the three estates of the realm— king, lords, and commons— there 
assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This 'diabolical scheme was 
projected by Robert Catesby. and many high persons were leagued in the 
enterprise Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, 
preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of 
the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir JEverard Digby, Rockwood, 
Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, 
as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in 
which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, 'remained in the 
late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin 
to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who. after having be- 
stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder 
of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the 
erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 

15* 



346 THE world's progress. [haq 

cost him 18,793i., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sura 
of 219,499/, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000Z. was made to this 
hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; 
his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. 

GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were 
performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also 
])hilosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- 
ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word G3'mna- 
siniw—gtimnos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their 
limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasi)ed. 
The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in 
Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. 

GYPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- . 
liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 
1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- 
cendants of a great body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke, 
and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their 
supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal recej, tion in Miat age 
of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and 
from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe, 
as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- 
trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- 
ecuted at one assizes for haring associated with gypsies for about a month, 
contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, 
was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were 
in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120 000 gypsies, and 
many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their 
intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, 
customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. 

H. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' PFrz/5 of Right, passed for the security and 
liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next In importance to 
Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- 
gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is 
shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- 
l^ended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and 
Avhen the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a 
portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — ■ 
Blackstone. 

HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- 
horse {haquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly 
harnessed (to accommodate several v/ayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle 
called coche-h-haqiienee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- 
gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They Avere first licensed in 
1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of 
London. Tlie number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 
1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of 
Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on 
the outside of the vehicle. 

HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the 
Stat<^-s-General, and residence o^ the former earls of Hvlland, the rriur;e8 of 



^^^1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 

Holland &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of I>hiliD 
II. of Spam, and held a conference in 1610 upon the five avtiolp^ nf Mi ^ 
monstrants, which occasioned the synod of ^Zt Treatv^^^^^^^ 
entered into with a view to preserve \he equilTbrium ofll No^^h fe 

li^t"^uk^2Sr67^^^^^ fff' ''''■ .^« Wittwasto'fin pfe es 

«rv 170^"= I ' ] L- T^ie Fjench took possession of the Ha^ue in Janu- 
ary, 1/95; favored by a hard frost, they marched into Holland Vw?il 
mhabitants and troops declared in their favor'^^eneral re Xion^^^^^^^^ 
:L'ape'tf Sn'r' \t '^^'^^"^^ '^^'^ compdledTo'l^iv^'tltc'im ^"L^^^^ 

^^:^n:C^^^^^^^r '--'' -Comm^erce^r;ren 



HAIR 



JR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemerl nnrl 
hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off trhai^was hfflicted 
as a punishment among them. The royal family of France hadtt as a mr 

Z h.ir?.rn "T^'^f '^.'^'' ^'^'S' '^"^ P^"^«e« of ?he Wood to weai" 
ong hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is nf nnn«?niti 

W ha^rn tr^ f''T^''- ^'^' AnicetS forbfd'eX rrg.f^ofea 
long hail, AD. 155 Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate 
of Cromwell, and hence the term Bound-heads. It was a? ai out of fashTon 
"se S^lk'o'S: m5T; "^^ '^^ r'' ^^ ''''■ Hafe PoX SamelX 
whicS yieLdtoloOof,'.?!:™ ^"' "^^^ ^^^-^^"^ ^^^"^^ '' - E"^^-^' 

^^JfJ^^, "^^w'. ''' f i^tiquity, implied seven days before and as manv after 
the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her egffs at Xs tfm?^of ti?p 
year and the weather during her incubation was atitysJn The phrl e 
was aftenvards employed to express any season of transient prosneriv or 
of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human lifel-^S^'^ ^ ' 

HALLipON HILL. Battle op, near Berwick, between the En<^lish and Spof^ 
m which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 S whtle a com' 
q 1 qo|^^ fr" P"^^'^^^- «f «^^ English sufiered, reign of E Iwa'c III jX 
Scottd.4^'r.'^^^^^^ ^'^^^^^^ '^'^'^^ Edward^Bahol on the Ihron'e'lff 

^"^.^Jfn^tn ' ^°^J^^«^^^- Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- 
nutacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths IcerseTs 

to^nTt Us firs't^^^ '"^"r "^ ^" '""'''^''^^ -^^ liable to be sto!;ir?he 
Toun, at Its hist incorporation, was empowered to punish caiutahv anv crim 
mal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen peiShal^ 
Jln^sTTn Sle^et iro??^ I'lr-^'^' *'^ offender in a'mcSfbu^ki^'g 
tt'o^^diai^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ "s;?.S.r^^ ^^^'^^^ '-'- '' '-- -^- 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the 
meaniL^??f '■ r'T '^'^ ^^^''^f ''''^ ^^'^^« ^"^^ ^^e ChSL' c urch The 
J.J;/r7 !? byHaggai, the prophet, about 584 b.c: and their intro- 

oneTth'irrimrti W ^^"^'"^ ^^^"^'^^^ '' ^^^'^ ^o St! JeJon "e 

one 01 tne pnmitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390.— Care's Hist. Lit. 

^^v^^^^f\ '^J^ company of Hambro' merchants Avas incorporated in 1296 
France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napner 
Tandy, (see iV«;,;..,-T«;.^7/.) October 1799. British propef y seqiFesulted 
March 1801. Hamburgh taken by the French after the baVe of ^enah^ 
1806^ Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the Fi en oh 
on the advance of the Ru.ssians into Germany in 1813? and relto^dfo^te 



S48 THE world's progress. [ HA? 

independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which 
destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued for three days. May 4, 1842, 
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-house of the Ivnights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it 
to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his 
mother, Jane Seymour, died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of 
our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments M^ere pulled down, and 
the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was 
held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the 
members of the Established Church, v/hich led to a new translation of the 
Bible. See Conference. 
HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- 
ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- 
man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of 
execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and 
their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. 
— Stovjc. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- 
merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in 
chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. 
HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George 
I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen. Verden, and other duchies and 
principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was 
seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; 
and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the 
crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, 
Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in 
November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke 
of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom 
of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. 
HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an 
act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise 
of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, 
of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the 
granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of 
Brunswick Luneburgh, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the 
throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. 
HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was 
formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other 
against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 
1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns 
situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- 
creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be 
admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They 
grew so formidable as to i)roclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, 
about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12.000 
i-egular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who 
ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their 
effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. 
In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the 
name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
HAPSBURGH, House of. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. 
Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near 
Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria. 



^^^ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 

^^^^''1? "f^f ^''''^ ™^^ ^"^ ^'■'''^^^ ^^ck *« the beginning of the 13th century 
when Rodolph, connt of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany 
and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Gerinamj. ^«rmany 

HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian who 
so much frequented Mr. Barley's house, that his friends and acquaintance 
used to call him Harleq^dno, little Harley.-M...«^^.. Originally the name 
implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now nfeans anixpe/t dancer at 
a piay-nouse. 

HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of 
ifj^Zfr'^-'l''^ among the Jews, Greeks, and Romanl The celebra- 
teu Laks of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious 
amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- 
saly m order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 
doO B. c. It IS affirmed that the mother of Wilham I., of England a fur- 
rier s daughter of Falaise, whose name .was Arlotta, was of so infamous a 
character diat our odious term harlot is derived from her name.-/)/- Jokn- 
^''"'^ ^J-n England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party -olors 
and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III' 

HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings 
m consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- 
mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine^ and twelve: or rather 
by squai;es, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- 
four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were 
first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge.— i^/-«7a-Zwi The in- 
vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 

HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harn 
before Saul^l Sam. xvi 23. The lyre of the Greeks'^is the harp of th? 
moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very 
few strings The Cirabri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- 
brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more 
ancient harps, with wire. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mv. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 
l/ob ; his second m 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured 
him the rewai;d of 20,000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of lSS- 
fectedln?772 '" ^ ^'^'' ^^^^'^ ^'' celebrated time-piece wa^ pfr- 

^^^In^^^t.^^?^I^c^T^^'' ^^' celebrated convention of delegates from 

^^Z'^tSi'i^'^''''' '^ ^^^^^'^^^^^ '^ ^^^ administration of 

HASTINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which 

Z7 '^TJ^lr^'^ ^^^T""^. 7r^'^ '^^^"' f^^^ght between Harold 11. SfXg 
land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life ami 

- nf o?VnI'"r''' ^T 'r^f '^ '^'' Conqueror, was soon after crowned 
kmg of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- 
quest, m the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. 

HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India 
tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and iSemLnors but 
acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his governmen 
which. It was thought, ought to have led to a different resSlt. Among othe 
n«hT%^ffT^ liim, was his acceptance of a present of 100 OOOZ. from he 
nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means 
of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and tl^^rmmX 



b50 THE \VOPi.LD's progress. [" HEQ 

1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- 
tings, attracted universal admiration. 
HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They 
are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- 
phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined Avith red velvet, and 
surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the 
use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place 
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats 
were lirst manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time 
both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Slowe. Very high 
crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns 
were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- 
land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the 
English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, 
in 1759, in 1794, in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a siate of blockade, 
Sept. 6. 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 
1804. 

HAYTI, OR Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus ^n 
1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de- 
stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including 
women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. 
Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- 
salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- 
ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. ^He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of 
color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title 
of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. 
Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, 
and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed 
suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. 
Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected 
president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. 

HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- 
ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was vol connected, but 
composed of islands, Avhich he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, 
ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the 
name they now bear. 

HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; 
but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they 
possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- 
rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the 
expense, goats and lambs Avere substituted for oxen. — Potter. 

HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About 
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. 
The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic 
mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. 

HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622; 
the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many 
chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir 
has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th Avas the 
first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahometism 
and Medina. 



DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 

HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the 
river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant 
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the 
famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- 
heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads, 
and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University ol' 
Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, 
contained in 1840, 622 students. 

HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the 
most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very 
lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, 
she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the 
court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, 
and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by 
the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character 
from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of 
Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his 
hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though 
not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris. Priam, 
received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the 
princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- 
tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife 
being CEnone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida; and at his 
death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- 
tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone, whom he 
had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, 
still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed 
it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. 

HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival 
of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it 
tintil 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India 
company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by 
the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it 
to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's 
captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 
1821. 

HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it 
was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- 
chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England 
by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was 
ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of 
the British crown. 

HELIOMETER. a valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- 
vented by M. Bougner, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Ch'jisto- 
pher Scheiner in 1625. 

HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among 
the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise 
above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks 
was round; and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a 
plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English 
king? had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had 
a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was 
surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Givillim. 

HELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate 



352 THE world's progress. [ HEK 

resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied 
v/ith the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; 
and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the 
prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helotce, and further exposed 
them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward 
ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ana 
the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. 

IIEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed 
to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its 
cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government 
and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- 
ported from Russia in British ships, 17^695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John 
Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 
100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage 
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails, 

HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England 
was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, 
and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, 
when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of 
England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. 

HERACLID^E, The, or the return of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus : a 
famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- 
tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This 
return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after 
the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. 

HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of 
the world. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the 
Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a 
horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, lohich 
see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed 
in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next, 
to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the 
feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzu. It was at length methodized and 
perfected bv the crusades and tournaments, the fqrmer commencing in 
1096. 

HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with 
Pompeii, b}^ an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was 
buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper 
under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which 
year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- 
ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. 
were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, 
where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the 
museum of Portici. 

HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here- 
tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- 
tholic ohurch. — Bacon. "Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by 
torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon 
Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a.d. 41. Thirty heretic? 
came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were 



HIG-J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 

branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in 
the depth of winter, where, none daring to reheve them, they died of hun- 
ger and cold, 1160. — Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession 
of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- 
pealed, 25 Henry VIII., 153.4-5. 

HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to 
avoid persecution, Avhere they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and 
meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged in 
dark caves, wiiere their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- 
out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- 
gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the 
Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais, 
and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250. 

HERO AND LE ANDER : their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so 
great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the 
night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to 
have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 'Ji-. 
recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, 
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from 
her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 b. c. — Liv]i, Herodotus. 

HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as 
the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of 
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to 
the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British 
Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. 

HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- 
flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus {loMch 
see\ March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 
1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, 
which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- 
tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- 
copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new 
nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he 
had discovered. 

HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, 
daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was 
descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl 
of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry 
v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. 
There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and 
it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it^ has produced. Six 
thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion 
being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000Z. three per cent, stock, was 
transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the 
American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again 
hired hj England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion 
there in 1798. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures 
and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodward. Hiero- 
glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. The 
earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, 
and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- 
tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. 

HIGH CHURCH and LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by 



354 THE world's progress. [ HOI 

the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for 
two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensiona 
of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against 
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his oi)ponents 
Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa- 
cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
He died in 1724. 

HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating 
the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to 
British liberty, the 25tli of Edward HI. 1552. By this statute two living 
witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal 
of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- 
set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. 
By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted that where there v/as a trial 
for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life 
of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the 
case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness w^as given to Henry VII. ; and this, and 
sometimes Your Grave^ was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but 
about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- 
ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. 

HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Calij-ug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- 
luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the 
sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, 
A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. 

HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are 
vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian 
Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, 
are the foundations of early ancient historj''. Later ancient history is con- 
sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 
476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 
800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the 
English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor- 
ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of 
historj'' founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was 
succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. 

HOHENLINDEN, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, the 
latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated 
with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and 
their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, November 3, 1800. 

HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this countrj^ were the Batavians, who 
derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been 
obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and 
established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and 
the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of 
their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion 
of Francs and Frisians. 



Sovereignty nundeJ by Thierry, first 

count of H ■'Jand - - a. d. 868 

The county o Holland devolves to the 

counts of Hainault - - - 1299 

It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, 

duke of Burgundy - - - 1436 

100,000 persons are drowned by the sea 

breakms in at Dort - - 1446 



Burgundy and its dependencies become 
a circle of the empire - - - 1521 

They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and 
religious persecution cause a revolt 
in Batavia - - ■ - Icofl 

The revolted states with William, 
prince of Orange, at their head, en- 
ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1579 



HCi 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



355 



HC, A.ND, continued. 

They elect William as Stadlholder - 1579 

The Stadlholder, William, is assassi- 
nated - - ... 1584 

The Dutch East India company found- 
ed 1602 

After a struggle of thirty years, the king 
of Spain Is obliged to declare the Ba- 
tavians free • - - - 1609 

The republic wars against Spain in the 
East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- 
miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- 
nish galleons, value 20,000,000/. ster- 
ling . . - - - 1635 

Cromwell declares war against Hol- 
land, and many naval battles are 
fought; Blake signally defeats Van 
Tromp .... - 1653 

William, prince of Orange, having 
married Mary, daughter of James II., 
is called to the British throne - I6S8 

Tlie office of Stadtholder is made here- 
ditary in the Orange family - - 1747 

Era of the civil war - - - 1787 

The French Republican ai'my march 
into Holland ; the people declare in 
their favor - - - - 1793 

The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 

He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- 
nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the 
line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- 
dered to the British admiral Duncan, 
without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 

A new constitution is given to the Ba- 
tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. 
J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title 
of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 



Holland erected into a kingdom, and 
Louis Bonaparte declared king 

June 5, 1805 

Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810 

Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 

Restored to the house of Orange, and 
Belgium annexed to its dominions 

Nov. 18, 1813 

The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- 
vereign prince of the United Nether- 
lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 

He receives the oath of allegiance 
from his subjects - March 30, 1814 

And takes the title of king as William 
I. - - - March 16, 1815 

The revolution in Belgium (ichich see} 
commenced - - ■ Aug. 25, 1830 

The Belgians take the city of Antwerp 
iwhic/. . ee) - - Oc 27, 1830 

Belgium is sepa;.'ated from HoLi.nd, 
and Leopold of Cobourg is elected 
kmg - - - July 12, 1831 

Holland renews the war against Bel- 
gium - - - Aug ?j 1831 

Conference in London on the alTairs ot 
Holland and the Netherlands termi- 
nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
signed in London - April 19, 1839 

Abdication of William I. in favor of 
his son - - - Oct. 8, 1S40 

Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 

The king promises his assent to all re- 
forms passed by the chambers 

March 14, 1848 

New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 

Death of William II. - March 17, 1849 



STADTHOLDERS, ETC. 



A.D 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 
sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- 
vinces owe their foundation and glo- 
i-y : killed by an assassin, hired by 
Philip of Spain. 

1584 Henry Philip William. 

1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 

1625 Frederick Henry. 

1647 William IT. 

1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 
and king of England in 1689. 



1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass- 
ing a ferry in Holland. 
171 1 Charles Henry Frizo. 
1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- 
holder. 
1751 William V. 

KINGS. 

1813 William I. 
1840 William II 

1849 William IIL, present king, (1852.) 
See Belgiu-rn. 



HOLi^AND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first 
discovered. In 1605, et seq.^ various parts of the coast were traced by the 
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the 
south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, 
called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's 
name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South Wales, and 
Van Dicmen^s Land. 

HOLY ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and 
Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- 
selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all 
their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- 
ber 26, 1815. 

HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— 

AsJie. 



356 THE world's progress. [ HOP 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish xce two 
most perfect Epic* poems in the world, Avritten by the greatest poet that 
has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of 
Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after 
the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- 
stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written 
in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist. 
The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to 
mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to 
sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. 

HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c. 
He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another 
that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not 
deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, 
daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, 
assaulted another violently. Was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly 
to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high 
priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, 
wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- 
tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees 
of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder, 

HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such 
as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious 
drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a 
moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of 
Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- 
rope, drank, it is said, so freely of liijdroniel on his marriage-day, that he 
died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed 
to another cause. See Attila. 

*' HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- 
bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward 
III., took it up, and jjresented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui mal 
y pense,'" " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the 
motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- 
supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith. 

HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly 
among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that 
people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about 
B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship \)j C. Marius, about 102 
B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter 
that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius 
ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby 
to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. 

HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were 
used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- 
wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, 
and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there ax& 
between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the 



* The epic poems of Homer and Vikgil, the Gierusalemine of Tasso, the Paradise Lost oi 
Mi;>TON, and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the jioblest that exist; and Milton's is considered 
to rank next to Homer's. ," Paradise Lost is no; the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr Toan- 
BOK, " only because it is not the first." — Butler. 



HUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 357 

culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and 

Worcestershire. 
HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the 
Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on 
each side to determine toAvhich it belonged; and the three Horatii, Roman 
knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective 
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the 
Horatii, united Alba to Rome. 

HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably 
were the first, among the Greeks at least, w^ho rode upon horses, and broke 
them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- 
ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for 
his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the 
horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the 
work of six men. — Bos&uet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering 
to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were 
only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced 
into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions 
of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thou^and agricultural 
horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- 
tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses 
in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " onlj^ in England, 
amounts to about 350,000/. per year. See Race Horses. 

HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, 
who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the 
reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic 
order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. 

HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- 
stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- 
ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, 
a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and 
endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499/. See Infirmaries. 

HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- 
tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff" who 
decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to 
the adoration of the host, v/hich is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. 

HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when 
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. 
Previously to the invention of water-clocks Qiohich see), 158 b. c, the time 
Avas called at Rome by jjublie criers. The Chinese divide the day into 
twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, 
instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the 
measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was 
by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning 
twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- 
glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. 

HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a 
North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part 
of North America may more i)roperly be said to have been discovered by 
Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hadson ventured further 
north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, 
with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The 
Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The 
forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 



358 



THE world's progress. 



S uvn 



HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of -prij-Jxi/ ' wit a 't' m and 
with voice," from hundred to hmidred, and county to co<'xity, all / jhbera 
and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all lobo occa- 
sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; 
but by subseq^^ent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed 
by riotous assemblies. 

HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term 
of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the 
reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The 
memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St. 
Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- 
siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- 
rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. 

HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was 
formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 
1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury 
and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- 
cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. 

HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 
B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the 
Christiar era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- 
wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements 
were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were 
expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila, 
whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of "The Scourge of 
God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed 
with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals; be- 
sides German settlers, as Austrians. Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians, 
Saxons &c. Hungary \vas annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- 
lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. 



Stephen receives the title of Apostolic 
king from the pope - - a. d. 997 

The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 

Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under 
the sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout 
Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. 

Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- 
ria, Servia, and Dalmaiia - ' - 1342 

Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 

He dies, and the history of Hungary 
now presents a frightful catalogue of 
crimes - - - - - 1378 

Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, 
queen of Louis, is drowned, and kin^" 
Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- 
mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and 
causes the rivers of Hungary to flow 
with blood - - - - 1378 

The unhappy Hungarians call the 
Turks to their assistance - - 1380 

Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
in battle . . . . 1389 

Sigismond recovers from this blow, 
and makes Wallachia and Moldavia 
tributary to him • - - 1390 



He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 

is elected emperor of Germany - 1410 

Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne 
of Hungary, thus laying tlie founda- 
tion of the subsequent power and 
greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 
It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 

Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- 
vades Hungary, and takes Buda ; 
battle of Mohatz (w/tich see) - - 1526 

Buda sacked a second time by the 
Turks, and all the inhabitants put to 
the sword .... ]540 

Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 

Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 

Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 

The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men 
in a fruitless attempt to take Buda 
from the Turks - - - 1684 

He at length carries Buda by storm, 
and delivers up the Mahometans to 
the fury of the soldiers - - 1683 

Temeswar wrested from the Turks by 
prince Eugene .... 1718 



* The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and conse- 
quently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of kins: 
Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charlos Duras, came to the crown, she was styleJ 
King Mary. 



HUN J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



359 



HUNGARY, continued. 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey 
at the peace of Belgrade - - 1739 

Temeswar incorporated with the king- 
dom of Hungary - - -1778 

The struggle for independence com- 
menced in - - . . 1848 

Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- 
er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, 

The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the 
emperor of Austria ; martial law- 
proclaimed; .Tellachich, Ban of Cro- 
atia, appointed to the supreme gov- 
ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 I 

Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- I 

dent of the defence committee and | 

dictator- - - . Oct, 1848 I 

[Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] I 

Hungarian army advances within six i 



miles of Vienna; /ellachich also ad- 
vances there, Ocuber ]1; Kossuth 
retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, 

Hungary declares itself an independent 
republic - . . Dec. 1843 

Kaab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered 
by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849 

Ukase of Russiar. emperor Nicholas, 
declaring his purpose of aidins: Aus- 
tria against Hungary - April 26, 

Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- 
ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- 
trians at Villargos - Aug. llj 1919 

The war ended by the complete subju- 
gation of Hungary, and the flight or 
execution of her leaders. 
See Germany. 



KINGS OP HUNGARY. 



. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of kin°- 
1038 Peter I., deposed. 
1041 Otto, killed in battle. 
1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is 

again deposed, and has his eyes put 

out. 
1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother 

Bela. 
1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 

tower. 
1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 
1073 Geiga I. 
1076 St. Ladislaus. 
1095 Coloman. 

1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn- 
ed monk. 
113] Bela 11. ; he had his eyes put out by 

his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 

ruled the kingdom. 
1141 Geiga II. 
1161 Stephen III. 
1173 Bela III. 
1191 Emeric. 

1200 Ladislaus II. 

1201 Andrew II. 
1235 Bela IV. 
1275 Stephen IV. 

1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 
1291 AndrevvT III. 
1301 Wenceslaus. 
1304 Olho. 



1309 
1342 
1383 
1389 
1437 
1440 

1444 
1458 

1490 
1516 

1526 
1527 
1534 
1539 
1561 

1573 
1609 
1618 
1625 
1647 
1656 
1687 
1711 
1740 
1780 



Charles Robert. 

Louis I. tlie Great. 

Mary. 

Mary, and her husband Sigism. hd. 

Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 

Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the 
Turks. 

Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant. 

Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- 
gent. 

Ladislaus VI. 

Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the 
Turks. 

John Sepusius, deposed. 

Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. 

John Sepusius, again. 

JohnIL 

Maximilian, afterwards emperor 0/ 
Germany. 

Rodolphus. 

Matthias II. 

Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany. 

Ferdinand III., ditto. 

Ferdinand IV. 

Leopold, emperor of Germany. 

Joseph, ditto 

Charles VI , ditto. 

Maria Theresa. 

Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. 
See Germany. 



On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had 
married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her 
father s hereditaiy dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length 
overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary 
Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See 
Germany. 

HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 
years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d 93 and 
tlie remnant^s settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the 
Danube, m 0/6 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their 
arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by 
them, about a. d 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- 
pagne m_447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles 
during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as 



360 THE world's progress. f lAM 

a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it tho 

name of Hungary, wliicli see ; see also Altila. 

HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to 
issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a i-efor- 
mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give 
an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- 
mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the 
strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon 
thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- 
nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same 
fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome of Prague, the intimate com-" 
panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- 
porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. 
See Cranmer, and Martyrs. 

HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as 
they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- 
posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their 
tirst onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were 
oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on 
their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," 
— Pardon. 

HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth 
century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is 
not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs 
of it are to be found. — Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., 
and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science 
in 1746. 

HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 
300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 
B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 
B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The 
science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was 
scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- 
tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given 
to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738, 

HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise 
of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and 
Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said 
to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, 
about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with 
trumpets, drums, and cymbals. 

I. 

IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of 
Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over 
Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, 
stories, and poetical eff'usions ; and from her free and satirical verses have 
been called Iambics. — ApoLlodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 
700 B. c, by Archilochus, Avho had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- 
bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, 
richer than the ppet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on Iho 
old man's avarice, that he hanged himself — Herodotus. 



:D0 ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 361 

ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than tht water which 
composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by 
means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walicer and others, in 1782. 
Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a 
vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common 
salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the 
zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze 
mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, 
so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. 

ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, 
of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 
Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
capable of containing 141,332 tons. 

ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to 
leave their native country, a. d. 871; according to some accounts, it had 
been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- 
canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and 
a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising 
to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that 
flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken 
breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally 
overwhelmed by Are or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. 

ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their 
library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 
26, 1847. 

ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by 
some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- 
tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter 
with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a 
chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his 
heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her tegis ; Venus, 
drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- 
logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; 
and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. 
The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the 
early part of the eighth century. See Idols. 

IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each 
month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was 
the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, 
and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on 
which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other 
conspirators, 44 b. c. 

IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- 
sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national 
institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is 
one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in 
every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. 

IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- 
nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- 
nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 
Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- 
stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a, d. — Dufresnoy. In Britain, the 

16 



3tJ2 THE world's PROGflESS. [ JMf 

religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- 
tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon 
overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the 
week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after 
the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. 

D^IUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c, 
Troy (which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and 
IIus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 206 
years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The 
Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, 
whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus, 
king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged 
in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns 
and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten 
years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the 
inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 b. c. — Apo^io- 
dorus. 

ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- 
kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 
1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it 
was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- 
tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population 
in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has 
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- 
exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. 

ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they Avere 
called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, 
they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- 
chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and 
attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A. secret 
society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 
1776. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, 
drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity; and illuminated pages are,many of them, exquisitely painted. 
Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- 
ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th 
and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the 
great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia- 
ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 
13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. 
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806. 
Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke of 
York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal. 
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- 
fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, 
Nov. 10, 1820. See Qtteen of George IV. 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of 
Great Britain became Imperial; and the first Imperial parliament, admit- 
ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual 
peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, January 22, 1801. 



IMP J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



363 



The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since 
the passing of the Reform Bill (ivhick see), in 1832, there are 471 English ; 
29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members— in all 658. In the Lords, 
459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers 
of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, 
Parliament, and Reform. 



IMl ORTS OF MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. 
Table, p. 317. 



See Exports, &c. 



In 1710 
1750 
1775 



VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, 



^£4,753,777 I In 1800 

7,289,582 1810 

■ 14,815,855 j 1820 



.£30,570.605 
41,136;i35 
36,514,564 



In 1830 
1840 
1845 



jE46,21.5,2il 
62,004,0(X) 

- 85,281,953 



IBIPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- 
postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every 
country, and have existed i.n every age. The following are selected from 
various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — 

Boleyn. She and her confederates were 
hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— 
Rapin. 

In the first year of Mary's reign, after her 
marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth 
Croft, a' girl of 18 years of age, was se- 
creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made 
for the purpose, uttered many seditious 
speeches against the queen and the priux,?, 
and also against the mass and confession, 
for which she was sentenced to stand upon 
a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- 
mon-time, and make public confession of 
her imposture, 1553 : she was called the 
Spirit of the Wall. — Baker's Chron. 

William Racket, a fanatic, personated our 
Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 
34 Eliz., 1591. 

James Naylor, personated our Saviour; he 
was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, 
and his tongue bored through with a hot 
iron on the pillory, by sentence of the 
House of Commons, under Cromwell's 
administration, 1656. 

'^''alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, 
who pretended to cure all diseases by 
stroking the patient; his imposture de- 
ceived the credulous, and occasioned very 
warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in 
England, where it fell into disrepute, in 
1666, upon his examination belbre the 
Royal Society, after which we hear no 
more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the 
Roy. Society. 

Dr. Tiius Gates. See Conspiracies. 

Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending 
she bred rabbits within her, .so imposed 
upon many persons (among others, Mr. 
St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost imposture by WiMiani 
Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. 

Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed hei 
conception of the Messiah, and hndamul 
titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 18li 

IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Matthias, alias Matthews, v/ho professed to 

be the Messiah, New- York. 1830-31. 
Joseph Smith. See article Morfnons. 



Aldebcrt, who, in the eighth century, pre- 
tended he had a letter from the Redeem- 
er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
he seduced multitudes to follow him into 
woods and deserts, and to live in imitation 
of John the Baptist. 

Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to 
be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by 
the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, 
styled himself the nephew of God, sent 
into the world to adopt children worthy of 
heaven; he denied the resurrection, 
preached against marriage, in favor of a 
community of women, and taught that 
the body only could be defiled by'sin ; he 
had many followere ; died at Basle, 1556. 

Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 
tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of 
Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; but he maintained that ano- 
ther child had been substituted in his 
place : he was supported by the arms of 
Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- 
sians, who invited him to the throne, and 
delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- 
ing czar, and all his family, whom he 
cruelly put to death : his imposition beins 
discovered, he was assassinated in his 
palace, 1606.— D' Alembe7-t' s Revolutions 
of Russia. 

Sabbala Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused 
the Turks and .Jews a long time at Con- 
stantinople and other places, by person- 
ating our Saviour, 1666. 

IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH 
HISTORY. 

Two men crucified, both pretending to be 
the Messiah ; and two women executed for 
assuming the characters of the Virgin 
Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III., 
1221. ° ' J ? 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of 
Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- 
tion, by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven, fortelling that the king would have 
an early and violent death if^he divorced 
Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 



IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 



364 THE world's progress. ^Iind 

practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. 
Pressing-, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- 
tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service 
above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at 
sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, 
and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- 
lic boards, and none except by an oflScer with a press-warrant. 

INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and 
Gothic constitutions. In the reign of EdAvard I. incendiaries were burnt to 
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry YI,, 1429; and 
it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. 

IN(JEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and 
Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- 
stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his 
brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his 
brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. 
In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own 
daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, 
queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and 
the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- 
ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of 
Portugal was betrothed to his niece. Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, 
in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was 
early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the 
Commonwealth, in 1650. 

INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost 
In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, 
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with 
France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 
1802; but was abandoned. In 1803. it was revived, at the rate of 5 per 
cent, on all incomes above 150/., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 
1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, 
embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — 

In 1804, at \s. in the pound - jE4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - jGll, 500,000 
In 1805, at Is. Zd. ditto - • 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985 

The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8.657.937Z. ; from fund- 
ed and stock properties, 2.885,505Z. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088Z. 
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. 
Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax 
of 2/. 18s. Ad. per cent, per aim., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 
1842; it produced about 5.350,000/. a year. This tax was renewed for three 
years more, in March, 1845. 

INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They 
are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation 
may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- 
sion for sjmods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm 
that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- 
commimicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was 
that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. 

INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of 
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent. 



iND] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



365 



The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was 
forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, vv^as confirmed by a bull of 
pope Clement VIII. in 1595, It enumerated most of the celebrated works 
of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. 

— Ashe. 

INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- 
rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by 
Alexander, 827 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and 
the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is 
reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — 
Rennel. 



Irruption of the Mahometans, under 
Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. 1000 

Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 

Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most 
bloody conquerors of the world ; 
14,000,000 of the human race perish 
by his sword, under the pretence of 
establishing the worship of one god : 
he died 1237 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct 
of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- 
lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 

Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- 
feats the Indian army, makes a con- 
quest of Hindostan, and butchers 
100,000 of its people - - -1399 

The passage to India discovered by 
Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 

Conquest of the country completed by 
the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- 
gul empire .... 1,525 

Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the 
greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 

Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions 
extendmg from 10 to 35 decrees in 
latitude, and nearly as much m longi- 
tude, and his revenue amounting to 
32,000,000/. sterling - - - 1660 

Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or 
Kouli Khan - - - . 1738 

At Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 

He carries away treasure amounting 
to 125,000,000/. sterling - - 1739 

Defeat of the last imperial army by the 
Rohillas - - - - 1749 

[The Mogul" empire now became mere- 
ly nominal, distinct and independent 
sovereignties being forme I by nu- 
merous petty princes. The empe- 
rors were of no political consequence 
from this period. 

BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the 

noi'th-east and north-west passages - 1528 
Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 

Levant company make a land expedi- 
tion to India - - . - 1589 
First adventure from England - - 1591 
First charter to the London company 

of merchants - - - -1600 

Second charter to the East India com- 
pany . . - - . 1609 
Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 
Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. 

See Calcutta. - - - - 1756 

He imprisons 146 British subjects, of 



whom 123 perish in one night. See 
Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756 

Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards 
lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at 
Plassey - - June 20, 1757 

Warren Hastings becomus governor of 
Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 

India Bill. See hidia Bill June 16, 1773 

Supreme court established - - 1773 

Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 

The strong fortress of Gualior tajcen by 
major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 

Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and 
defeats the British • Sept. 10, 1780 

He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
Madras - - - June 22, 1781 

Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre 
i Coote - - - -July 1,178) 

Death of Hyder, and accession of his 
son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 

Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- 
ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1783 

Definiiive treaty with Tippoo ; his two 
sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 

Government of lord Mornington, after- 
wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 

Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo 
Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 

Victories of the British ; the Carnatic 
conquered .... 1800 

Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 

Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov- 
ernment • - July 30, 1805 

Act by which the trade to India was 
thrown open ; that to China remain- 
ing with the company July 31, 1813 

Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 

Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- 
vernor-general - - July 4, 1328 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea 
trade, <fec. to China, forming a new 
era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1883 

Lord Auckland, governor-general ; he 
leaves England - - Sept. 1835 

Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John, 
now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny) 

July 23, 1539 

Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, 
and he and the British army enter 
Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839 

English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 1840 

Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at 
his funeral his successor is killed by 
accident, and Dost Mahom^-J, next 
heir, surrenders to England - !Sov. 5, 1840 

General rising against the Birtish at 



366 



THE world's progress 



[IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Cabul ; Sir Alexander Burnes and 
other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 

Lord Ellcnborough appointed governor- 
general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 

Sir William Macnaghten treacherou.sly 
a-ssassinated - ■ Uec. 25, 1841 

The Britifsh, under a convention, evacu- 
ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, <fec., as 
hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; 
a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 



Ameers of Scmde defeated by Sir Char- 
les Napier; Scinde is afterwards an- 
nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843 

Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar; 
the strong fort ol Gwalior, the " Gib- 
raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 1843 

Sir Henry Ilardinge appointed gover- 
nor-general - • May 2, 1844 



THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. 



The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, 
and attack the British post at Feroze- 
pore, which was held by Sir John 
Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 

Battle of Aliwal : the Sikhs defeated 

Jan. 28, 1846 

Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated 
with immense loss in killed and 
drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 

[The Sikhs lost 10,000 men : the British 
2,338 in killed and wounded.] 



The citadel of Lahore is occupied by 
the British under Sir Hugh Gough ; 
and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 

Great battle between the British under 
Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under 
Shcere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1843 

Moultan taken,afteralong>iege, Jan. 3, 1849 

Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough 

Feb. 21, 1849 

The Punjaub formally annexed to the 
British crown - March 29, 1849 



INDIA COMPANY, thk E-ast. The first commercial intercourse of the En- 
glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted 
out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a vo3'age of three 
years, the commander, captain Lancaster, Avas brought home in another 
ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; hut his information gave rise to 
a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. 
Their stock then consisted of 72,000^., and they fitted out four ships, and 
meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold 
at 500/. for a share of lOOZ., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698; 
and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- 
larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. 

INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the 
British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, 
passed Jiine 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill 
passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. 
Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. 

INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from 
South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several 
plants produce various kinds of elastic gum ; but that in commerce is 
chiefly the juice of the Si'phonia ElasLica. or syringe tree. Incisions in the 
bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- 
stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly 
elastic; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions 
made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it 
flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer. 

INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the 
French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made 
by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered 
much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into 
the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840, 
685866. 

INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent 
continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They 
have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the 
white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers 



IND } DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 

are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 
1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- 
tacked bv Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver- 
hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the 
French, 1754-9 ; Cheroicees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. 
[During the revolutionary Avar the Indians were employed at times on both 
sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with 
the Creeks, 1790; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chilhcothe, 
1790; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791; treaty 
with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- 
feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, 
Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- 
son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with 
Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed 
May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 

27, 1832; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832; war against the 
Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, 
Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : 

Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for 

them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 

Number yet to be removed -.-----■- 72,181 
Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between tho Mississippi and the Rocky- 
Mountains ■ " .... 150,341 

Total within the territory of the United States • - 352,879 

Treaty with the Sioux, they relinqui-Sihing 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- 
sippi for S1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell 
alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- 
rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, 
Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory— the Mandans 
tribe entirely destroyed— Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the 
Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees— Ross and about 40 others killed, June 

28, 1839; 150 Chippewas treaclierously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- 
ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians 
in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri- 
soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe 
engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. 

INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used 
in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage 
round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, 
partly through the Persian Gulf and partly by land to Babylon, or through 
Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so 
little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by 
letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the prhicipality 
of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call 
indicum is supposed to have been our ixxAigo. —Beckmann. The first men- 
tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to 
Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, 
in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., 
and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. 

INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about a. d. 800; were 
much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- 
man pontiffs 'in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement 
V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, 
Leo. X. pubhshed general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac- 
tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 



368 THE world's progress. [ INQ 

England, in 1534. — Bower s Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the 
pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- 
sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and 
signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- 
eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of .^sculapius for a cure, 
as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- 
working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- 
vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and 
the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- 
ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be 
visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the 
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- 
tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- 
maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmmin. See Hospitals. 

INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they 
being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- 
formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to 
Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularly in London, 
numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- 
sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, 
subject them to the poM^er and exactions of this despised class. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and 
Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise various 
colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- 
milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and 
must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, 
most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. . 
It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- 
posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. 

INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different 
periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of 
which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the 
Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights 
Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made 
inns of law in the- reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Outer not until the 
reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stoioe's Survey. 

INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in 
England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- 
ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the 
first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. 
The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy 
from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr 
Jenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had 
been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was , 
voted 10,000Z. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- 
poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- 
berated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war. at Jenner"s request, and 
subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a 

* Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair ny our grandfathers. The Londo7i Daily 
Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomaa 
Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Nev/castle), and that they are 
both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr 
Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 176-8. ' See Small Pox. 



mS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 

point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the 
United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800, See Small Poxaxvd Vaccination. 

INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishopa 
only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- 
tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as 
were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. 
This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power 
was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- 
vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth 
century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- 
sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was 
instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 , and Gregory IX. in a council held 
at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of 
it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the 
direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in P'^rance, 
by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms "of Spain. It was 
established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated 
in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the 
work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still .exer- 
cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoiningjridiculous penances and priva- 
tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. 

INSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than 
tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than 
it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in 
England is as follows: lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but 
allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- 
rage of one to every tliousand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 — 
idiots 763 — total 896; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, 
they may be set down at 1000— a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland 
has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- 
ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, 
were not cjampleted. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons 
and idiots'in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums 
capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of 
late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr. A. Brigham of Utica, 
formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this 
cause. 

INSOLVENCY in the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis' 
was at its height. The 'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone 
amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans 
to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 
1. 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- 
ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately 
after. 

INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it 
was of limited operation; a number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The 
benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, 
by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a 
period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose 
debts are less than 300Z., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose 
compositions, and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- 
son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 184-4. 

INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that 

16* 



370 



THE world's progress. 



[ mv 



Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use 
in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in 
Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601, 
Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year 
following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for 
insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of 
the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular 
office set up in London was the Ha7id-i7i-Ha7id, in 1606. A duty was laid 
on insurances of Is. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was 
increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first in- 
surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained, 

INSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- 
chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- 
rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts 

of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 

INTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen- 
tury. Fixed at twelve pei- cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles 
V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- 
ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- 
fore, often banished and pefsecuted. Interest was first settled by law in 
England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII., 1546. This law was repealed by 
Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch 
could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest 
was reduced to eight ^er cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 
James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent. ; and so 
confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne. 1714, at 
which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 
George III.. 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usiuy, 
and punishable by the statute. — Blackstone. The law does not now apply to 
bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Lavjs. 

INTEREST OF MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- 
ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., 
N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., 
Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In 
N. Y,, S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and 
Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the 
whole debt, in Me., Conn., N, Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, 
and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void 
in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 

INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous 
catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most 
remarkable: — 



An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned 
more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. 

Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town 
and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, 
1108. The present city was built above a 
league from the channel where the old one 
lies submerged. — Ilistoire de Flandre. 

At the Texel, which first raised the com- 
merce of Amsterdam, 1400. 

The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 
villages, and 100,000 people, and formed 
the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17, 1446. 

The Severn overflowed during ten days, and 
carried away men, women, and children, 
in their beds, ar.d covered the tops of many 
mountains ; the waters settled upon the 



lands, and were called The Great Waters 

for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.— 

HoUinshed. 
A general inundation by the failure of the 

dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number of 

drowned said to have been 400,000. 
At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons pei'ish- 

ed, 1617. 
An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock 

opened, and poured out water to the height 

of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. 

Trans. 
Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants 

were drowned, and incredible damage waa 

done at Hamburg. 1717. 
At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility 



lOM' J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



371 



tMINDATIONS, continued. 

and other persons of distinction perished, 
1723. — Du Fresnoy. 

In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their 
lives by the torrents from the mountains, 
Sept. 1787. 

At Pest, near Presbiirg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their 
inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. 

By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish 
corps of 2000 men, on a small island near 
Widdin, were surprised, and met instant 
death, Sept. 14, 1813. 

In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 
ruin of the French army under Macdonald 
was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- 
land 4000 lives were supposed to have 
been lost, same year. 

In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 
water, and great loss of life and property 
was sustained, in March 1816. 

Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by 
the Vistula breaking through some of its 
dikes, by which 10,(300 head of cattle and 
4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous 
lives lost, April 9, 1829. 



At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in- 
habitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 

10,000 houses swept away, a?' id e,bout lOOO 
persons perished, at Cantor', ir. China, in 
consequence of an ir. t:r.dation, occasioned 
by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- 
lamity was produced by the same cause 
in other parts of China. Oct. 1833. 

Awful inundation in France ; the Saone 
poured its waters into the Rhone, brok-j 
through its banks, and covered 60,000 
acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 
100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses 
were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and 
IMismes ; the Saone had not attained such 
a height for 2-38 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 
1840. 

Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- 
leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- 
ed, May 12, 1849. 

The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi 
&c., at difierent time.s, have caused greai 
destruction of property, and (at times) of 
life. 



INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish 
church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the 
praj^ers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 
about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by 
calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- 
vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- 
nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives 
gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, 
prayers and oblations for and to them. 

IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a 
manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with 
great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a 
violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable 
blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- 
low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of 
iodine form iodic acid. 

IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty 
of Carapo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and 
Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, 
November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of 
England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands 
are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the 
seat of government. , 

IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement 
on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about 1350 b. c. — Vitruvius by 
PerrauU. 

IONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. 
This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under 
the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- 
imenes, Auaxagoras. and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. 

IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- 
sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purcha3ed in 1803 
under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the 
Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- 
ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111. 



372 



THE world's progress 



[IRO 



IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the de- 
feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- 
nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- 
sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 
10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in 
fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Anti 
gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch. 

IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wai 
originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the 
first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ii'eland about 
2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was 
followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- 
cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
kings. 

sacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster, 
to the number of 40,000 persons, com- 
menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 

Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole 
island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 

Landing of king William III. at Car- 
rickfergus - - June 14, 1690 

Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of 
Schomberg killed - .July ], 1690 

Memorable Irish rebellion commenced 
May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- 
pressed until the next year - - 1799 

Legislative Union of Great Britain and 
Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 

Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 

Roman Catholic emancipation. (See 
Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 

Great repeal movement ; meeting at 
Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 

O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 

O'Connell died at Genoa, ffit. 72, May 15, 1847 

Famine and great distress in Ireland 
throughout .... 1847 

Relieved by England, and by voluntary 
gifts from the United States. 

Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland 
passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847 

Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 

Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 

Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- 
lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 



Arrival of Heremon - -B.C. 1070 

A colony from Spain bring with them 
the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 

Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. d. 448 

The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is 
crowned at Tara - - - 1002 

Battle of Clontarf, which terminates 
the power of the Danes - -1039 

[In the twelfth century Ireland is divi- 
ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, 
Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and 
Munster ; besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
tinually war with each other.] 

Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in- 
vade Ireland, on condition that he 
compelled every Irish family to pay 
a carolus to the Holy See, and held 
it as a fief of the church - - 1157 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- 
ceives the submissions of the kings 
and princes of the country, settles the 
government upon a footing similar to 
that of England, and makes his son 
John lord of Ireland - - - 1172 

Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 

English laws and customs introduced 
by king John - - - - 1210 

Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, 
. instead of Zo?-rf of Ireland - -1542 

The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to 
expel the English, and cruelly mas- 



IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the 
mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Anmdelian Marbles. 
The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass 
to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. 
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were 
placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. 
Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of 
Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex, 
in 1543. — Rymer's Fmdera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into 
bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first 
introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of 
iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamors, 
&c., see Steamers. 



* Tnere is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing twentr- 
four pounds. — Anon. 



ITA ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 



IRON-MASK, THE MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a 
mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Suinte Mar- 
guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was 
treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him 
if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his 
table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an 
Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died 
ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, 
son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp 
before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of 
Beaufci t, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ; 
while ?till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- 
mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on 
Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been 
a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, his father being tte duke 
of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- 
cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have 
caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. 

ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, 
where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two 
Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the 
other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his 
Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times 
from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he 
publicl}^ assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of 
God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, d^-c. 

[SLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch 
were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at 
Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and 
many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- 
session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMauritius. 

ISMAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who 
lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 
22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- 
vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting 
of 80,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, 
not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of 
his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were 
murdered in cold blood, 

ISSUS. Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle 
with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- 
tured, 333 B. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse 
in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus 
Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot 
and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were 
left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Jiislin. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received 
their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- 
tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted 
in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred 
and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c, — 
Aru7idelian Marbles. 

ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- 
ceived its name from Italus, a king of the country, or from Italos, a Greek 
word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progeny of 



BU 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[JAO 



Meshech, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites oi 
Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into 
Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- 
vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the 
Celts; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants; and Mag'na 
Gra^cia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy 
may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely 
to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the 
kingtloms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Vieics 



476 



553 



568 
596 
697 

774 

800 



Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- 
goths under Alaric. See Roine a. d. 410 

The Huns ravage the Roman empire 
under Attila, " the Scourge of God" - iA7 

The Western Roman empire is de- 
stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, 
Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 

The reign of Totila, who twice pillages 
Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to 
such distress, that the ladies and peo- 
ple of quality are obliged to beg for 
bread at the doors of the Goths - 541 to 552 

The power of the Goths destroyed, and 
their kingdom overthrown by the ge- 
nerals of the Eastern empire - 

Narses, governor of Italy, invites the 
Lombards from Germany into this 
country .... 

The Lombards overrun Italy 

Venice first governed by a doge 

Charlemagne invades Italy - 

He repairs to Rome, and is crowned 
emperor of the West - 

[During the reign of Charlemagne, the 
pope of Rome, who had hitherto been 
merely a spiritual minister, finds 
means to assume a temporal power, 
not only independent of, but superior 
to all others.] 

Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- 
es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 

Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- 
brand, pretends to universal sove- 
reignty, in which he is assisted by the 
countess Matilda, mistress of the 
greater part o^Italy, who makes a do- 
nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 

Disputes between the popes and empe- 
rors, relative to the appointment of 
bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate 
Italy and Germany during several 
centuries. 

The Venetians obtain many victories 
over the Eastern emperors - - 1125 

Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 

The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and 
Reggio are created - - - 1228 

Milan erected into a duchy - - 1277 



The papal seat removed for seventy 
years to Avignon, in France - - 130£ 

The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- 
tion of a pope, they set fire to the con- 
clave, and separate, and the papal 
chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master 
of Mantua, witli the title of imperial 
vicar .... 132S 

Lucca becomes an independent repui. 
lie 1370 

Naples conquered by Ciiarles VIII. - 14S2 

The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- 
lian provinces in a single campaign, 
assailed by the pope, the emperor, 
and the kings of Spain and France - 1503 

Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- 
ces, opens the sale of indulgences and 
absolutions, which soon replenishes 
his treasury .... 1517 

Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 

Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of 
Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 

Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- 
dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 

Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. 
See JedcZo - - - -1619 

The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, 
and choose Theodore for their king. 
See Corsica .... 1736 

Milan vested in the house af Austria by 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 

Division of the Venetian states by 
France and Austria - - - 1797 

Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by 
Bonaparte - - - - - 1798 

The Italian republic - - - 1802 

Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- 
leon crowned .... 1805 

Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of 
Italy 1805 

The kingdom ceases on the overthrow 
of Napoleon - - - - 1814 

[The various other events relating to 
Italy will be found under the respec- 
tive lieads of Genoa., Lombardy. 3Ii- 
lan, Naples, Rome., Venice, Sfc] 



The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23.677,000.— 

Alvi , de Gotha. 



/. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du 
Fresnoy. 

JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- 
volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association 
of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminat* 



/AN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 

political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their 
meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nii« 
merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- 
cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, 
to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the 
national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They 
are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- 
cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand 
spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The 
religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules 
of St. Dominick. See Domi7iicans. 

JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- 
radasus, a Sj^'rian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and 
seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. 
They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- 
sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed 
their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- 
tinction is now entirely lost. • 

JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, 
and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, 
the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- 
parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in 
June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. 

JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from 
the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables 
in 1655; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. 
Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was 
desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 
1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose 
against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous 
hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 
1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which 
numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy- 
ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared 
the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awml fire here, Aug. 26, 
1843. The Cholera in 1850. 

JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly 
reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by 
Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to 
an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them 
were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman 
was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. 

JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of YpreSj 
about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "AugusH- 
nus," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, 
and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- 
versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- 
ban VIII. 

JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a 
divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to 
the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- 
stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside 
over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces, 



376 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEJ* 

because, as some persons have it, on the one side the firstof January looked 
towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first 
day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other 
presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among 
us, was originally taken. 

JANUS, Temple of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in 
the tmie of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during 
above 700 years, viz : — under JSTuma, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c, ; 
and during that long period of time, the Romans Avere continually employed 
in war. 

JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after 
an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was 
driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About 
this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, 
and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, 
March 31, 1814. 

JAPAN. TMs island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and 
was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as 
the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins 
with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 
660 B. 0. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- 
ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- 
went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See 
Jeddo. 

JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20 000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, 
sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, 
and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon 
their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 
8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary 
prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland 
in 1814. 

3EDD0. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num- 
nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the 
court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, 
Avhich their mastef had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- 
. turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expeJed in 1622, and the 
inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of 
indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars 
of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories 
high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- 
cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. 

rEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern 
times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in 
woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number 
of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, 
whi3h lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the 
number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,009, ou that 
of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. 

JENA, Battle op, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the 
French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Na- 
poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with 
the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In 



JE8 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 

this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to 
iJerlin, Oct. 14, 1806 

JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy 
of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- 
queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A 
body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and 
compelled him to sign a capitulation ; but major Pierson, the commander of 
the Enghsh troops, refusing to abide by this' forced capitulation, attacked 
the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was 
killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781, 

JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- 
ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 
30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ —Blair ; 
Usher; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one 
of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews 
perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by 
the emperor Adrian, a, d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- 
doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the SaiAcens 
in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 
1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from 
the Christians by Saladin, in 1187 ; and by the Turks, who drove away the 
Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in 
February 1799. See Jews. 

JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as "a witty and jocose 
person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other 
men, under the disguise of a Avaggish story." Several of the early English 
kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court 
in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), 
a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. 
Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 
1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- 
litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- 
cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage 
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order 
in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who 
made many objections to them; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of 
chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the 
holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by 
which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken 
off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and 
Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- 
erful and numerous. But though FrauQois Xaviei', and other missionaries, 
the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable 
globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at F.iris. The 
Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, 
as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful 
Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, 
have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- 
land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put 
down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 
1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. 
in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerated in other states, 



378 



THE world's progress. 



[ JEMr 



and e"ven where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- 
cret and extensive existence. 

JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year of 
Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- 
ment of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and 
his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted 
the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- 
day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended 
to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and hia 
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, 
A, D. 33. 

JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- 
travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia 
Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322.916^. sterling. Jewels 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- 
tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. 

JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until 
the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. 
They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years 
and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish 
time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 

JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They 
derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- 
ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular 
Views, p. 6 to p. 42. 

JEWS, Modern History of. 

Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and 
temple are sacked and burnt, and 
1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- 
tudes destroying themselves a. d. 70 

100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 
dered by the Jews about Gyrene - 115 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects 
a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain 
by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 

[They are now banished from Judea by 
an edict of the emperor, and are for- 
bidden to retunij or even to look back 
upon their once flourishing and be- 
loved city, on pain of death. From 
this period, the Jews have been scat- 
tered among all other nations.] 

GENERAL HISTORY. 

Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 

Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at 

a solemnization of the Passover, they 

sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich 

ti-adesman at Paris, for which the 

criminals are executed, and all Jews 

banished France - - - 1080 

The Jews massacred in lyondon, on the 

coronation-day of Richard I., at the 

instigation of the priests - -1089 

500 bemg besieged in York castle by 

the mob, they cut each other's throats 

to avoid their fury - - - 1190 

Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their 

eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- 
bers inhumanly butchered, by king 

John 1204 

They circumcise and attempt to cruci- 
fy a child at Norwich ; the offenders 



are condemned in a fine of 20,000 
marks 1235 

They crucify a child at Lincoln, for 
which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 

700 Jews are slain in London, a .lew 
having forced a Christian to pay him 
more than 2s. per week as interest 
upon a loan of 20s. — S'towe - - 1262 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- 
hold, passed .... 1269 

Every Jew lendmg money on interest 
compelled to wear a plate on his 
breast signifying that he was a usu- 
rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 

267 Jews hanged and quartered for 
clipping coin - - . - 1277 

They crucify a child at Northampton, 
for which fifty are drawn at horses' 
tails and hanged - - - 1282 

15,660 Jews are apprehended in one 
day, and are all banished England. — 
RapiJi - - - . - 1287 

Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the 
peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in 
a castle, where, for want of weapons, 
they throw their children at their en- 
emies, and then destroy one another 131 

A fatal distemper raging in Europe, 
they are suspected of having poison- 
ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- 
sacred. — Lehglet. - - - 1348 

500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and 
150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 

They are banished France - - 1494 

After having been banished England 
365 years, they are re-admitted bv 
Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with 
Manasseh Ben Israel - • • 1652 



m 



,^^JSL. 



jtjd] dictionary of dates. 379 



land, lost on the second reading, by a 
majority in tlie Commons, 228 against 
165 - - - May 17, 1830 

Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff 
of London ; and knighted by the 
queen, being the first Jew on whom 
that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 18J7 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- 
mitting the title of citizen of the first 
class to be held by any Jew who ren- 
ders himself worthy of it - - ISiQ 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek 
priest, a persecution of the Jews be- 
gan at Dan ascus. — See Damascus 

Feb. 1, 1&40 



JEWS, continued. 

Statute to naturalize them in England, 

passed ----- 1753 
This act repealed on the petition of all 

the cities in England : - - 1754 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and 

Avisnon are declared to be citizens 

of France - - . - 1790 

Sitting oJ'the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, 

convened by the emperor Napoleon 

Jan. 20, 1S07 
London Society for promoting Christi- 
anity among the Jews - - 1808 
Alexander of Russia grants land on the 

sea of Azoph to converted Jews, 

Sept. 1, 1820 
Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- | 

JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine 
of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, .loan of 
Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles 
VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised 
the siege, and entered Orleans with supphes, April 29, 1429, and the En- 
glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the 
enterprise. May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession 
of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. 
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. 
She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed 
any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
May 25, 1481 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a 
witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her 
age. — Voltaire's Pucelle d" Orleans. 

JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well 
known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and 
since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard 
Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. 

JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty 
years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by 
ipope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years 
by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban 
VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at 
which period it is now fixed, 

JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius 
Anglice : these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's 
Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglus 
was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I, 
1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- 
liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- 
ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- 
potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of 
Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench 
1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535, 
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench 
and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of 
them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the 
crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by 
the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the 
judges in England was established by making their appointments patents 
for life, 1761, Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judg<js, 



380 THE world's progress. [ JOT, 

one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as 
vice-chancellor. May 5, 1813. 
JUDGP:S in thk united states. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in 
number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and 
Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have 
been John Jay, appointed, 1789 ; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796 ; Oliver 
Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir- 
cuit Judges w^ere first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States 
are thus appointed : — 
By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Marj^land, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and 
Michigan. 

By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, 
Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. 

By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. 

By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York.* 

The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good 
behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. 

Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. 

Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. 

For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; and for 
one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. 

They are removable — 
By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court 
of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As- 
sembly, in New York. 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of 
Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire 
land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the 
Isle of Man. the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William 
IV. 1883. 
JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo A^enera- 
tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two 
rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil- 
lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god 
is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and 
to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed Avith human bones: the 
temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. 
JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- 
duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Caecilius 
Metellus Avas first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and 
afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to 
Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and Avars of Jugurtha have been 
immortalized by the pen of Sallust. 
JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the 
lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It con.i^ists of 7980 

• The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consti 
tut ion of 1846, 



4 



jtjr] dictionary of dates. 381 

years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- 
ing- time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reclioning any period 
antecedent to our era, an advantage whicli it has in common witli the mun- 
dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian 
period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 
4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. 

JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the J^atin Julius, the surname of 
C. Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth mouth 
in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the 
year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year. 

JTJNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. 
It had its name Junius, which some derive sl Junone, and others d Juniori- 
bns, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is 
now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. 

JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political 
writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They 
were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- 
ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British 
literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, 
Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. j! 
Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- 
neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but -.he matter is still 
hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall 
perish with me." — Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. 

JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans: to the for- 
mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, 
made about 600 b. c. and in Vv'hich 1460 stars are accurately described ; this 
chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter 
were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed 
some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- 
tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen 
appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, 
and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false 
verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed 
to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of 
the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. 
By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge 
peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament, 
and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge 
any of his peers. 

JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used 
to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common 
law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A 
jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree 
upon a verdict ; and maybe confined without meat, drink, or candle, till 
they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their 
pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though 
they did not eat \i.—Leon. Dyer. 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to 
agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the 
court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791.— 
Phillips. 



382 THE world's progress. [ KIE 

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE. These are local mag-istrates, invested with ex- 
tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- 
ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the 
peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. 
— Stoioe. Ill the United States the office is held by special appointment, 
and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. 

JUSTINIA.N CODE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute 
law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. 
To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and 
Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body 
of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. 

K. 

KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- 
duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. 
Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument 
perfected in 1817., when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- 
tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the 
formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. 

KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- 
covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of 
by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by 
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year 
being dreary winter. 

KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected 
subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most 
picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred 
on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- 
tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment 
of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily lOOOZ. a vast 
expenditure in those times. 

KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, 
an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. 
Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad 
mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73.677 ; in 1810, 406,511 , 
in 1830, 688^844 ; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. 

KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, 
about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of 
Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form 
was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient 
keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. 
The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- 
minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this 
description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again 
upon divorce or separation. 

KIEL, Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- 
uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously 
the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent 
a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission 
was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, 
and the Sv^^edes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, 
but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the 
diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. 



KIN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 

KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the Frencli Roi, 
all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first 
founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in 
Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the 
earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states 
were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians 
understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- 
ple happy; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the 
sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was 
a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public 
and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should 
devote each day to the services of reiigon, the administration of justice, 
the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, 
were all prescribed, 

KING OP ENGLAND. The style ''kiL.gof England," was first used by Egbert 
A. D. 828 ; but the title Rex gentis Angiorum, king of the English nation, 
existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, 
us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire- 
land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until .542, when Henry VIII. 
changed lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted 
at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the "United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- 
uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — 
^^Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia hritaiuiiarum Rex, Fidei Defensor,'^ "George 
the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." 

KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title ol 
" king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that ot 
" king of the French," October 16, 1789. The royal title was abolished in 
1792: but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. 
was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," 
August 9, 1830. See France. 

KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term 
queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds 
to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals of 
Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See 
Hungary. 

KING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest 
sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- 
tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- 
hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 
1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to 
Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected 
next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in 
succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived 
by Bonaparte, Avho conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; 
but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 
6, 1814. 

KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the king 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the 
judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- 
tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control 
as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The 
name of this court has been altered to that of (Queen's Bench, since the 



384 THE world's progress. [ KNl 

accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in 
immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. 

KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. 
" The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar 
creduhty had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- 
teen years, 92,107 persons were touched; and, according to Wiseman, the 
king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch 
publicly for the cure of the evil; and touching for it continued a custom un- 
til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. 

KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered by 
Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus- 
tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become 
chief of a new administration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one 
thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- 
cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things Avill still be written in the 
same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in 
a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbett. 

KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to 
have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian 
monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Menes, or Misraim, makes his son Atholas, 
surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Toso- 
thrus, he establishes at Memphis^ 2188 b. c. — Blair. Ninus founds the As- 
syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. 

KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing 
was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas 
approaching his master with a kiss ; it Avas also customary in Rome. Kiss- 
ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, 
and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. 
From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling 
to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709. 

KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and 
gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose of 
promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they 
effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, 
and Dr. Garth Avere members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of 
the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook, 
who lived near the tavern Avhere they met, in King-street, Westminster, and 
who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life of Queen Anne. 

KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived 
from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in 
Homer. With certainty Ave may trace the distinction to the Romans, who, 
after their union Avith the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 
750 B. c. — Limj. 

KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, 
particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and 
Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced Avith the return of the cru- 
saders from the holy Avars, and for about 300 years they Avere the chief 
amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, 
and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights 
tra\'elled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the 
cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don 
Quixote. 

K2»fIGHTH00D. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after 



KNl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



383 



confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy 
Ihe first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athet 
Stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, a. d. ^m.-Spelvian The 
custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed 
m a synod held at Westmmster in IIQO.-Ashviok'slnstihaes. All persons 

38Tr;T?2SiS^^^^^^ """ '"'''^'^ '' ^^ ^^'^^^^^^^' - p^'^ fi-. 

KNIGHTHOOI) m EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- 
valry, knighthood IS to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- 
cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of 
anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- 
sion was lortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle 
3<.xcursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich 
hefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and 
to protect the ladies; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow 
and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of 
the highest rank and largest possessions, adiiisMon into the oider was 
deemed a great honor. 



MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND 

Alcantara, instituted - . . t. 

Alexander Nevskoi, Russia 
Amaranta, Sweden 
Angelic Knights, Greece - 
Annunciada, Mantua 
Annunciation, Savoy- 
Argonauts, Naples 
Avis, Portugal 
Band, Spain 
Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed. 

See Bamierels 

Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See 

Bath - - . . . 

Bear, Switzerland - - . . 

Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by 

Frederick I. - 
Blood of Christ, Mantua - - - 

Brotherly Love, instituted 
Burgundian Cross - - . . 

Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San- 
cho III. - - . . . 

Carpet, England - - . . 

Catharine, Russia 

Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- 
temberg - - . . . 

Christ, Livonia - . . . 

Christ, Portugal - . . . 

Christian Charity, France 
Cincinnatus, America - . . 

Conception of the Virgin 
Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- 
tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh 
Crescent, Naples - . . . 

Crown Royal, France - 
Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by 
Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by 
Christian V. - . . . 

Death's Head, Female Order, by the 
widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe 
Mersburgh - - . . 

Dove of Castile - . . . 

Dragon, Hungary 

Ear of Corn, Brittany - - . 

Elephant, Denmark, by Christian I. - 
Ermine, France - . . . 

Garter, England • • - . 

17 



HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 

1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh - - 1685 

Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by 



1700 
1645 
456 
1618 
1355 
1382 
1147 
1232 

-1485 

1725 
1213 

1701 
1608 
1703 
1535 

1156 
1553 

1698 

1719 
1203 
1319 
J590 
1783 
1619 

1660 

1448 
802 



1671 



1709 
1379 
1439 
10,50 
1478 
1460 
1350 



Philip, surnamed the Good ' - '- 1429 
Golden Lion, Hesse- Cassel • - 1785 

Golden Shield and Thistle - - - 1370 

Golden Spur, by Pius IV. - . 1559 

Guelphic, Hanover - - - . I8I6 

Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 1559 
Holy Ghost, Rome . - . ngg 

Holy Trinity - . . - - 1211 

Hospitallers {which see) • . 1092 

Januarius, Naples - . . . 1733 

.Jerusalem. See Malta - - - 1048 

•lesus, France - . . . 12O6 

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John 

XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. I6IO 
Knot, Naples .... 1351 
La Cajza, Venice - . . . 1400 

Legion of Honor, France, instituted by 

Napoleon Bonaparte . . . 1802 

Lily of Arragon - - . .1403 

Lily of Navarre .... 1043 
Loretto, Lady of - . - . 1597 

Malta. See Malta. • - . 1531 

Martyrs, Palestine - - . . 1319 

Maria- Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792 
Mauritians, Savoy . . . 1430 

Merit, instituted by the landgrave of 



Hesse Cassel 

Merit, Prussia 

Noble Passion, Germany - 

Oak of Navarre, Spain - 

Passion of Jesus Christ, France 

Pius, founded by Pius IV. - 

Porcupine, France 

Red Eagle, Prussia . 

Redemption, instituted - 

Rosary, Spain . . . . 

Round Table, England— See Knights 
of the Round liable ■ 

St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes 
to this saint the introduction of Chris- 
tianity into Muscovy) 

St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed 
1452 ; and again by James VI. 

St. Anthony, Ethiopia 



1785 
-1740 
-1704 

- 722 
• 1382 

- 15.59 

- 1393 

- 1792 
-1212 

1172 

528 



1698 

1605 
357 



386 



THE world's progress. 



[kk 



KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE, contbimed, 
St. .Anthony, Ilainault - - - 1382 



St. lilazc, Aeon 

St. Catharine, Palestine • 

St. Catharine, Russia 

St. Denis, France 

St. George, Austria - 

St. Geor2;e, Carinthia 



- 12.50 

- 116;? 

- 1G98 

- 1267 
-1470 

- 1279 



St. George, Defender of the Immacu- 
late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 
St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- 

waril III. See Garter - - 1349 

St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by 

Fredenck III. - - - - M60 

St. George, Rome - - - M96 

St. George, Russia • - - - 1782 

St. George, Spain - - - 1318 

St. George, Venice - - - - 1200 

St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of 

Juliers and Cleves - • - 1117 

St. .Tames, Holland - • - • 1290 

St. .lames, Portugal - - - 1310 

St. James, Spain - - - - 1030 

St. .Terome, Germany - • - 1 154 

St. .John of Aeon - - - -1370 

St. .John of .Jerusalem • - -10-1^1 

St. .John of Malta - • • - ir)22 

St. .John of Rhodes - - - 1300 

St. Julien, of Alcantara - - - 1176 

St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- 
uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572 
St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 
St. Mark, Venice, S30; renewed - 1562 
St. Mary the Glorious - - - 12:33 
St. IMary dc Merced, Spain - - 1218 
St. Michael, France - • - - 1409 



St. Michael, Germanj - . - 1613 

St. Patrick, Ireland - ■ • - 1783 

St. Pa\il, Rome - - - . 1540 

St. Peter, Rome - - - . 1520 

St. Rupert, Germany, by tl. 3 archbish- 
op 01 Saltzburgh - - - 1701 
St. Sepulchre, Palestine - - - 1092 
St. Stephen, by Cnsimir de Mcdicis, 

grand-duke of Tuscany - 1561 

St. Thomas of Aeon - - - - 1370 

Saviour, Greece - - June 1, 1833 

Sera phi ms, Sweden - • - - 1334 

Ship and Crescent, France - - 1269 

Sincerity, instituted by the elector of 

Saxony 169(1 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662 

Swan, Cleves - - - - 960 

Sword, Cyprus - . • -1195 

Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - -1772 
Templars. — See Templar a ■ - 1118 

Teste .Morte, VVurtemburg - - - 1652 

Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia - 1522 
Thistle of IJourbon - - -1370 

Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived • 1540 
Trinitarians, S|Kiin - - - 1594 

Tru.xiilo, Spain - - - - 1227 

Ihiiied Ladies fi.r the honor of Lie 
Cross, in Germany - - - 1666 

Virgin Mary 1233 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607 

Wal-fare of Christ, Poland - - -1705 

Warfare of Christ, Ru.ssia - - 1325 

Wins of St. Michael, Portugal - - 1165 
Wladimir, Russia - - - 1682 



KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was g-iven to men of siiperioi 
worth, abihty, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womer 
also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women wlio joreservcd tht; 
city of Tortosa from filHng into the hands of the JNIoors in 1149, by their 
stent resistance and vigorons attack of the besiegers, by ^^•hich means the 
Moors M'ere forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were 
granted to tliem and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. 

KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Artlmr, about a. d. 
528. — A^scr^s Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward 
III. at Windsor," npon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the 
recovery of France, whicli descended to him in right of his mother, became 
anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon 
projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a 
solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. 
He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return 
of sucli foreign knights as had a mind to venture their I'eputation at those 
jousts and tournaments. — BeaUoii. 

KNIGHTS OP THio SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by 
Doomsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, were 
greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in ptirliament ; but the 
latter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence 
called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307. 

KNIGHTS TEIMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118. 
They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Tcm])le 
in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the kniglita 
were arrested in Fi'ance in one day, being charged with great crimes, and 
possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of tliem were burnt alive at Paris in Oct., 



LAB ] DICTIONARY OF DAT13S. 387 

1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Their order was 
abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Yienne, in 1312 • 
and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth beinff ffiveu 
to the knights of Malta. See Malta. 

KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of 
cutlery, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Brid.c^e Lon- 
don, 5th Eliz., I!d^'i.— Chamberlai7i's England, edit. 1683. See Porks. ' 

KORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general 
aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in 
the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under 
cerlain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- 
phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- 
tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho. 
met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty- 
three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful 
fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de- 
scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- 
sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ.— Dr. Jurtm. The leading article of 
faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and 
a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
IS the apostle of God.— Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763 et sea 
It IS a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran'; 
Islamism; Mecca; Mahometism, d^c. 



LA HOGUE, Battle op, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by admiral 
Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a 
splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight 
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon 
England, May 19, 1692. 

LA FERGUSES VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed 
from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- 
mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, 
in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search 
of Perouse, but no certain information was had* until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast 
away on two different islands of the New Hebrides— a fate authenticated by 
various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought 
with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. 

LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were 
successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- 
tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe 
reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success 
until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. ' 

LABYRINTH. There were four most ftimous in history : the first was built by 
Dsedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b c. : 
the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that 
place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, kinp- of the 
Hetrurias, about 520 b. c.—Plimj. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of 
Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with 
pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture.— //erWt'^ws. 

. The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of 



388 THE world's progress, [ LAM 

Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton 
Court that is much visited. 
liACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France and 
Flanders in 1320 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for 
the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace 
was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- 
nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An 
ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds 
in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty 
pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. 

LACED^MON. See Sparta. Iiclez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco- 
nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedae- 
mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta 
was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most 
known. The Lacediemon republic became famous in History after 700 b. c. 
particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 
b. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Tliucydides ; Priestley. 

LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the 
poor weekly with their own. hands certain quantities of bread, and were 
therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the 
words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, 
that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of 
Louis XII" of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady x')roperly 
belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom 
has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women 
of eminence or gentility. See Lord. 

LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in num- 
ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives 
having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, 
he named the islands the Ladro7ies, or Islands of Thieves, which they are 
called to this day. 

LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 350, 
according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord- 
ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought 
to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called 
the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its 
chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- 
nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In 
England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th 
of March. 

LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the L^nited States, to aid the cause of American 
independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen 
years old. He rai.-ied a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- 
wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- 
inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal 
reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- 
cti \ed from Congress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward 
for his services ; returned to France in the frigate Bi'andy wine, September 
7, 1825. 

LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they 
Avere in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- 
tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000 
drachmas, a. d. 1^1. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. 
Lamps were ni general use through the streets of London up to the close 



LAN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 

of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. 
London streets were first h'ghted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas Limps 
in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture ; of this kind 
is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, ct seq. 
See Safety Lamp. 

LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual 
instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not 
much patronized till about 1808. when Lancaster's system attracted general 
attemion. notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, 
who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 
1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of 
them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in 
Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. 

LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry VIIL 1544. 
The whole rental of the kingdom, was about 6,000,000Z. in 1600. It was 
about 14,000,000Z. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 
10 fer cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 
millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 4Q 
millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior 
class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has 
been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary 
much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. 

LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- 
minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century ; it be- 
came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the 
rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse 
Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. 

LANGSIDE, Battle of; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the 
earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter 
suffered a complete defeat. May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal 
battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at Workington, in 
Cumberland, on May 16; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth, 

LANGUAGE. Language must, either have been revealed originally from hea- 
ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers; the 
former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians,and the pro- 
foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that 
Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that 
the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has 
for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring 
to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two 
children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they 
were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they 
both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- 
fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other 
nations, 647 b. c. — Herodotus, Polycen., Slrabo. 

LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. Tho 
original European ones are thirteen, viz : Greek, Latin, Dutch. Sclavonian, 
spoken in the east ; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in 
the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazygian, remain- 
ing yet in Liburnia; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary; and the Finnic, 
in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin 
sprung the Italian, French and Spanish ; and from the Spanish the Portu- 
guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High 
I)utch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 



390 THE world's progress. l^A'f 

&c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world. Of these, 
937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 276 African ; and 162'4 American languages 
and dialects. — Professor Adelung. 

LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn 
were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn 
was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfreds reign, 
A. D. 872-901. — Stowe's Ckron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, 
with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid lamina of the ox horn has served 
for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are 
preferred. See article. Lamps. 

LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally 
allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- 
ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus. all of Rhodes, and of great eminence 
as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is 
allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by 
human hands. 

LATERAN, COUNCILS of the. They were held in the Basilica cf the La- 
teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right 
of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry 
v., 1122 ; by the second council was secured the temporalities of ecclesias- 
tics, 1139 ; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179 ; the fourth on 
church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots ; and the fifth was 
the famous council of Julius II., 1512. 

LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape 
them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude 
construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c. 
Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines 
frequently cost thousands of pounds. 

LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and 
from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the 
Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most 
beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be 
spoken in Italy, about a. d. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- 
mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred 
years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed 
to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more 
or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- 
tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is 
the extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to 
either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, 
and made it 69.493 ; he measured it in 1737. Svvanberg, in 1803, made it 
69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732 ; and 
Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 
69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12 : and Biot, 
68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at 
the equator ; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- 
late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and 
others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. 

LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built hj Latinus, king of Janiculum, 
who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines. 904 b. c. 
Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Laviniura 
under ^!^neas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally 
known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had 
founded the city of Rome in their country. 



LAW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 39.' 

LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre- 
sented. By some Ave are told that their tenets do not vary much from those 
of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the 
foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of 
curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work- 
ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generation 
of ]nen. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire ; 
and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great 
numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. 

LAWS.. ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 
B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- 
nians, 623 B. c. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of 
Solon, 578 b. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. c. ; they 
remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- 
tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race 
of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman 
laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermogin^an 
codes were published in a. d. 290. The Theodosian code in 485. The Jus- 
tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law. 

LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the- 
Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's 
code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was 
compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated 
his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136; Henry II.'s 
confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. 
See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation 
by Henry III., 1216, et seq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charter of the. 
Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, 
"That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield. 

LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- 
jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- 
general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- 
blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of 
which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his 
plan to Victor Amadous, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful 
enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in 
1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke 
of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every 
rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed 
both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal 
bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so 
that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the 
current specie in France. But the following j^ear this great fabric of false 
credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, 
ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des-. 
perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same 
fatal yeai-, 1720. — Hist, of France. Nouv. Diet. 

Lawyers. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been 
first appointed by EdAvard I. or in his reign, 1291. Serjeants, the highest 
members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common 
Pleas, The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis 
Bacon, in 1604. There are about 1200 barristers in England: and the num- 
ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- 
neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19.527 practising lawyers in 
the United States, was published in New- York, 1850. 



392 THE world's progress. [" LEA 

LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri- 
tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Cl3'des- 
dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and 
Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, 
that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great 
quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use 
in 1236. 

.iEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, 
was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other 
princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was 
entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The 
League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so 
called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the 
Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- 
nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, who was then of the 
reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The Leap-ue of Wurtzburg, 
1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League j,nd Covenant in 
Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal 
authority, 13 Charles L, 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. 

LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- 
mers of Julius Cffisar, 45 b. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, 
comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another ; 
the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was 
called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- 
out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when 
the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference 
between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, 
and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in 
the course of years caused 1700 and 1808 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 
be a leap-year ; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year, Gregorian 
Calendar, <^c. 

LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the 
Greeks during the fourth century b. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- 
mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined 
until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a. d. 
1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tjn^anny of the t mperors, 
that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from 
Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seg. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini, 
and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- 
ragement to literature and the arts. 

The illustrisus Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. 
— Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, 
Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the 
"golden," by others, the "Augustan age " of Enghsh hterature. 

LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of 
manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness. &c., by all ancient nations. 
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 b. c. The ancients un- 
derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, 
and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into 
many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced 
annually in England, 450,000Z., and in Ireland, about 50,000Z. It was aboli^^i- 
ed in both countries. May 29, 1830 



LEP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 393 

LEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. 
It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, 
but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously 
removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken 
the following year. It Avas unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- 
ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813, 

LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first 
formed by Romulus under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, 
about 750 b. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 b. c, the legion consisted 
of 5000 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 b. c. it was 6200 soldiers, besides 
700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept 
at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, 
about 5 B.C.; and the peace-establishment of Adrian wps thirty of these 
formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected jy three legions, 
A legion was divided into 10 cohorts., and every cohort into 6 centuries, with 
a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. 

LEGION OF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions 
in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such 
individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the 
state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- 
parte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon 
family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. 

LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, 
king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- 
sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In 
the same year, the Austrians laid sieg'e to Liepsic in vain, but they took it 
two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars 
it has frequently fallen into adv^erse hands. See next article. 

LEIPSIC, Battle op. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of 
modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the 
one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the 
former 160,000, aad the latter 240,000 strong. Tliis great battle was lost 
by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, 
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in 
the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by 
the capture, next day, of Leipsic. and of the rear-guard of the French army. 
The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- 
peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- 
den, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. 

LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church, from Ash- 
Wednesday {which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- 
tion. The primitive Christains did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
which is now called the first Sunday of Lent : and the four days beginning 
were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of 
fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in Encland 
by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. Bakers Chron. 

LEPANTO, B.4TTLK OF. The great naval engagement between the combined 
fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the 
Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consist- 
ed of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of 
which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30.000 men iu 
killed and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of 
Turkey, Oct. 7, IbU.— Voltaire. 



394 THE world's progress. [ LEX 

LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnon, the Egy^jtian, 
1822 B. c. — Usher, Llair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
alphabet was alefh, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other 
nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, sc 
vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the 
alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. 

LETTERS OF MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in 
England by Edward L, for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for repri- 
sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer's Foddera. They were 
first granted in 1295. — Baker's Chron. They are usually granted in ti)ne of 
war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of 
belligerent nations. — Powel. 

LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in 
use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the 
earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree 
their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. — 
Hist, of the French Revol. 

LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at 
the village of Leuctra, between Plataea and Thespia, between the Thebans, 
under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 
the victory being with the former. In this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000 
Lacedemonians, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 371 
u. 0. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, 
which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the 
Thebans. — Pbdarch. Xenephon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans. 

LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all 
things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of 
this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck 
were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the 
churches Avhich Luther had left standing; and then finding an army in their 
followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- 
tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. hX. the head of 
40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Gerfiiany and to the ma- 
gistrates of cities to resign their authority; and on his march to enforce 
these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- 
try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusi- 
asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be- 
headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French 
Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. 

LEWES, Battle o\ . Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, 
earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this 
battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother. Richard 
king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., 
were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of 
Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing 
the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort 
used his power so despotically as to hQ in the end the cause of his own de- 
struction. See Evesham. 

LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese 
language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters, as having been compiled 1100 
B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- 
teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- 
peared about a. d. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. 
See article, Dictionary. 

LEXINGTON, BattlK of. This battle claims distinction as being the first 
fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war 



LIB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 89A 

of indcpeRdence. The British troops, under- Major Pitciiirn, sent from Bos- 
ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the 
Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. 

LEYDEN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, 
and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d. 
1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- 
lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. 
The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large 
part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. 

LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected 
the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law, 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem 
of the world, is deemed a libel. "The greater the truth, the greater the 
libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. 
Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz. : Lord George Gor- 
don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison- 
ment for five years and fined 500^., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on 
"ihe prince of Wales, afterwards George lY., Feb. 1790. The Morning Post's 
libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9. 1792. Peltier's libel 
on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Ambigio, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 
21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- 
fender by banishment for the second oftence, passed in England, 1820. Act 
regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York 
and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was 
made with good motives and for justifiable ends. 

LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by 
American Colonization Society. 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first super- 
intendent of the colony ; new Constitution — Roberts elected president — • 
Oct. 5, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- 
gust 1, 1849. 

LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads 
were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever 
was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there Avas no 
sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple 
was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ; 
that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick; 
with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1525 ; and 
the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. 

LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in 
.iistury was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 b. c. The second of any 
note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 b. c. It was nearly de- 
stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable 
books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The 
first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 b. c. — SLrabo. The 
first library at Rome was instituted 167 b. c. : it was brought from Ma- 
cedonia. The library of Apeilicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla. from Athens, 
86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Ai istotle's 
works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantino the Great, 
about. A. D. 335; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed 
from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- 
ststing of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who 
heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead 
of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nouv. 
Diet. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine 



396 



THE world's progress. 



[mh 



Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the notion of confining the 
clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn- 
ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been 
emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early 
Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the 
desti'uction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-Avhang-tee, 
ordered all writings to be destroj^ed, that every thing might begin anew, as 
from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- 
ceeding emperors with great difficulty. 

LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain- 
ing over 10.000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- 
licly accessible are in this proportion, viz. : in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit- 
ants, there are 417 books ; in Denmark, 412 ; in Bavaria, 389 ; in Tuscany, 
261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95; in 
Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention 
of printing is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of 
England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas 
Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- 
brary for the use of the public, a. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de 
Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, 
(imperial,) 1440 ; Vatican, 1465 ; &c. See table, below. 
In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes 
each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are 
not taken into the account : 



France has 107 Public Li- 
braries, containing 4,000,000 vols. 
Belgium has 14 do. 538,000 " 
Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 " 
Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 « 



Saxony has 
Bavaria " 
Denmark " 
Tuscany " 
G. Britain " 



6 containing 
17 do. 

5 do. 

9 do. 
33 do. 



Taking the capital cities we find the following results : — • 



Paris has 9 Public 

braries, containing 
Brussels has 2 do. 
Berlin " 2 do. 

Vienna " 3 do. 
Milan " 2 do. 



Li- 



1,474,000 vols. 
143,500 " 
630,000 " 
453,000 « 
230,000 " 



Dresden 

Munich 

Copenhagen 

Florence 

London 



has 4 containing 

" 2 do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 



554.000 vols 

1,267.000 " 

645;000 « 

411.000 " 

l,77i;493 " 



340,500 vols. 
800,000 " 
557,000 « 
318,000 " 
490,500 " 



Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as 
follows : — 



Paris (1) National Lib., 
Munich, Royal Lib., 
Petersburg Imperial Lib., 
London, British Museum, 
Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 
Berlin, Royal Lib., 
Vienna, Imperial Lib., 
Dresden, Royal Lib., 
Madrid National Lib., 
Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 
Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 
Paris"(2) Arsenal Lib., 



Founded. Vols. 
1595 824,000 
600,000 
446,000 
435,000 
412,000 
410,000 
313,000 
300,000 
200,000 
200,000 
187,000 
180,000 



1550 

1753 
1550 
1650 
1440 
1656 
1712 
1604 
1765 
1781 



Milan, Brerea Lib., 
Paris (3), St. Genevieve, 
Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, 
Florence, Magliabecchian, 
Naples, Royal Lib., 
Brussels, Royal Lib., 
Rome (1), Casanate Lib. 
Hague, Royal Lib., 
Paris (4), Mazarine Lib., 
Rome (2), Vatican Lib., 
Parma, Ducal Lib., 



Founded. Vols. 
1797 170,000 



1624 
1760 
1714 

1839 
1760 

1661 
1465 
1760 



150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
133.500 
120;000 
100,000 
100.000 
100,000 
100.000 



The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order 



Founded. Vols. 

Gotiingen, University Lib., 1736 360,000 

Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000 

Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000 

Tubingen, University Lib., 1562 200,000 

Munich, University Lib., 200,000 

Heidelburg, University Lib., 1703 200,000 

Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724 

Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000 

Prague, University Lib,, 1777 130,000 



Founded. Vols. 

Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115.000 

Leipsic, University Lib., 1-544 112,000 

Copenhagen, University Lib., 1730 1 10,000 

Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000 

Louvaine University Lib., 1639 105,000 

Dublin, Trinitv College Lib., 104,239 

Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 

Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000 

Edinburgh, Univ. Lib., 1582 90,354 



LIB J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



397 



The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the 

Founded. Vols. 
1 British Miseum, London, 1753 435,000 



2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000 

3 University, Cambridge, 1484 166,724 

4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 1682 148,000 

5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 1W,239 



Founded. 

Royal Institution, Li-ndon, 
London Institution, 
London Library, 
Sion College, &c. 



Vola 



LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief 
public and college libraries of the United States "n 1849, was stated to be 
1,294.000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 
10,000 volumes each ; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the 
precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus : 

Vols. 
■ 32,0fJ0 
-25,000 

- 24,000 
• 24,000 

- 21,000 

- 20,000 



Vols. 

1 Harvard College, including Divin- 

ity and Law Schools - - 72,000 

2 Philadelphia and Loganian Library 60,000 

3 Boston Athenaeum - - - 50,000 

4 Library of Congress - - - 50,000 

5 New York Society Library - - 32,000 



6 Mercantile Librr.ry, NeAV York 

7 Georgetown College, D. C. 

8 Brown University 

9 New York State Library - 

10 Yale College - 

11 Astor Library, New York- 



The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. 
The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has not yet commenced collecting 
its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the 
State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis- 
tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, 
chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent 
date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and 
contains 32,000 volumes ; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 vohmies ; 
in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12.200 volumes. There are similar 
ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. 

The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- 
ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : — 

Vols. 

) Brousht UD. 

has 



1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 


6,000 


Brought up, 


2 Columbia, Dist. 


of, 


has 


2, 


53,000 


12 New Jersey, 


3 Connecticut. 






6, 


81,449 


13 New York, 


4 Georgia, 






1, 


13,000 


14 North Carolina, 


5 Kentucky, 






i! 


7,000 


15 Ohio, 


6 Louisiana, 






1, 


5,500 


16 Pennsylvania, 


7 Maine, 






3, 


38,860 


17 Rhode Island, 


8 Maryland, 






1, 


12,000 


18 South Carolina, 


9 Massachus3tt3, 






14, 


200.000 


19 Tennessee, 


10 Missouri, 






2, 


14;300 


20 Vermont, 


11 New Hampshire, 






2, 


22,500 


21 Virginia, 





Vols. 


34, 


454.366 


3. 


28,500 


12, 
1, 

3, 


157,411 
10,000 
30,497 

159,200 
37,185 


2, 
2, 

9 

4, 


30,000 
16,000 
16,254 
41,000 



34, 454,366 Total - - - 81, 980,134 

Tlie above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, 
parish and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. 
The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries ; i. e. 
half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Rep. Brit. 
Mus. ; Prof. JeioeWs Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Livermore in N. Amer. Rev., 
July 1850, (^c. 

LIEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con- 
vents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of avo- 
men." In the time of Louis XI. of France, a. d. 1461, Liege was a large 
and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign 
power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702 ; 
and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, m 
1814. 



398 THE world's progress. j LIS; 

LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people, 
and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of 
Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles ; the Pharos 
of Messina ; the Colossus of Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the 
coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, 
and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish 
con.sts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. 

LIGUKIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of. 
Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Gemoa, 
August 10, 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, it 
having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged 
into the kingdom of Italy. 

LIMA. See America and Colmnbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Pera 
was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a 
city, and gave it the name of Ctudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. 
This Spanish name it retains in all legal defeds, but it is better known as 
Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by 
annual festivals, a. d. 158G, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it 
■was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which sec. 

LINEN. A flibric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- 
tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli, 42. This article was first manufiictured in 
England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III.. 1253. 
Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A companj^ of linen 
weavers established itself in London, in 1368 ; and the art of staining linen 
became known in 1579. A colonj^ of Scots in the reign of James I., and 
other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that countrj^ in the suc- 
ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- 
land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- 
raged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, 
and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. 
This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture 
there. The Irish Linen Board Avas established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- 
lin, was opened, 1728 ; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in 
Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in Great 
Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. 

LTNN^.AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, 
or, as his name is Latinized, Linnseus, was commenced about 1725-30; and 
his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, 
orders and genera; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- 
ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his vari- 
ous genera. The Linntean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and 
was incorporated March 26, 1802. 

LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city 
when they conquered it, a. d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 
1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the courl 
fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French 
army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle 
of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under sir Arthur 
Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- 
sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 

LISLE, SiKGE OF. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the 
allies; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it 
was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty 
of Utrecht, in 1713; in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications 



LiV 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 399 

of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his- 
tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisk^ sustained a severe bombardment from 
the Austrians, who were obhged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 
LITANIES They were first used in processions and other devotions, about 
A D 400 Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Greg- 
ory I in or about ^Q5.—Ne7oton on the Prophecies. The first English htany 
was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII . m 
lbiZ.—Collier\ Ecc. Hist. 
TJTERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute ^f queen 
Anne 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable 
decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- 
right was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have 
an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were livmg, 
the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts 
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time 
then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6t-h of Victoria the right 
is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his vleath ; 
but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 
42 years for which term also any work pubhshed after the author s death is 
to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript; act pass^ed July 
1 1842 The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, Ibod. ihe 
International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838 ; this act secures protec- 
tion in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the 
same protection to English authors. 
LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB. FUND, &c. The various societies connected 
with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through 
the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, 
and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, l76f). 
The Literary Fund, in Lincoin's-Inn Fields, was founded m 1790, to reheve 
authors and literary men who by ase or infirmities are reduced to poverty : 
this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was 
established Sept. 15, 1825. 
LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose 
first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was 
announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- 
tially known in Ens-land in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction rnay be 
referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died m 
1841, 
LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was 
restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first 
composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in lo4/-b. Ihe 
offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same 
form in which we now have them, but other parts were different Upon the 
- solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to 
very nearly its present state. 1551. It was first read in Ireland, m the Eng- 
lish language in 1550. and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, m 1637. 
Again altered in 1661. The hturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pii- 
kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith. 
LIVERIES In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their 
vassals in uniform, thereby to"^distinguish families ; they were originally a 
single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- 
ment ; and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings.— ^sAe. 

• LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive 



400 THE world's progress. [loc 

increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained che first 
rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- 
day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient records 
its various appellations are, Litherpul, and Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the 
ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced 
its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the "Liver," 
or from a sea- weed of that name ; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 
1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the 
notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation 
of hi?' troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships 
which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows ; British, 2,615, of the 
aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. 
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th Jan- 
uary, 1844, was .£4,121,622. — Pari. Ret. 
iiLOYD'S, London, The coffee-house in connection with the Roj^al Exchange, 
and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side 
of that building, Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of 
eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c. ; and hero are 
effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books 
kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are 
remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. 

LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its 
virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua- 
lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. — Stunnius. Aristotle 
assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it 
under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its 
attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, 
known in France before a. d. 1180; but this honor is accorded to Roger 
Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its 
virtues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of 
the mariner's compass. See Compass. 

LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor- 
rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen 
borrowed 200,000/. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own 
coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city of London joined in the secu- 
rity. — Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo- 
rable periods, was, viz : 

Seyen years' war from 1755 to 1763 - - .£52,100,000 

American v/ar - - from 1776 to 1784 • - - 75.500,000 

French revolutionary war from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000 

War against Bonaparte from 1803 to 1814 - - - 206,300,000 

Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one 
millions and twenty-two millions; and it deserves to be recorded that a 
subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- 
don in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil- 
lions, Dec. 6, 1796. 
LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake 
of Loch Leven, in 1257, and wa« a royal residence when Alexander III. and 
his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the 
English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of 
St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl 
of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefiy re- 
mai-kable as the place of the imfortunate queen Mary's imprisonment, in 
1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was 
compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an. 
interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abbot i and of which 



LOM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 401 

also, some new and afFectiLg particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th 
vokime of his History of Scotland^ published in August, 1840. 

LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con- 
trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cango 
mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The French are ac- 
counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the EngHsh the best. Bi"a- 
mah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784. Locks have been 
made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite work- 
manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its 
own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys. 

LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently 
superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of 
these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt 
and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 b. c. The country of 
Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and 
after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable 
stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred 
in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the 
streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers, 
but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 
1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 
1816. 

LODI, Battle of the Bridge of. One of the great early achievements in 
. Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed 
to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant 
and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands 
of the Imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made 
prisoners, May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won- 
derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and 
the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. 

LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a. d. 1570 ; and first mentioned by Bourne 
in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which 
the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly 
the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used 
in the royal navy is forty-eight feet, 

LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of 
numbers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an 
eminent Scotchman (sir Tohn Napier) in 1614. The method of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory Avas discovered about the same time, 
and hence called Napier^ s bones. The invention was afterwards completed 
by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. 

LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic 
religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- 
liffe. — Chmicer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; 
he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples 
of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account 
of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith, 
London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed 
by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or 
persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Merer i; Carte. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS, In England they were understood to be com- 
posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice, — Anderson on Coviriurce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 



40-2 THE world's progress. [ LOO 

l)y pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private 
])ersons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229. 
They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called 
after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth, 
LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the 
marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited 
into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser- 
vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548. They 
passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, 
in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and ^.lade considei'able 
conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and 
annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan, &c. 

LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that 
a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 
years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 
54 B. c, and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a.d. 61, it 
was known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta 
was the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of 
trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony, — 
Tacitus. It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an 
old British king, who was buried near where Ludgate formerly ^tood ; but 
its name is from Lhjn-Din, the -'town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. 

LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though 
rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to 
have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of 
Charles I., being the oldest man on any thing approaching to authentic re- 
cord for upwards of 3000 years. — Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of 
Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and 
considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per- 
fect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov: 
15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was 
buried in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There 
are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia ; and at Dantzic a 
man is said to have died at 184 ; and another to be living inWallachia, aged 
186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the 
greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood ; 
but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is 
no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree 
in the Canaries, 162 b. c. Harrison made a time-keeper in a. d. 1759, which 
in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required 
by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714 ; and in 1763, he applied for the 
reward of 20,000Z. offered by that act, which lie received. The celebrated 
Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the 
chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, -and Breguet bring the longitude al- 
most to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but 
Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. 

LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in 
England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lam- 
beth, in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them 
in the last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great 
perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single 
plate, the walls of large rooms. 



LOT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 403 

LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought 
into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the 
general principal of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- 
genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75 000 
power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two 
yards eacli per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. 

LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for 
the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap- 
plied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobility. — See Lords and 
Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally 
Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by 
contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, '-is 
worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf^ a loaf of bread, and ford, to 
give or afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be- 
cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the 
poor ; for which reason they were called givers of bread." — See Ladies. The 
nickname of " My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, 
is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn. 

LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 
1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne. the first 
peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; 
Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and 
Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were 
made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests 
for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can- 
not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- 
son ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same 
reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns; or, 
in case of a riot, from attending the fosse comitatns. See Baron; Earl; 
Marquess, &c. ' 

LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad co7isulendum, to 
consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. 
The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until 
some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs 
were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goidsmith. And 
writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain 
that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was 
held 22 Edward I.. 1293-4. The house of lords includes the sphitual as well 
as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer- 
tain ancient baroni'^s under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : 
some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- 
made peers; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, 
and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- 
land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. 
The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 
earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English 
prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers. 

LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing ai 
the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued 
day and knight until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the 
fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 
The first lottery mentioned for suras of money took place in 1630. Lotte- 
ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large 
annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin 



404 THE avorld's progress. [ LUl 

in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of tlie national 
convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act 
was passed imposing- a penalty of 50Z. for advertising foreign or any lotteries 
in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote 
of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng- 
land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the state,s 
there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures 

LOUISIANA, One of the United States. First e'xplored by the French, and 
received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a 
settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful 
attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a 
colony. His efforts were folowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who 
held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the 
year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, 
at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and 
Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 
1731. the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded 
the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province 
to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for 
$15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of 
the Mississippi. In 1812, the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu- 
tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76 556 ; in 1820, 
153,407; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including 168,452 slaves. 

LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign 
of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now 
called'the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of 
paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief 
of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, 
but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. 

LUCCA, The Duchy of, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard king- 
dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied 
by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of 
Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's 
demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled, 
Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of S215,- 
000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria 
Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. 

LUCIA, St. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several 
tinies in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French 
neg;roes, April 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- 
nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia_j\vas 
restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again siezed on by J^ng- 
land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
See Colonies. 

LUNEVILLE, Peace op, concluded between the French republic and the em- 
peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo 
Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form 
the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, 
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine repubhcs, Feb. 9, 1801. 

LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman 
people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 
B.C. Every five years were called a lustrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty 
years Avere commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. 

LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub- 
lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was 



LTC J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 405 

deputed Avith others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such 
a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; that no crime could be 
committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, 
not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. 
Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and 
thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam^ in VUa Liitheri. 

LUTZEN, Battle of, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on 
the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded 
by general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened 
the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed the 
victory, it was manifestly on the side of France ; but in this engagement 
marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen aud Wurt- 
zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when 
the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, 
and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did 
not produce peace. 

LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle of; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, 
the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protest- 
ant religion in German}^, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was 
foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also'called the 
battle of Lippstadt. 

LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken 
and pillaged by the French in 1543 ; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544 ; 
by the French in 1684 ; and restored to Spain in 1G97. It was again taken 
by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, 
and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief 
occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century; it 
surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795. 
The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- 
public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of 
the Rhine immediately after. 

r UXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his- 
tor; of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been 
enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, 
muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and 
black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was 
distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals ; his halls were 
named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to 
surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been 
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to 
serve it in the hall of Apollo : this feast for three persons casually met, 
would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, 
luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- 
fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, 
except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a 
free estate of lOOZ. per aymuvi, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk; 
and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all 
others it was prohibited, a. d. 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of 
France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup 
and two dishes," 1340. 

L**^'€EUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem- 
ple of Apollo Lyceus; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, sou 
of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the Ilis- 
sus in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he generally taught 



406 



-THE world's progress 



[ LYR 



hh pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi- 
losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c. 

— Stanley. 

LYDIA. a very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of 
whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb: he was conquered by 
Cyrus, 548 b. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with 
many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as- 
cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hei-o- 
dottis. 



Arjron, a descendant of Hercules, reigns 
in Lydia— ^e?0(^ - b. c. 1223 

The kingdom of Lydia, properly so 
called, begins under Ardysus I. — 
Blair . . . . . 

Alyattes reigns - - - . 

Males commences his rule - 

Reign of Candaules 

Gygcs, first of the race called Mermna- 
dae, puts Candaules to death, marries 
his queen, usurps the throne, and 
makes great conquests 

Ardysus II. reigns ; the Cimbri besiege 
Sardis, the capital of Lydia 

The Milesian war commenced under 
Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who 
reigns .... 

Reign of Alyattes IL - - - 

Battle upon the river Halys between the 
Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an 
ahnost total eclipse of the sun, wliich 
superstitiously occar-ions a conclu- 
sion of the war. — Blair - May 28, 

[This eclipse had been predicted many 
years before by Thales, of Miletus. — 
Blair.] 



797 
761 

747 
735 



718 
680 



631 
619 



585 



CrcEsus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the 
throne, and becomes celebrated for his 
victories and conquests - b. c. 562 

Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni- 
ans, .^olians, and other parts of Asia 
Minor are subjected to his dominion - 554 

.\11 the nations west of the Halys are 
conquered, and that river becomes 
the boundary of the kmgdom.Blair - 550 

Croesus, dreading the pov^er of Cyrus, 
whose conquests had reached to the 
borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys 
to attack the Medes, with an army of 
420,000 men and 60,000 horse - 548 

He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- 
sieged in his capital, and taken - 548 

The conqueror orders Croesus to be 
burned alive, and the pile is already 
on fire, when he calls on the name of 
Solon in agony of min<l, and Cyrus 
hearing him pronounce it, spares his 
life - - - - - - 548 

Lydia, the kingdom of the " i-ichest of 
mankind," is made a provmce of the 
Persian empire - - - 548 



^sop, the Phrygian fabulist, i\lcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a 
style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of 
Teos. Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain- 
ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan- 
der, about 330 b. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, 
founded by Philaeterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to the 
Romans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Empire, a. d. 
V32Q.— Priestley. 

LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a 
single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen- 
eral councils were held here in. the 13th and 14th centuries. The silk man- 
ufacture commenced in the reign of Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged 
in 17*J3 by the convention army of 60,000 men. and surrendered Oct. 7, 
when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention 
decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the 
Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, 
which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21, 1831. 
Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons, 
Nov 4, 1840. See Inundations. 

LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and 
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three 
strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several 
strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phrynis, a musiciaa 
of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 b. c. 



MAC J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



4D7 



M. 



MACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 b. c. It 
was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, 
sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, 
the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and 
exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his 
son's greatness. Macedon had tv.'enty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan- 
der inclusive: after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divid- 
ed among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new 
kingdom. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 37. 



Ueign of Caranus - - B.C. 814 | 

Reign of Perdiccas I. - - - 729 i 

Reign of Argsus I. - - - 678 i 

Reign of Philip I - - - - 640 

Reign of ^ropas ; he conquers the Illy- 

rians - . - . . 602 
Reign of Amyntas - - - - 547 
Reign of Alexander I. - • - 497 
Reign of Perdiccas II. - - - 454 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, 
murders the legitimate heirs of his 
father, and seizes the throne - - 413 
He is surnamed the " Patron of Learn- 
ing" 411 

He is murdered by a favorite to whom 
he promised his daughter in marriage, 
yet gave her to another - - 399 

Reign of Amyntas II. - - - 399 

He is driven from the throne - - 398 

Recovers his crown, and puts Pausanias 

to death • - - - 397 

The lllyrians enter Macedonia, expel 
Amyntas, and put Argaeus, brother of 
Pausanias, on the throne - - 392 

Amyntas again recovers his kingdom - 390 
Reign of Alexander II. - - - 371 

He is assassinated - - - - 370 

Reign of Perdiccas III. - • - 366 

He is killed in battle - - - 360 

Reign of Philip II. and institution of the 

Macedonian phalanx - - - 360 

Philip gains the battle of Methon over 

the Athenians - - - - 3G0 

He defeats the lllyrians in a desperate 

engagement - - - - 3-59 

He takes Amphipolis, and receives an 

ari'ow in his right eye. See Archery 358 
He conquers Thrace and Illyria - 356 

Birth of Alexander the Great • - 356 

Philip adds to his conquests - - 348 

Close of the first sacred war - - 348 

Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 
Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343 
Aristotle appointed tutor to the young ■ 

prince Alexander - - - 343 

War against the Athenians - - 341 

Philip besieges Byzantium - - 341 j 

Battle of Chaeronea ; Philip conquers. j 

See Choironea - - - - 338 

Philip is. assassinated by Pausanias, at 
Egaea, during the celebration of games 
in honor of his daughter's nuptials - 336 
Alexander III., surnamed the Great, 

succeeds his father - - - 336 

He enters Greece - - - - 335 

The Greeks appoint him general of their 

armies agamst the Persians - - 335 

The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes 



to the ground ; the house of Pindar is 

alone left standing 
The Almighty iivors Alexander with a 

vision, in which the high-priest of the 

Jews appears to him, exhorting him 

to pass mto Asia. See Jeics 
He passes into Asia, and gains his first 

battle over DariLi. See Granicus, 

Battle of - - - 

Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; Ha- 

licarnassus is taken, and numerous 

cities in Asia Minor - 
Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius 

takes the field with 460,000 infantry 

and 100,000 cavalry - 
Battle of Issus (which see) - 
Alexander^ in his way to Egypt, lays 

siege to Tyre, which is destroyed after 

seven months - - - - 

Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- 
sures of Darius come into the posses- 
sion of the victor 
Gaza surrenders - - - - 

Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and 

Egypt conquered 
Alexandria founded - - - - 

Great battle of Arbela, the third and 

last between Alexander and Darius ; 

the Persian army totally defeated. 

See Arbela 
Alexander proclaimed master of Asia ; 

he enters Babylon in triumph - 331 



335 



334 



- 334 



- 334 



333 
333 



332 



332 
332 

332 
332 



331 



GUECIAN OR MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 



Alexander sits on the throne of Darius, 
at feusa 

Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by 
Alexander - " - - - - 

Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits 
him, attended by a retinueof 300 wo- 
men. See Amazons • 

He puts his friend Parmenio to death, 
on a charge of conspii-acy, supposed 
to be false .... 

Alexander makes more conquests 

His expedition to India ; Porus, king of 
India, is defeated and taken ; and the 
country as far as the Ganges is over 
run .... 

Calisthenes is put to the torture for re- 
fusing to render divine homage to 
Alexander - - - - - 

Subjection of the Cosseans 

Death of Alexander 

His conquests are divided among his 
generals . . . . 

His remains are transported to Alexan- 
dria, and buried by Ptolemy 



- 330 
829 



- 329 



329 
32S 



- 32» 



326 
326 
323 

323 

2au 



408 THE world's progress. [ MAD 



MACEDON, co7iHnned. 

The Greeks defeated by sea and land 

near Cranon {ichich see) - b. c. 322 

Thebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 

Seleucus recovers Babylon - - 312 

Cassander puts Roxana and her son to 

death, and usurps the throne - 311 

Battle of Ipsus {which see) - - • 301 

New division of the empire - - 301 



Reign of Antigonus Gonatus - a. o 
Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats An 

tigonus, and is proclaimed king 
Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored 
Antigonus takes Athens - ^ - 
The Gauls again invade Macedon 
Revolt of the Parthians 
Reign of Demetrius II. 
Reign of Philip, his son 
His wdr against the Rhodians 
Philip is defeated by the Romans 
He is totally subdued 
The reign of Perseus 
Perseus defeated by the Romans 



277 

274 

272 
268 
268 
250 
242 
232 
202 
198 
196 
179 
171 



MACEDON U. 

Death of Cassander - - ■ • 298 

Reign of Alexander and Antipater - 298 
Demetrius murders Alexander, and 

seizes the crown of Macedon - - 294 

Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279 

The consul ^milius Patilus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman 
province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 b. c, and next year 
walk in chains before the chariot of uS^milius in his triumph for the conquest 
of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath 
II. in A. D. 1429. Priestley. 

MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho- 
las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics^ and The Prince. By 
some they are stig-matized as " the most pernicious maxims of government, 
founded on the vilest policy ;" and by others as " sound doctrines, notwith- 
standing the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared 
in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.* 

MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lo- 
renzo Almeida a. d. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race 
of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsup- 
ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved 
pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A papjer describing the 
pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1809. 

MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, 
by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England 
for an illicit amor. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French 
lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to 
Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was 
discovered by a Portuguese, a. d. 1345. But it is maintained that the Por- 
tuguese did not visit this island until 1419, nor did they colonize it until 1431. 
It was taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admi- 
ral Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained 
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to 
the Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. 

MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of 
the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French 
in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was 
sacked a. d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The 
Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. 
The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family 
had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to 

• The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) " the doing 
of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, whereby 
ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires proii.;pt 
them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety. " — Ferguson. 



MAO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 409 

expel them, when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona- 
parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. 
Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year ; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, 
when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored 
May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the 
late civil war, for which see Spain. 

MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the 
prince of Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a 
memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Lewis XIV. 
took it in 1673 ; William prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676 ; but, 
in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French, 
who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being 
restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes- 
tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters 
of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to the 
allied forces. 

MAGDALENS and MAGDALENETT^S. Communities of nuns and women, 
the latter class consisting chiefly ot penitent courtesans. The convent of 
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha a. d. 1324. That at Metz was institu- 
ted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by 
pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII, settled a revenue on the nuns, and 
further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died, without 
will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have 
their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their 
effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally 
under the direction of Dr. Dodd, In New- York a similar institution called 
" a Home for the friendless," was founded, 1846. 

MAGELLAN, Straits of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer- 
nando de Magelhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by 
the emperor Charles V., in 1519, The first voyage round the world was 
undertaken by this illustrious navigator; and his vessel performed the en- 
terprise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want 
of food. 

MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of 
the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know- 
ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular 
homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars 
nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent 
God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
their ofiTerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and 
their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so 
that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were 
finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the 
reformer of the sect of the Magi : he flourished 1080 b. c. — Du Fresnoij. 

MAGIC LANTERN, This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon, 
England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260, Bacon first invented the con- 
vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, 
applied them to this use, 

MAGNA CHART A, The great charter of English liberty may be said to have 
been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his 
successors, Stephen, Henry II., and John, But the Charter more particularly 
meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John, 

18 



410 THE world's progress. [ma. 

and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took 
arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed, 
and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter 
was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward 
I, It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on the word 
and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant 
a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were 
temporals or spirituals ; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
had been confirmed above thirty times. 

MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the 
attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im- 
memorial ; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in 
Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro- 
perty of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could 
communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the 
same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of 
Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The impor- 
tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made 
about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's 
experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather 
improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an- 
nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. 

MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro- 
mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned 
general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. 
Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel 
during a period of t^Yenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Ara- 
bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered 
■ as possessing every fine qualitj'' of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 
500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written in 
various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is 
said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, 
by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and 
immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideaux. 

MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and 
were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be- 
came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the 
invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed 
by carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. 

MAINE, cue of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bu'stol. 
The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a 
governor and council It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by 
the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334 ; annexed to Massachusetts, under 
charter from William &- Mary, in 1691 : became a separate State in 1820. 
Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705 ; in 1840, 501,793. 

MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial familj^ were ad- 
dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of 
state. Popes also had the title of majesty.' The emperors of (jermany 
took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves. 
It wai? first given to Louis XI. of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles 
V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your 
Majesty, 1520.— See F^eld of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this titls 
with the term •' Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See JHiln, 



man] dictionary of dates. 411 

MAJORCA AND MINORCA, For occurrences relating to these islands, see 

Minorca. 

MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars. 
The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120.000 choice soldiers, and the 
victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh- 
ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid 
by the capture of Mons ; fought Sept. 11, 1709. 

JNFALTA, Knights op. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of 
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some 
merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph 
of Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
and whom they received with zeal and charity, a. d. 1018. They afterwards 
founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers. 
This foundation was laid in a. d. 1101, in the reign of Baldwin, and they 
now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality 
entered, and changed their name into knights. After the Christians had 
lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired 
to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then 
they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi- 
nions, where they staid till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, 
under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it 
under the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, his 
successors have used F. E. R. T. for their deyice, that is, Fortitudo ejus 
Rhodmn tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his* valor ; from this they Were called 
knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they re- 
tired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave 
them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself 
grand-master of the order in June, 1799. 

MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon 
the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by 
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. 
Ho found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, 
a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 muskets : besides an immense treasure 
collected by superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at li- 
berty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and 
Avas taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800 ; but, at the peace of 
Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The 
British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between 
the two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua- 
ranteed to Great Britain. 

MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in 
Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were es- 
tablished by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a. d. 1246. They 
advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until 
Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into 
pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On 
the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. 
Assisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the war, 
the Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government 
In 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain 

MANNHEIM. First built in a. d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in 
1719 ; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 cause<l the re« 



412 THE world's progress. f MAR 

moval of the cburt to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, betwet n the armiea 
of the alhes and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered 
to the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the 
25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, de- 
feated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with va- 
rious success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the 
popular dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtz- 
burg, named Sandt, April 2, 1819. 

MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest 
the East, about a. d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and 
particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, 
left him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or 
envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that . he was the paraclete or com- 
forter that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the 
one good, and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing 
but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. 
Several other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death 
by Sapor, king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, his 
having dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one 
of the royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his 
arms. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 

MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish com- 
merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was 
taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The cap- 
tors hijmanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster- 
ling ; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establish- 
ment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, the 
usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; 
and the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private 
bottoms by free companies of merchants. — Butler. 

MANTINEA, Battle of, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans, 
and the combined forces of Lacedaemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. 
The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time 
Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 b. c. 
— Strabo. 

MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Mantua surrendered 
to the French, Jan 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; and it was at- 
tacked by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it sur- 
rendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the 
French again obtained possession of it; but they delivered it up to the 
Austrians in 1814. 

MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian 
philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer 
on I'ecord, 5"0 b. c. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A ce- 
lestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century.— 
Frerel. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew 
Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
A. D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. 
Mcrcator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented in 
1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 1647. 
See Charts. 

MARATHON, Battle of. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history. 
The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, the number of the Persians not known. 
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, who 
defeated the Persians^ Persian loss 6,400 — Athenian 192. Among the 



MAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 

numbur of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war; the remainder 
of the Persian army were forced to re-cmbark for Asia. Sept. 28, 490 b. c. 

MARBLE. Dipainns and Scjilis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
sculptured marble, and polished their works; all statues previously to their 
time bi'ing- of wood 568 b. c. — Plmij. Marble afterwards came into use for 
statues, and the columns and ornaments of line buildings, and the edifices 
and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with. Mne 
marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which 
were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than 
those of even Rome itself These latter were discovered by some English 
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra. 

MARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January 
and February, 713 b. c. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave 
to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes, 
that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu- 
lus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year for- 
merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. 

MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army 
was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies 
of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix 
(who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes 
of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost 
GOOO in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon; and though the 
French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, 
it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty be- 
tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on 
the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos- 
session of the latter : and he became, in fact, the master of Italy, 

MARESCHAL, or MARSHA.L. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires 
of the king ;• and by their first institution they had the command of the van- 
guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp- 
ttient. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French 
marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of 
peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, 
the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em- 
pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown. 
See Marshal, Field. 

MARIGNAN, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage- 
ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be- 
tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of 
twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest 
troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515. 

MARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to 
their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah ; and some of 
their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. c. See Coni- 
pass. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given 
to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city 
of Naples, a. d. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by 
Columbus in his voyages of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London 
in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass- 
maker of Ratcliffe, in that year. 

MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to 
make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another 
prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used 



414 THE world's progress [mah 

by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in Eng- 
land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, a. d. 1295.— 
Rymefs Fizdera. 

MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the 
Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the 
language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was 
to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of 
honor to a duke, and was introduced several j'-ears after that title had been 
established, in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great 
favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created 
marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parhament between the dukes and 
earls, a. d. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, 
was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. 

MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for 
life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to 
Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b. c. — Eusebius Pref. to Chron. The prevail- 
ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride, 
after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more 
sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil 
magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar- 
riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a. d. 1199, 
Marriage was forbidden in Lent, a. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 
692, and to priests in 1015; and these latter were obliged to take the vow 
of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace 
under an act of the Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1653. A 
tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50^., of a com- 
mon person 2s. 6<^., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were again 
taxed in 1784. 

MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a certain time every year, 
the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid- 
der, by the pubhc crier. The richest citizens purchased ' such as pleased 
them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off 
those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms. 
When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lots, 
beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing 
a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below 
the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid ; and 
he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female 
was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo- 
chus, about 1433 b. c. 

MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 
600 B.C. — Uuiv. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken 
by Julius Cassar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the 
Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected 
to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of 
France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles, 
and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. 

MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army^ The rank is of modern date, and 
was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commander-in- 
chief The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil- 
itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George P 
first conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork- 
ney in 1736. See Mareschal. 

MARSTON MOOR, Battle of. This battle was the beginning of the misfor- 
tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots and 



marI dictionary of dates. 415 

parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Ru- 
pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. 
Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and 
the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command- 
ed the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who 
now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had 
taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious ; he pushed his 
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en- 
gagement and a second victory. The ]3rince's whole train of artillery was 
taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow ; fought J uly 
3, 1644. 

MARTINIQUE, This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and 
the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February 
1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. 
They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of 
Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution 
took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed 
by the British, June 1, 1815; and Martinique reverted to its French masters 
at the late general peace, 1815. 

MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in 
martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to 
their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient 
date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr- 
dom A. D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs ; and the accounts of 
those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill 
volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer, 
Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a 
" Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, and Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cran- 
mer, Latimer, and Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : — 



1st. OCTOBER, 1554. — DINNER. 

Bread and ale - - - .£0 2 

Oysters - - - - - 1 

Butter - - - - 2 

Eggs 2 

Lyng 8 

A piece of fresh Salmon - - 10 

Wine - - . - 3 

Cheese and pears - - - 2 



The three dinners - - £0 2 6 

TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. 

For 3 load of wood faggots to burn 

Latimer and Ridley - - 12 
Item, I load of furze faggots - - 3 4 
Item, for the carriage of these 4 
loads 2 6 



jEO 


1 


4 





3 


4 








6 





2 


8 



Item, a post ... 
Item, 2 chains • • • 

Item, 2 staples 
Item, 4 laborers • - • 

jei 5 8 
[They were burnt on October the 16th, 1555.] 

CHARGE FOR THE BURNING OP THE BODY 
OF CRANMER. 

For 100 of wood faggots for the fire 6 

For 100 and X of furze - - 3 4 

For the carriage of them - - 8 

For two laborers - - - 2 8 



JE0 12 a 
He was burnt on March the 21st, ia 1556.] 



MARTYRS, Era of. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used 
by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced 
in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, 
particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a. d: 284 ; and the 
persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. 

MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa- 
tent of Virginia, granted- under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ; 
named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were 
Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634 ; free toleration 
of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled 



416 THE world's PROGREbS. [ MAS 

in 1650, and again in 1776 ; the State bore an active part in the revolution ; 
adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population 
in 1790 was 319,728 ; in 1810, 380,546 ; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,486 
slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March, 
1847. 

MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to 
guard her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use 
among the Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to ^schylus ; yet 
Aristotle says the real inventor and time of their introduction were un- 
known. Modern masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were 
demised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 
1572. — Stowe's Chron. 

MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III. 1340; 
and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the 
citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa- 
tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six 
masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re- 
vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, 
•and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque- 
rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-five 
guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. 

MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the cele- 
bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of 
the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to 
allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge- 
neral division of masses consists in high and low : the first is that sung by 
the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- 
deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed 
without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin, about a. d. 394. Its 
celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Pros- 
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a 
colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This 
was called the Plymoutli colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and 
Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692, 
The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this 
State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, 
Bunker Hill, Lexington, d^^c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; 
revised and altered'in 1820 ; slavery aboHshed in 1783; Shay's rebellion in 
this State in 1786 ; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 
against 168. Population in 1721,' 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472.040 ; 
in 1820, 523,287 ; in 1840, 737,699. 
MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class 
under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities 
of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon 
another, in vindication of the Christian religion ! The following are among 
the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors : — 

BEFORE CHRIST. A dreadful slaughter oJ the Teutonos and 

Of all the Carthagenians in Sicily, which Ambrones, near Aix, by Mariu.s, the Ro- 

took place 397 b. c. man general, 200,000 being left dead on 

2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the : the spot, 102, b. c. 

sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex- . The Romans, throughout Asia, women and 

ander, 331 B. c. children not excepted, - rue ily massacred 

The .lews of Antioch fall upon the other in- ; in one day, by order of Mithridates, king 

habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them, of Pontus, 8S b. c. 

for refusing to surrender their arras to De- A great number i)i' Roman senators massa' 
metrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 154 B.C. cred by Cinna, Mariu.«, and Sertorius 



mas] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



417 



MASSACRES, confirmed. 



Many patricians dispatch themselves to 
avoid tiieir horrid butcheries, 86 b. c. 

Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his mmis- 
ler of vengeance, 82 and 79 B.C. 

At Preenesle, Octavianus Caesar ordered 6W 
Roman senators and other persons of dis- 
tinction, to be sacrificed to the manes of 
Julius Csesai', 41 b. c. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of .Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of 

Jews were put to the sword, A. D. 70. 
The Jews, headed by one Andrae, put to 
death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, m and 
near Cyrene, a. d. 1 15. 
Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- 
ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of 
the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167. 
At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens 
are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, 
A. D. 213. 
The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 
of the inhabitants upon his reduction ol 
Gaul, A. D. 27T. ^ ^ ^ 

Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the 
emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they 
were put into a ship which was set on 
fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 370. 
Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited 
into the circus, were put to the sword, by 
order of Theodosius, a. d. 390. 
Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens 
of Constantinople for a revolt, to which 
they were impelled by the tyranny and ex- 
actions of two rapacious ministers set over 
them, A.D 552. . 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantmople, by 

order of Andronicus, a. d. 1134. 
Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, com- 
menced of Toulouse. A. D. 1209. Tens of 
thousands perished by means of the 
sword and gibbet. 
The Sicilians massacre the French through- 
out the whole island of Sicily, without 
distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, 
the first bell for vespers being the signal. 
This horrid affiiir is known in history by 
the name of the Sicilian vespers, a. d. 
1282.— Du Fresnoy. 
A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, 
by the peasants, who, from a pretended 
prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was 
to be recovered from the infidels by them. 
500 of these Jews took shelter in a casile, 
and defended themselves to the last ex- 
tremity, when, for want of weapons, they 
threw their children at the enemy, and 
then killed each other, a. d. 1317. 
At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the 
instance of John, duke of Burgundy, a. d. 

1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order 
of Christian IL, a. d. 1520. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants 
throughout the kingdom of France, attend- 
ed with circumstances of the most horrid 
treachery and cruelty. It began at Paris, 
m the niiiht of the festival ol St. Bartholo- 
mew, Aug 24, 1572, bv secret orders Irom 
Charles IX., king of France, at the insti- 
gation of the queen dowager, Catherine de 

18* 



Medicis, his mother. It is styled in hia. 
tory, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, 
when 65,000 were slain, a. d. 1592. 

Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under 
a pretended legal sentence of the chancel- 
lor of Poland, for being concerned in a 
tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic 
procession, a. d. 1724. All the Protestant 
powers in Europe interceded to have this 
unjust sentence revoked, but una^ailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chi.iese were massacred 
by the natives, October 1740, under the 
pretext of an intended irsurrection. 

At the taking of Ismael : y the Russians, 
30,000 old and young were slain, Decem- 
■-er, 1790.— See Ismael. 

In Sc Domingo, where Dessalines made 
proclamation for the massacre of all the 
whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou- 
sands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the 
French, May 2, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel 
of Cairo, March 1, 1811. 

Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May 1815. 

Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitauts 
of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious 
disorders continue ibr some days, Marcli 
6, 1820. 

MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, 
May 1, A. D. 474. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 
1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber- 
land, A. D. 580. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of 
England, in the night of November 13, 
1002, and the 23d Ethelred II. At London 
it was most bloody, the churches being nr 
sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunild;., 
sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in 
hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
newly concluded.— -Brt-tez-'s Chronicle. 

Of the Jews in England. Same few press- 
ing into Westminster Hall at Richard L's 
coronation, were put to death by the peo- 
ple ; and a false alarm being given that 
the king had ordered a general massacre 
of them, the people in many parts cf Etig- 
land, from an aversion to them, slew all 
they met. In York. 500, who had taken 
.shelter in the castle, killed themselves, 
rather than fall into the hands of the mul- 
titude, A. D. 1189. 
Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's V/ood, 

Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), A. d. 1209. 
Of the English factory at Amboyna,^iii order 
to dispossess its members of the Spice Is- 
lands, A. D. 1623. . 
Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, la 
O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up- 
wards of 30,000 British were killed in the 
commencement of tnis rebellion. — .SVr 
William Petty. In the first two or three 
days of it, forty or fifty tliousand of the 
Protestants were destroyed. — Lord Clar- 
endon. Before the rebellion was entirely 



4i '» THE world's progress. [ MAI 



death by pikes, perpetrated by the insur- 
gent Irish, at the barn of'Scullaliogue, Ire 
land, in 1798. — Srr Richard Musgraoe. 
Massacre of 64 American piisoners at Dart- 
moor, England, (disowned by British Gov- 
ernment.) April 6, 1815. 



Massacres. conUnuea. 

suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were mas- 
sacred. — Sir W. Teinpie. 

Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, 
May 9, 1691.— See Glencoe. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly 
Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to 

MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principal 
courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of 
the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception 
of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1608.— 

BoJcej-. 

MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christo- 
pher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in -. cause was 
made to a master, a. d. 1588 ; and the masters have been since chosen from 
among the most learned equity members of the bar. 

MASTER or the ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from 
his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and 
recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for 
that name. 

MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and 
discipline ; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathema- 
tics -were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to num- 
bers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the 
Egyptians, so early as 1950 b. c. — Josephus de Antiq. Jud. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning 
of the day in the Catholic church. Emphaticallj^, the French Matins im- 
ply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of 
Moscow, the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, 
at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. 

MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a d. 
1500 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after 
prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of 
Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French 
landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This 
island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty 
of Paris in 1814. 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- 
ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that 
at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
and erected to his memory a monument, which, for its grandeur and mag- 
nificence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monu- 
ment she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments 
of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and pro- 
posed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her 
husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b. c. 

MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spi-ing and summer, 
received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in 
respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated ma- 
jores ; though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa 
Pompilius, by adding January and February to the year, made this month 
the fifth, Avhich befoi'e was the third, 713 b.c. 

MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of 
Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially obsei'ved in 



MEC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 419 

England as a jural festival; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in 
many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the 
day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May- 
day, an entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate 
class the chimney-sweepers of London, They were regaled with the good 
English fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. 
Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from 
the mistress of the feast. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- 
dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of stu- 
dents who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church 
in Ireland, 35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endow- 
ment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,000^. for 
the enlargement of the buildings, and 26,000Z. annually, were granted by 
parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and 
controversy in England. 

MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out* of the immunities granted to free 
cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. 
Mayor of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles 
Martel ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, «b seq., under the last kings of 
the Merovingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this oflSce, and 
had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of 
corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally 
governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date 
from the reign of Richard I. 

MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 
B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- 
wards ; and were very early known in England. Standards of weights and 
measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London, 
8 Richard I., a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. 
They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. 

MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, a. d. 571. 
The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims On one 
of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually 
retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran 
was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from 
the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 
1871 B. c. 

MECHANICS. The time Avhen the simple mechanical powers were first in- 
troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been 
ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for 
instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of 
Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense 
masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved 
and elevated. 



The first writing on mechanics, was by 
Aristotle, about - - B.C. 320 

The Statera Romana invented - - * * 

The fundamental property of the lever 
and other instruments was demon- 
strated by Archimedes - 205 

The hand-mill, or quern, was very early 
in use ; the Romans found one in 
Yorkshire - - - - * * 

Cattle mills, molas, jumentaricn, were 
also in use by the Romans, and in 
parts of Europe - - - * * 



The water-mill was probably invented 
in Asia ; the first that was described 
was near one of the dwellings of 
Mithridates - - b. c. 70 

A water-mill is said to have been erect- 
ed on the river Tiber, at Rome - 50 

Floating mills on the Tiber - a. d. 536 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use 
in Venice about - - - 1078 

Wind- mills were in very general use m 
the twelfth century - • • * * 



420 



THE world's progress. 



[mem 



Application of mechanics to astronomy, 
parallelogism of forces, laws of mo- 
tion, &c., Newton - - - 1679 

Problem of the catenary with the ana- 
lysis. Dr. Gregory - - - 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inven- 
tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to - 1702 

The Mechanics' Institute in London wae 
formed in - • - - 1823 

Mechanics' Institute in New York 
formed ... . . 1S33 



766 
- 647 



62.5 



585 
585 



Cyrus made king of Persia - b. c. 

Astyages deposed by Cyrus 

Crcesus king of Lydia defeated, and his 
throne seized by Cyrus 

Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar 
to death ; and makes Astyages (or 
Darius, the Mede) viceroy " - 

By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be 
comes master of all Persia; and this 
era is properly the commencement 
of the Persian empire. — Lenglet 



559 
550 

548 



- 538 



357 



MECHANICS, continued. 

Saw-mills are said to have been in use 

at Augsburg - - - a. d. 1332 

Theory of the inclined plane invest! - 

gated by Cardan, about - - 1540 

Work on statics, by Stevinus - - 1586 
Theory of falling bodies, Galileo - 1638 
Theory of oscillation, Huygens - 1647 

Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren - 1662 

Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, 

Roemer .... 1675 

Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo- 

relli ; he died - - - - 1679 

Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in 
England. 

MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It 
revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c. and afterwards became an independent 
kingdom, and conquered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the 
Mede, 536 b. c, Media was from tb-at time united to the Persian empire, 
and shared its fate. — JUair ; Prie^Hey. 

Revolt of the Medes — HUcir • b. o. 

The country was subjecie'3 to the As- 
syrians. — IdPMi 

Phraortes reigns ; he conquers •PerNia, 
Armenia, and other countnos 

Battle of Rages ; the Assyrians defeat 
the Medes. — Blair 

War with the Lydians ; the hostile ar- 
mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun 
so alarms them, they conclude peace 
without striking a blow - - - 

The reign of Astyages. — Blair • 

The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux- 
ury into Persia. They admitted polj^gamy, and a man was deemed infamous 
who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast 
of at least five husbands. — Aspln. 

MEDICAL LITERATURE m the UNITED STATES. The Medical Repo- 
sitory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It 
was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. 

MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the 
East, about A. D. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation 
was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of 
the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of me- 
dicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the 
hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes 
have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. 

MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained 
in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number 
of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here 
Mahomet was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, a. d. 622. This 
flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira^ 
a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to jiee, or quit one^s countj-y or friends. 

MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- 
sented to us as if they were present. — Pardon. Simonides, grandson of 
Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia 
for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. c- 
Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger 
many in 1.807. See Mnemonics. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religion 



WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421 

who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti- 
ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general coimcil, held by 
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominicans, 
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders 
subsequently branched from them. 

MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is 
of very early date. The various properties of conic sections Avere dis- 
covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration 
may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., 
about 218 B. c. 

]MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have 
been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- 
tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — -Pardon. They are, how- 
ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these 
charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- 
gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of 
latitude as they recede from the equator. 

MERCHANT — from merc« /is. The name given to high commercial citizens who 
trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were acrcounted 
the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by 
queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of 
Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurer's society (see 
Adventurers-, Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296 ; it 
extended to England in Edward III.'s reign ; and was formed into an En- 
glish corporation in 1564. — Haydn. 

MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found 
in vast qantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany 
are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 
tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues 
of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512. — • 
Nouv. Did. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol- 
lius early in the seventeenth century ; the first directions for its preparation 
were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation 
for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 
1762, Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Orbelin, of Vienna, 1785. 

MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- 
sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry 
VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and 
good humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, 
and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The 
name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — V Estrange. 
Johnson. 

MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter 
of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- 
pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting 
this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth ;" about a. d. 310.— 
Baro7iius, Annal. 

MESSENIA, nK)w Maura-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom 
was commenced by Policaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- 
guinary wars against Sparta {^qq next article), and once contained a hundred 
cities, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the 
AchfEan league 216 b. c. 

MESSENIAN WARS, The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia. 
The first began 743 b. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered 



422 THE world's progress. [ MET 

to some Spartan women Avho had assembled in a temple cf devotion common 
to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the 
females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made 
so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- 
married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the 
end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. 
The second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan 
yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenians who 
fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 b. c. it endured ten years, when 
the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus, 

MESSINA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then 
called Zancle, 671 b. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, 
but fell to the Saracens a. d. 829. — Priestley. In the eleventh century Roger 
the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- 
pression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took 
place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated 
by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and 
in Feb. "and March, 1783, was half destroj^ed by the same calamity; since 
which it has been handsomely rebuilt. 

METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned 
as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals 
are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel 
in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- 
tals. 

METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated 
with Aristotle. What maj^ be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be 
traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor- 
dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly 
called the revival of learning. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from 
one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which 
the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so 
long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- 
migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary'' pains they were at in em- 
balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 b. c. 

METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- 
cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. 
"Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, " is not to form a sect, or 'to 
bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or 
form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians 
in heart and life, in temper, word, and work — such as lived in the earlj^ days 
of Christianity, and such as we conceive may still live." The methodists 
maybe said to have appeared formally, if not originally^ at Oxford a. d. 
1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- 
thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their 
career by teaching in 1784. The term appears to have been brought forward 
in the da5^s of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Metho- 
dist(B, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence ol 
the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist 
missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke 
in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these 
missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organiz- 
ed for their support, until 1817. 



MID ] DICTIONARY OF DaTES. 423 

MEXICO. Discov<!red in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under 
Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, 
A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in 
1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in- 
dependence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution 
proclaimed by the president Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 
1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles 
suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 
1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. 
Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. 
The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European 
powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June 1830. Civil war 
between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, 
March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of 
San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, 
March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa 
Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- 
redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and 
Herrera made president, Dec, 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. 
War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, 
May 8, 1846; and subsequently at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, 
and Monterey. Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- 
ment to raise 1^15.000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the 
mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. 
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in 
disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 
1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American 
general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States, rati- 
fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, 
June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be- 
comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz 
surrendered by the United States. Aug. 1. See War of the United States and 
Mexico. Signor de la Rosa first Mexican minister to the United States after 
the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. 

MEZZOTINTO. A pecuhar manner of engraving representing figures on cop- 
per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it 
is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648; but baron Heinikin states 
that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- 
beth of Hesse in raezzotinto in 1643. See E7igraving. 

MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit 
in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, Avere converted 
to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territorry ceded to England by 
the peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States, in 1805 ; 
admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. Dnring the war of 1812-13 the 
territory was gained for a time bv the British, but it was recovered by gen- 
eral Harrison.^ Population in 1810. was 4,528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830, 31,639 ; 
in 1840, 212,267. 

MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d, 
1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- 
fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded 
to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 
Enjgland, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, 
F. R. S.. who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — Biog. Diet. 

MIDWIFERY. Womei were the only practitioners of this art among the He. 



424 THE world's progress. [mil 

brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 
B. c. is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad- 
vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and of Galen, Avho lived a. d. 
131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- 
tution of the College of Physicians, TO Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated 
Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after 
his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc 
affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-mid wives goes no farther 
back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere. mistress of Louis XIV., 
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted 
with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the 
subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midvvives 
after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 

MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- 
puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 b. c. It submitted to the 
Romans 222 b. c. ; was formed into a republic a. d. 1221 ; and lastly was 
governed by dukes from a. d. 1395, until 1505, when it was conquered by 
Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the fir.st who took the title of duke of Milan, 
about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan, by Charles V. of Ger- 
many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan 
was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. 
Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; 
but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the 
capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned 
with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree 
of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring 
England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. 
Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept. 8, 1847. 
Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848 ; followed 
by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- 
ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- 
ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered 
Milan in the popular cause, Mai'ch 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on 
proposed union with Piedmont: — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing 
it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- 
ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians 
at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. 

MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, 
but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather 
than allowed, as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times 
proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- 
out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- 
try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the 
insurrection of June, 1848. 

MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most 
historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- 
jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved 
in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England 
was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the 



* Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to leam medicine. She was taught by Hicro. 
pholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to hej 
patients. This brought her into so much pi-actice, that the males of her profession, who were now 
out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the 
judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. — Hyg.fa. 274. 



MiN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 

appointment of officers are different in the different States. See Encyclo- 
pedia Americana. The aggregate miUtia force of the United States, as re- 
ported in 1848, was 1,888.538, but as the returns in some instances Avere 
for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 
2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace 
about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. 
MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the 
road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- 
cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, 
who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who he was she 
threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. 
Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactca was occasioned by a 
confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c. 

MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex- 
piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation; and that during 
the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It 
was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was 
propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium 
was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our 
blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- 
tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Bttrnet. 

MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and 
dresses for women, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be 
derived from Milan. There are men-miUiners in England, and the adoption 
of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 
1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very 
strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at 
all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- 
posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while 
the perfumed coxcomb ["He was perfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare.] 
measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady 
phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. 

MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. 
Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, Avould be 
like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the 
Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced 
the water-mill. See article Mechanizes. 

MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. 
Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- 
land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, 
occurs 41 Henry III., 1262. — Ruding. It related to mines containing gold, 
together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, 
and salt exist in great abundance, in various States : lead mines in Mis- 
souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North 
Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Cop- 
per, Tin, Gold, (^c. 

MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40«> 30' north 
lat.. and between 91° 10' and 102° west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux 
Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants 
from the United States about 1845-6. 

* I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but aa 
one of the most injurious. When! hear one of these persons haranguing upon the merits of muslin 
or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of contempt ; for ih(^ 
employment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from prostitution. — Dr. 
Southey. 



426 THE world's progress. [mm 

AIINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. 
Minorca was captured by lieutenant-g-eneral Stanhope and sir John Leake in 
August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral 
Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety 
of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the 
enemy. See Bijng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. 
Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured 
by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up 
at the peace of 1802. 

MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to 
divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- 
men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of 
Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign 
of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at 
the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk 
into neglect. 

MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at 
New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C, 1837 ; at Dahlonega, 1838. SeeCoining. 

MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; and from a passage 
in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women 
were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 
B. c. See Looking Glasses. 

MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was 
considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in 
Hajme's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a Bottle, about 1782, was the first 
actress announced as Miss. — Gait's Lives of the Players. 

MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. 
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. 
The Jesuits had missions to China {which see), and to most other parts of 
the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was 
a Danish mission, planned b}^ Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian 
Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, 
about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 
4, 1794 ; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions. 
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; 
first mission at Bombaj^, 1813; at Ceylon, 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che- 
rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- 
tions of about S200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts 
of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this 
Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical 
science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. 
The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &.c., are also nu- 
merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of 
Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- 
ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevo- 
lent Societies. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- 
chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the 
Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part 
of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, 
together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817, 
when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45.929 ; 
in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 875,651, including 195,211 slaves. 



MOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 4^, 

MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included with Louisiana in the 
purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French 
in 1764, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri- 
torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State 
in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise, 
which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- 
souri. Population in 1810, 19,833 ; in 1830, 140,074 ; in 1840, 383,702, includ- 
ing 58.240 slaves. 

MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- 
brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced 
about that period, exploded in 1720; at which time, the nominal capital is 
said to have amounted to 100,000,000Z. See Law's Bubble. 

MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed 
to be the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented 
by Mithridates 11. the king of Pontus, about 70 b. c. It was formerly 
thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out 
of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the 
capital medicines of our shops. 

MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100.000 Romans, 86 b. c. 
and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human 
life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having 
taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of 
Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He 
ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his 
throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. — Lenglet. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been v/orn by 
the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young 
women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, 
wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, Avhich according 
to the solemnitj'" to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less 
magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of 
Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. 

MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. 
The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- 
ides the younger, 477 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics 
have been elaborately treated ;' and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey is an 
esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have 
it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no- 
ticed in the London monthly periodicals. 

MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the 
French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions 
w^ere incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- 
cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The 
archduke escaped ; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and 
restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke. 
March 20, 1848, The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24 ; Provi- 
sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. 

MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, 
Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards 
known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls, The first conqueror of the Mogul 
empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d. 1236. Timour 
Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous 
sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried 
away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the 
nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 



428 THE world's progress. [ MOJS 

MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon 
after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost 
universal monarchies, — the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. Sei 

them respectively. 

MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in a. 
D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic 
houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious 
communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- 
ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantino IV., among 
other persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear 
at Ephesus : he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, 
and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the 
vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their 
eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their 
various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the .state. When St, 
Austin arrived in England a. d. 596, Ethelbert of Kent ^ave him an idol 
temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his 
successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic 
houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 
1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII. 
1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, 
whose descendants enjoy them to this day. 

MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- 
nesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year 
of the world 2139, In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to 
the Lydians, Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it 
having been coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 b. c. Money was 
made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- 
cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so 
late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since 
the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity 
that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- 
dity. See articles. Coin; Gold; Silver; Copper; Mint, d^c. 

MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- 
serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d. 250. St. Anthony is sup- 
posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular 
monastic life, a. n. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate. 
St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son 
of Charles II. was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded 
England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on 
the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and 
was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, 
from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII. 
about 1535. 

MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, 
that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence 
mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were 
further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were 
totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, 
as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. — Ander- 
son's History of Commerce. 

MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra- 



ItOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



429 



ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of 
prophecy and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- 
demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- 
riage forbade to avo;d martvrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three 
lents '; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- 
fore the close of the second century.— Ca-ye's Hist. Lit. 
MONTREAL Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was 
taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 
12. 1775. and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church. Je- 
suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great 
military aftray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the " Rebellion Losses Act ; 
the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1819. 
MOON. The fall moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar- 
tans and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of 
conjunction of the sun or moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. 
Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by 
Thales, 640 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon 79 b c.—Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- 
zic a' D 1617 The strength of moon-light at the full moon is 90,000 times 
less than the hght of the sun.— Z>r. Smith. It is 300,000 times less.— 
Bougiier. 
MOORS They first invaded Soain. a.t^.ViZ.— Univ. Hist. The Saracens in 
Spain beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who 
seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d. 
1091 Alphonsns I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. 
The Moors bea-an the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the 
power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XL of Leon and Castile, slevv 
200 000 Moors in one battle ; three leagues round the country was covered 
with the dead 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- 
nand v., who conquered Granada, 1492. PhiUp III. banished them to the 
number of 900,000, confiscating their property, I^IQ.— Priestley. 
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science 
of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- 
garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 b. c. And Grotius is 
esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern 
times, about a. d. 1623.— l?«te, <^-c. 
MORAVIANS. United Brethren, A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, 
it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt; while the Brethren say 
that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They 
appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died 
at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order 
to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed 
settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and 
other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now 
so general. 
MORGARTEN Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and 
glorious in the annals of Switzerland ; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, 
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They 
seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through 
which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved 
their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. 
MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe 
Smith " is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. 
Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe 



430 THE world's progress. [ MUlf 

Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28, 
1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. 
The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, 
and the Mormons emigrated to Desseret and California, 1848-9. 

MOROCCO. Anciently Maurita^iia. From its early possession by the RomaUiJ 
it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, Abdallah, a leader 
of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last 
sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces 
shook off their dependence ; but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, 
subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France 
provoked by Abdel-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, 
commence May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, 
and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16. 1844. Abdel-Kader taken 
prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. 

MORTARS, A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, 
used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated 
mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. 

MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was 
taken by Tamerlane 1382 ; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the 
Tartars, wliose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This 
city was entered by the French, Sept, 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, 
Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on lire in five hundred places at 
once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were bm-nt to the 
ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- 
ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 
22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. 

MOSKWA, Battle of, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. 

MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting 
themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women,, and 
perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- 
ted A. D. 1609. 

MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XL by pope Paul IL, 
1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of 
Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. 

MOTTOES ROYAL. Dieu et man Droit was first used by Richard I., a. d. 1193. 
The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, "I 
serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 
the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 134G. Honi soit qui mal y 
pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendral, '■'■I will 
mainlain" was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper cadem was or- 
dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. 

MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to 
wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition 
of grief for a friend lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasions 
it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for 
the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in 
Europe is black ; in China it is white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; 
and it was white in Spain, until a. d. 1498. — -Herrera. 

MUNSTER, Treaty of, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; Spain 
continuing the war against the former kingdom. B}^ this peace, the principle 
of a balance of power in Europe was first recoe-aized. Signed at Munster, 
Oct. 24, 1G48. , 



MUS j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



431 



MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetsa 
was estabhshecl by Deraophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 b. c. The Per- 
sians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the 
Heptarchy, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s 
time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed 
benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, may happen 
in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and 
an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward HI, 1350. The 
enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its Avilful com- 
mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance 
The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one 
after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July l^Z^.—Hmjdn. 

MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Pryta- 
neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained 
by the pubhc. because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. 
The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
who here placed his library, about 284 b. c. See British Museum, (^c. 

MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the windfe in 
hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammt.rs 
of Tubal Gain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And 
Zarhno to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first . 
reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 b. c. The flute, and harmony or concord in 
music was invented by Hyagnis, Ib^Q.—Arund. Marbles, Vocal choruses of 
men are first mentioned 556 b. c.—Du Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that 
the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible 
, to mortal ears, which he called "the music of the spheres." St. Ceciha, a 
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel 
was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her 
melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author- 
ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third 
century. 

MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin, 
a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, a. d. I02b.— Blair. The notes at present 
used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by 
Palestrina about 1515. Gafturius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi- 
tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the 
science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries 
about 1616. 

MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- 
stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- 
tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was 
established in 1741, and other musical societies followed. The Royal Society 
of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the 
performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- 
sic established 1822. 

MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish 
historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier 
with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- 
troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 
12 Henry VIII. 1521.— Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the 
musket into use in the Low coimtries, 1569. — Branstone. 

HIJSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so 
called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling 
moss, which the French call mousse. According to others, it was first brought 



432 THE world's progress. [ MYT 

from Moiisol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng- 
land in 1670. — Anderson. They wore manufactured in great perfection in 
England in 1778. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or 
felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- 
ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, 
on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon 
his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one 
day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately 
until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d. 
1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment is 
awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or 
confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary, 
at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, 
Aug. 21, 1^Q\.— Phillips. 

MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie: mid- 
shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. 

MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bomity. 

MYCALE, Battle of, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and 
Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and 
slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just 
returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were 
completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, 
and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- 
mos with an immense bootj''. 

MYCEN^. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty 
stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidae. Perseus 
removes from Argos to Mycenae, and reigns, 1313 b. c. Mycenae destroyed 
by the Argives, 568 b. c. 

MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in- 
stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- 
ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt 
up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis 
and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The 
. Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1856 b. c. 
The laws were— 1. To honor parents; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits 
of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil- 
ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. 
They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389. 

MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the 
authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated ; 
and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in 
this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding 
of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal, 
and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence t^em 
with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- 
visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon : and 
then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions 
of titeir own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, 
and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to 
have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 b. c. ; and Cadmus, 
the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 

B.C. 



nap] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



433 



N. 

NABONASSER, Era or. This era received its name frorr. the celebrated prince 
of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 b. c. To find the Julian year on which 
the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; 
if after Christ, add to it 748. 

NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it 
to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans 
taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their 
names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exalta- 
tion to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name 
till then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687. "—Plafina. Onuphrius refers it to John 
XIL, 956 ; and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter 
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to 
change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of 
Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but 
at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It 
is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new 
names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the 
world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. 

NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was 
garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. 
Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, 
the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken 
by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but 
they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it 
up to the Allies, in 1814. 

NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. 

NAPLES The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples 
was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- 
tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and 
the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this 
country. 



The Goths having become masters of 
Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by 
Eelisarius, general of the Eastern 
empire - - - a.d. 537 

The Lombards next get possession of 
Naples, and are dispossessed by Char- 
lemagne .... 800 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. I.ouis, 
king of France, obtains the crown 
from the pope, to the exclusion of the 
rightful heir, Conradin, who is be- 
headed, aged sixteen years - - 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Si- 
cilians, a general massacre of the in- 
vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers 

March 30, 1282 

Peter of Arragon reigns - - - 1282 

The two crowns disjoined - - 1303 

Charles Durazzo, becoming king of 
Hungary, is murdered there by order 
of the queen regent, in her presence - 1386 

For this murder she is taken out of her 
carriage, and drowned in the river 
Boseth - - - - . 1386 

Sicily again united to Naples, and the 
kings ever since called king of the 
Two Sicilies .... 1442 

19 



Taken from the French and annexed to 
Spain - - ... 1504 

The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to 
an insurrection, excited by Masaniello, 
a fisherman, who in fifteen days raises 
an army of 200,000 men - -1647 

This insurrection subsides, and Masa- 
niello is murdered - - - 1647 

Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess 
the crown - - - 1647 

The kingdom completely conquered by 
prince Eugene - - - 1707 

Discovery of the ruins of Herculaneum. 
See Herculaneu7n - - - 1711 

Naples ceded to the emperor by the 
treatjr of Iladstadt, 1714; Sicily • 1720 

Both kingdoms are recovered hy the 
crown of Spain - - - 1734 

And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, 
reigns - - - - - 1735 

Reign of Ferdinand IV. - . - 1759 

His flight on the approach of the French 
republicans - - Jan. 14, 1799 

Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and 
the king restored - - .July 13, 1799 

It is again taken by the French, April 7, 1801 

Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 



434 



THE world's progress 



[NAT 



NAPLES, contimied. 

the kingdom, and thousands perish 

July 26, 1803 
Treaty offensive and defensive between 

France and Naples - Oct. 8, 1805 

Ferdinand is again di'iven from Naples, 

and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned 

kinsr - - - Feb. 6, 1806 

jMeph abdicates for the crown of Spain 

June 1, 1808 
The crown is transferred to Joachim 

Murat - - - July 1, 1808 

Naples is surrendered to a British fleet, 

and Ferdinand re-enters - June 17, 1815 
Execution of Joachim Murat - Oct. 15, 1815 
Revolutionary movement, headed by 

general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 

Suppression of the Carbonari Sept 16, 1820 
Reign of Francis T. - - -1826 

And of Ferdinand II. - Nov. 8, 1830 

Commencement of the dispute relative 

to the sulphur monopoly (which is 

afterwards amicably adjusted) 

March 15, 1840 



Demonstration L favor of Pius IX. and 
reform, fired uj 3n at Naples, and ar- 
rests made - - Dec. 15, 1847 
Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jan. 4, 1848 
Rebellion at Palermo, &c. - Jan. 12, 1848 
Palermo bombarded - Jan. 13-19, 1848 
The king signed a constitution Jan. 28, 1848 
Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar- 
rison - - - -Feb. 22, 1348 
The parliament of Sicily declares that 
island independent ; Messina bom- 
barded by the Neapolitan fleet Ap. 3, 1848 
The national guard raises barricades at 
- Naples - - - May 14, 1848 
The people put down by the king's 

troops; 1440 killed - May 15, 1843 
The Sicilian parliament elects the duke 

of Genoa as king of Sicily - July 10, 1848 
Messina bombarded and taken by the 

Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848 

New constitution conceded to Sicily 

March 6, l849 
Catania bombai-ded and reduced Apr. 5, 1S19 



NARVA, B.4TTLE OF, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated 
by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The 
army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish 
army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. 

NASEBY, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fair- 
fax and Cromwell, The main body of the royal army was commanded by 
lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale 
the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory 
was with the parliament forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfortu- 
nate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all 
his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 

• 14, 1645. 

NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- 
rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in 
the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought 
to be of alarming magnitude. 

In 1702, On the accession of queen 

Anne, the debt amounted 

to - - - - £14,000,000 
In 1714, On the accession of Geo. 

I. it amounted to - 54,000,000 

!n 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- 

nisl war, it amounted to 78,000,000 
In 1763, George III. : end of the 7 

years' war. it, amounted 

to ... - 139,000,000 
In 1786, Three years after the Ame- 
rican v/ar, it amounted lo 268,000,000 
In 1798, The civil and foreign war, 

it amounted to - - 462,000,000 

NATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times. 

- $75,463,476 
. - 82,976,294 

- 53,173,217 

- - 99,833,660 

- 127,334,934 

- . 91,015,566 

NATURALIZjVTION. It is defined to be " the making a foreigner or alien a 
denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, ab it wera, 



In 1802, Close of the French Re- 
volutionary war, it a- 
mounted to - .-£571,000,000 

In 1814, Close of the war against 

Bonaparte - - - 865,000,000 

In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- 
lish exchequers were 
consolidated - - 848282,477 

In 1830, Total amount of the 
funded and unfunded 
debt .... 840,184,022 

In 1840, Total amount of ditto - 789,578,000 

In 1845, Funded debt - - - 768,789,^11 



In 1791 the debt was 
In 180t " " - 
In 1810 " " 
In 1815 " " - 
In 1816 " " 
In 1820 " " - 



In 1830 the debt was • 


- $-18,565,405 


In 1835 " <' - 


37,733 


In 1839 •' " 


- 11,983,738 


In 1845 « •' ' 


- 16,801,647 


In 1848 " " 


. t^,804,450 



NAVJ 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



435 



both a subject and a native of a king or countrj", that by nature he did not 
belong to." The first act of naturahzation in England passed in 1437 ; and 
various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, 
several of them special acts relating to individtials. An act for the natural- 
ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, 
on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States. 

iVATIONAL ASSEMBLY op FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abb^ 
Sieyes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- 
bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by 
order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat repaired to 
the Jeu de Pamne, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had 
digested a constitution for France. On the 2d thej^ met at the church of 
St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of t\\Q 
Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that 
that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, "That the 
citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being 
met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that 
the National Convention is constituted." Thi-s convention continued until a 
a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed 
at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. 

N ATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution 
was the purchase, by the British govei-nment, for the public service, of the 
Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. 
They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 : and the 
first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beau- 
mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British 
Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been 
augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- 
fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed 
and opened in 1837. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the 
first upon record, 1263 b. c. — D\i Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is 
that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 b. c. — Blair. The fol- 
lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the 
page of history. 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

First sea-fight on record, in which the 
Corinthians conquer the Corcyreans 664 

The Athenian fleet under Tliemistocles, 
with 380 sail, defeat the Persian, con- 
sisting ol" 2000, at the straits of Sa- 
lamis - - - • - 480 

Again, at the mouth of the river Eury- 
medon ; Cymon, the Athenian admi- 
ral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and 
army, in one day. — Herodotus - 470 

The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Alci- 
biades, the Athenian - - - 410 

The Spartan general, Lysander, totally 
defeats the Athenian fleet under Co- 
non ; by this victory he puts an end 
to the maritime power of Athens - 407 

The Persians engage Conon to com- 
mand their fleet, with which he en- 
tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian 
fleet, and takes fifty sail out of ninety 400 

The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan 



at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian 
admiral, is killed; and the maritime 
povv'er of the Lacedemonians de- 
stroyed. — Thucydides - - 394 

The Roman fleet employed in the siege 
of Lilybeeum, burned'by the Cartha- 
ginians ..... 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the 
consul Lutatius - - - 242 

The Roman fleets vanquished by Han- 
nibal, the Carthaginian general ; 800 
galleys taken, and 16,000 prisoners ; 
second Punic war - - - 209 

At Actium, between the fleets ot Octa. 
vianus Csesar and Marc Antony. This 
battle decides the fate of the latter, 
300 of his galleys going over to Cgesar, 
by which he is totally deleated - 31 

ANNO DOMINI. 

The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the 
Goths, and sinks 2000 of their sliips. — 
Du Fres^icy .... ggg 



^ 



436 



THE world's progress 



[nav 



NAVAL BATTLES, contmued. 

The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, 
and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet 
in the Gulf of Lepanto. The Chris- 
tian fleet consisted of 206 galleys, and 
30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250 
galleys, saved only 100; and lost 
S0,000 men in killed and prisoners. — 
Voltaire .... 1571 

Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- 
ards. This was a bloody conflict and 
decisive victory, and settled for a time 
the superiority of the Dutch, Apr. 25, 1607 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail 
of Danish pirates on the Dorset and 
Hampshire coast. — Asser's Life of 
Alfred ■ - - - '- 897 

Near Sluys ; Edward III. defeated the 
French fleet of 400 saii, which were 
all sunk. 30,000 French were killed 
in this engagement - - - 1340 

The English and Flemings; the latter 
signally defeated - - . 1371 

English and French, in which the latter 
power loses 80 ships - - - 1389 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 
14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 

Ofl!"Barfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes 
500 French ships - - - 1416 

In the Downs"; the French fleet cap- 
tured b^ the earl of Warwick - 1459 

Bay of Biscay ; English and French, 
the latter defeated - - -1512 

Sir Edward Howard defeats the Fi-ench 
under Prejeant - - - 1513 

In the Channel ; the British defeat the 
French fleet with great loss - - 1545 

The Spanish Armada driven from the 
English Channel to the road of Calais, 
by a running tight, the Spaniards los- 
ing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are 
again defeated, and obliged to bear 
away for Scotland and Ireland, when 
their fleet is dispersed in a storm, and 
they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 
more men. See Armada - July 19, 1588 

Dover Straits ; betv/een the Dutch ad- 
miral. Van Tronip, and admiral 
Blake. The Dutch surprise the Eng- 
lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 
40 English, six of which are ta\-en or 
destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral 
sails in triumph through the channel, 
with a broom at his mast-head, to de- 
note that he had swept the English 
from the seas - - Jane 29, 1652 

In the Downs ; same admirals, and 
nearly same loss 

Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 

The English gain a victory over the 
I>utch fleet off Portsmouth, taking 
aid destroying 11 men of war and 30 
merchantmen. Van Tromp was the 
Dutch, and Blake the English admiral 

Feb. 10, 1653 

Again, near Portland, between the Eng- 
lish and Dutch; the latter defeated 

Feb. 18, 1653 

Again, off" the North Foreland. The 
Dutch and English fleets consisted of 
near 100 men-of-war each. Van 



Tromp commanded the Dutchi Blake, 
Monk, and Deane, the Englisn Six 
Dutch ships were taken; 11 were 
sunk, and the rest ran into Calais 
road - - - June 2, 1653 

Again, on the coast of Holland; the 
Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, anil ad- 
miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 
2,000,01)0 pieces of eight, were taken 
by the English - - Sept. 1656 

The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then 
burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by 
Blake - - - April, 1657 

English and French ; 130 of the Bor- 
deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of 
York - - - 7V.C. 4, 1664 

The duke of York, (afterwards James 
II.) defeats the Dutch fleet oflT Har- 
wich; the Dutch admiral blown up 
with all his crew; 18 capital ships 
taken, 14 destroyed - June"3, 1665 

The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of 
war and 2 India ships Sept. 4, 1655 

A contest between the Dutch and En- 
glish fleets for victory, maintained 
lor four days. The English lose 9, 
and the Dutch 15 ships, June I to 4, ISG 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of 
the Thames, when the English gain 
a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 24 
men-of-war. 4 admirals killed, and 
4000 officers and seamen. Fousht 

July 26, 1666 

The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the 
French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 

Coast of Holland; by Prince Rupert, 
May 28, June 4, and Aug. 11, D'Etrees 
and Ruyter defeated - - - 1673 

Several actions to the disadvantage of 
the Dutch. They agree to strike to 
the English colors in the British seas, 
25 Charles H. - - - - 1673 

Off Tangiers, battle between the En- 
glish and Moors, which lasted 11 
days 1679 

Off" Beachy-head ; the English and 
Dutch are defeated by the French, 

June 30, 1690 

The English and Dutch combined fleets 
gain a signal victory over the French 
fleet, near Cape La Hogue ; 21 of their 
largest men-of-war were destroyed. — 
See La Hogue - May 19, 1692 

Off^St. Vincent; the English and Dutch 
squadrons, under admiral Rooke, de- 
feated by the French - June 16, 1693 

Off" Carthagena, between admiral Ben- 
bow and the French fleet, command- 
ed by admiral Du Casse, fought 

Aug. 19, 1702 

The English and Dutch fleets, under 
sir George Rooke, defeat the French 
fleet (having the Spanish galleons in 
convoy) in the port of Vigo. They 
take 9 out of 13 galleons, laden chief- 
ly with silver, and six men-of-v/ar .: 
the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of- 
war, destroyed, fought Oct. 12, 1702 

Off" the Lizard, when 'he English fleot 
was defeated - • Ocf 9, 1707 



NAT ] 



d:<3Tionary of dates. 



427 



NAVAL BATTLES, contiimed. 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake 
took sixty French vessels laden with 
provisions - - May 22, 1708 

The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- 
feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro 
of Messina - - Aug. 11, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews 
and Lestock against the fleets of 
France and Spain. Here the brave 
captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- 
tory was lost by a misunderstanding 
between the English admirals. — Na- 
val Hist. .... 1744 

Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet 
taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 

In the Fiast Indies ; the French retired 
to Pondicherry - - - 1747 

Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took 
seven men-of-war of the French 

Oct. 14, 1747 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French 
fleet commanded by Conflans, in 
Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a 
projected invasion of England, fought 

Nov. 20, 1759 

Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a 
fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 

Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- 
ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- 
gara, the latter defeated and taken 
prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 

At St. Jago ; Moiis. Suflrein defeated by 
commodore Johnston April 16, 1781 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French 
going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships 
of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) 
and sent the French admiral, count 
de Grasse, prisoner to England 

April 12, 1782 

The British totally defeated the fleets 
of France and Spain, in the bay of 
Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 

Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- 
feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of 
battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; 
admiral Nelson loses his right arm ; 

July 24, 1797 

Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- 
feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 
ships of war, with the admiral (De 
Wmter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797 

Nile ; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 
ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of 

NA.VAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. 



the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped, 

Aug. 1, 179^ 

Gibraltar bay ; engagement between 
the French and British fleets ; the 
Hannibal of 74 guns lost July 6, .801 

Ofl'Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains 
a victory over the French and Span- 
ish fleets; 1 ship captiired, fought 

July 12, 1801 

Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2 
ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of 
the French and Spanish combined 
fleets, off Ferrol - July 22, 1805 

Off Trafalgar; memorable battle, in 
which lord Nelson defeated the fleets 
of France and Spain, and in which 
he received his mortal wound. — (See 
Trafalgar) - - Oct. 21, 1805 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, 
captures 4 French ships of the line, 
off Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805 

In the West Indies ; the French defeat- 
ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of 
the line taken, 2 driven on shore 

Feb. 6, 1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures the 
French fleet under command of ad- 
miral Linois - - March 13, 1806 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage 
of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles, 

Feb. 19, 1807 

Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 
15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- 
renders to lord Cathcart and admiral 
Gambler. (See Copenhagen)^e\)\. 7, 1807 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the 
Tagus, surrenders to the British, 

Sept. 3, 180S 

Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. 
^ee Algiers - - Aug. 27. 1816 

Navarino ; the British, French, ana 
Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- 
hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava- 
rino ■ - - Oct. 20, 1827 

Action between the British ships Vnl- 
age and Hyacivth, and 29 Chinese 
war junks, which were defeated 

Nov. 3, 1839 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The 
Biiiish squadron under admiral Stop- 
ford achieved this triumph with tri- 
fling loss, while the Egyptians lost 
2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 
prisoners. See Syria - Nov. 3, 1840 



Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- 
teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 17r6 

His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 

He captures the British frigate Serapis 

Sept. 23, 1779 

Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- 
politans .... ]803 

— recaptured by Decatur - - Feb. 1, 1804 

Tripoli bombarded by commodore Pre- 
ble - ■ - - Aug. 1S04 

Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the 
British ship Leopard, for refusing to 
be searched .... 1807 

Frisate President, vs. British sloop 
Little Belt • - May 16,1811 



Constitution captures British frigate 
Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 1812 

Captain Elliott captures two British 
frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812 

Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro 
lie, Oct. 18; both vessels captured by 
British 74, Poictiers - Oct 20, IS 12 

Frigate United States, captain Decatur! 
captures British frigate Macedonian 1S12 

Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap- 
tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 

Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures 
British ship Peacock, captain Peake, 

Feb. 23, 1813 



438 



THE world's progress. 



[NAT 



NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. 

[Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- 
aded by British.] 

Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the 
British frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 

Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop 
Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813 

Brig enterprise captui'es the British 
brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1813 

Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, 
caj)tures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 

FlrtiUa, commodore Chauncey, cap- 
tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario, 

Oct. 5, 1813 

Frigate Essex, commodore Purter, cap- 
tured by frigate Phoebe and sloop 
Cherub- - - March 28, 1814 

Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, 
surrendered to British frigate Or- 
pheus - - - April 21, 1814 



Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, 
captures British brig Epervier 

April 29, 1814 

Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- 
tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 

Floiilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- 
torious over the British on lake Chatn- 
plain - - - Sept. Jl, 1814 

Frigate President, surrendered to the 
British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815 

Frigate Constitution captures British 
brigs Cyane and Levant, off Maderia 

Feb. 1815 

Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- 
tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, 

Feb. 23, 18 .5 

U. S. naval force under commodore 
Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly 
with the land force under general 
Scott) 1847 

NAVARINO, Battle of, between the combined fleets of England, Francci, and 
Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turldsh na\^y, in 
Avhich the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, 
many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks 
themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 
1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that 
of Mr. Canning's administration. This tlestruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an 
" untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. 

NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The 
first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first 
account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing 
round Africa, 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander 
the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce jjassed to Alexandria, and subsequently 
the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively 
from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- 
iards ; and from these to the English and .Dutch. 



Plane charts and mariner's compass 

used about - - - a. d. 1420 

Variation of the compass discovered 

by Columbus - - - - 1492 

That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- 
rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537 
First treatise on navigation - - - 1545 
The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 
Mercatbr's chart - - - - 1599 
Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for 
measuring angles, about - - 1600 



Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- 
tion by Gunter - - a. d. 1620 
Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 
Hadley's quadrant - - - 1731 
Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764 
Nautical almanac first published - 1767 
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the 
compass - - - - - 1820 
See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Sfc. 



NAVIGATION, INLAND, of the United States. An official report of U. S. 
Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- 
ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16,674 miles ; entire length of lake coast, 
of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboat 
tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of 
commerce on the western rivers, ^183 609,725. Estimated amount of lake 
tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different periods, 
see Shipping.] 

NAVIGATION, INLAND, of Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be- 
fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more 
inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." 
The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well the 



NAV] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



439 



navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- 
ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194 
See Oleron. The first navigation act was jjassed in 1381. Another and more 
extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies 
passed in 1616 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. Theact 
regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- 
tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- 
liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849. 

NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States 
was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at 
Portsmouth, N. H., 1781 ; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of 
Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The 
Constitution launched at Boston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See 
Naval Battle.'^.] 

NAVIES or EUROPE and AMERICA. 



COMPARATIVE 


VIEW OF THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OF EUROPE 








AND 


AMERICA, 1846. 








Relative naval 
power of each nation. 


In commission. 


Building, ordina- 
ry, &c. 


Total. 


a 

a 

o 
6 


ii 

CO 

6S 
















Vessels. 


Guns. 


Vessels. 


Guns. 


Vessels. 


Guns. 


X 


141 


Great Britain, 


332 


4,583 


304 


13,093 


§63& 


17.681 


40,000 


France, 


215 


4,293 


131 


4,635 


346 


8,928 


27,554 


68 


Russia, - 


179 


5,896 






179 


5,896 


59,000 


32 


Turkey, - 


62 


2,636 


4 


24 


66 


2,660 


26,820 


9 


United States, 


47 


1,1.55 


30 


1,190 


77 


2,345 


8,724 


5 


Egypt, 


35 


1,148 


3 


312 


38 


1,760 




1 


Holland, 


48 


302 


86 


1,344 


134 


1,646 




4 


Sweden, - 


330 


660 


50 


1,196 


380 


1,856 




2 


Denmark, 


96 


344 


12 


732 


108 


1,076 






Austria, - 


74 


686 






74 


686 






Brazil, • 


31 


450 


11 


325 


42 


775 




8 


Sardinia, ... 


11 


226 


4 


220 


15 


446 




2 


Spain, - 


21 


348 






21 


348' 




4 


Two Sicilies, 


17 


338 






17 


338 






Portugal, 


59 
















Mexico 


23 


42 






23 


42 







COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 



Nations, in the order of their commercial 
importance. 



United Kingdom of Great Britain, 
United Stales .... 

France, ..... 

Norway and Sweden • 
Holland, ..... 

Russia, . . = . . 

Two Sicilies, .... 

Austria, . . . . • 

Turkey, . . . . = 

Sardinia. . . . . . 

Denmark, .... 

Portugal, . . . . . 

Spain, ..... 

Brazil, . . . . . 

Mexico. 



No. of vessels 
in commerce 
and iisheries. 



23.898 

19,666 

13,782 

5,450 

1,528 

Not known. 

9,174 

6,199 

2,220 

3,502 • 

3.036 

798 

2,700 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 



Tonnage. 



3,007,581 

2,416,999 
a39,608 
471,772 
241,676 
239,000 
213,198 
208..551 
1821000 
167,360 
1.53,408 
80,-525 
80,000 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 



No. of guns to 
each 100,000 
tons of com- 
merce. 



588 
97 

1.063 
'224 
683 

2,466 
158 
321 

1,461 
265 
709 



440 



rHE world's progress. 



[ NEM 



NAVY OF ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of ;he Danes, 
Avas built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under 
Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub- 
lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007, 
et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. 
From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, 
and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- 
miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 
1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- 
lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may 
therefore be placed 4 Henry YUl. 1512, when the first Navy-office was ap- 
pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stom 
ships of war began to be permanently kept oii foot by the crown. — Gibson'' s 
Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 
tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the 
Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, 
consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 
ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever buii*. — Gibson'' s 
Continuation of Camden. 

ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OP THE ROYAL NAVY OP ENGLAND, FROM HENRY 
VIIl'S KEIGN TO THE CLOSE OP THE LAST WAR, 1814. 



Yr. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men voted 


Navy estim. 


Yr. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men voted 


Navy estim: 


1521 


16 


7,260 




no account. 


1760 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


.£3,227.143 


1578 


24 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1793 


498 


433,'226 


45,000 


5,525;331 


1603 


42 


17,055 


8,.346 


no account. 


1800 


767 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1638 


173 


101,892 


42,090 


no account. 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


jei,056,915 













In 1814, Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 
1830, she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- 
sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home 
service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- 
sion was 183. 

NAYY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that 
of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the 
French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under 
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French 
navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr<>atly 
reduced in the late w^ars against England. 

NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- 
cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and 
White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th 
parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. 
First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- 
plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. 

NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home 
trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- 
dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, 
London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain ; but, 
as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered 
again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, 
taught the art to the English, Avho have since brought it to the highest 
degree of perfection. — Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of 
lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this 
time . — Anderson . 

NSMEAN GAMES, So called from Nemaea, where they were celebrated. 



NEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441 

They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorua, 
who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed 
them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were 
observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- 
onae, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited 
foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every 
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded Avith a 
crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure 
of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They 
were celebrated every third, or according to others, every lifth year, or 
more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- 
Herodotns. 

NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galle 
of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. 

NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time 
bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, 
is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was 
the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for 
that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not 
herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as 
distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; 
that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was 
subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as 
oth(?r men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly 
applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant 
go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, 
and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma- 
tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin. 

NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name 
of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- 
try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was 
governed by its own counts and earls; and afterwards fell to the dukes of 
Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were 
united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see 
Holland and Belgium. 

NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island 
was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at 
the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the 
Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. 

NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America 
under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- 
vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See 
these respectively. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- 
nandc Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It 
came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was 
made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several 
times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it 
has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 
1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800. 138,858 : in 1830, 269.328; 
in 1840, 284 574. 

NE\V HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a 
continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the 
beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 

19* 



442 THE world's progress. [ fiEW 

by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was 
discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east 
and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New 
Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's disco\e- 
ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, 
which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, 
in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty 
leagues Avide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of 
the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- 
ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of 
George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri- 
tish dominions. See New South Wales. 

NEW JERSEY. One of the United States; first settled by the Dutch from 
New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finnt on the De- 
laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by 
Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lord Berkley 
and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued 
by the Dutch in 1672. but surrendered by them, 1674; purchased by a 
company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at 
Salem, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi- 
culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under 
royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered 
much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal 
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in 
1790, 184,189; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306. 

NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from 
about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- 
ington — an area of about 200,000 square miles. The country taken posses- 
sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of 
Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or 
fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F6, and 
founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards 
after a Avar of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between 
the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with 
Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is 
yet (July 1850) undecided. 

NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hol- 
land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, 
in 1770. It Avas at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that 
the design of a convict colony here Avas first formed. Governor Phillips, the 
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay Avith 800 convicts. Januar}^ 20, 1788 : 
but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the 
head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. 

NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next ear 
ele\'en days were left out of the calendar — the third of September. r752, 
being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree Avith the Grego- 
rian Calendar, ivkich see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, 
there Avas no difference of stjles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- 
ven days betAveen the old and the ucaa'^ style, the latter being so much be- 
forehand with the former ; so that Avhen a person using the old style dates 
the 1st of May, those who employ the ncAv, reckon the 12th. From this 
variation in the computation of time, Ave may easily account for the differ- 
ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the 
oldest on authentic record transmitted doAvn to our times, and still observed. 



NEW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 

The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre- 
sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans 
sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; 
and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of 
letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho- 
sen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the 
government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on 
New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a crowd, all in new clothes, when 
two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great 
deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens, 
together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity offered their vows 
for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an 
oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding 
year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, 
and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word. 
The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is 
in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, 
this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from 
the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed 
in Paris. 

/^EW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New- Year's gifts 
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, .king of the Siabines, who having consi- 
dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of 
the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the 
name of Strense, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, 
and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, 
they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to 
the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came 
into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- 
thers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo- 
ralities committed under that cover and protection ; but since the govern- 
ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is 
still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed 
in the United States. 

NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of 
Manhattan, wlieve New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry 
Hudson, an En^i^l simian, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently 
settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- 
glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to 
England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken b}^ a Dutch expedition in 
1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; first legisla- 
tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta- 
blished by law, 1693; negro conspirac}'', 1741 ; colony took an active part in 
French war, 1756, and the war of Independence ; city captured by English, 
1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution 
bv 30 to 35, 1788; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 
1732. 65,000 ; in 1790, 340.820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1.372 812 ; in 1840, 
2,428,921. 

rE\Y YORK. City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614; fort built, by them at 
S. point of the island, 1623; surrendered to the English. 1664; assessed 
value of all the property in the town in 1668, was .£78 231 ; city taken by 
the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States 
Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United 
States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- 
vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in 



444 THE world's progress. [ NEW 

the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property 
valued at about $"20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 
1845 ; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration 
of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790, 
33,131 ; in 1810, 96,373 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 312,710. 

NEW ORLEANS, City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to 
the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French, 1800; purchased by the 
United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between 
the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in 
which the latter were defeated with loss of 3.000 killed and wounded, the 
Americans losing- only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population 
in 1810, was 17,242 ; in 1830, 46,310 ; in 1840, 102,193, including- 23,448 
slaves. 

NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines 
were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted 
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry IIL in 1239 ; but in 1306, 
the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, 
chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which 
were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- 
nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
place for more than 500 years. 

NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista. 
June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 
1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the 
English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from 
Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 
1577. — Haclduyt. But the English fishery, in some years afterwards had in- 
creased so much that the ports of Devonshire alofie employed 150 ships, and 
sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- 
milies reside here all the year ; and in the fishing season, beginning in May 
and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, 
which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New- 
foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A 
bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great 
portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at ^£1,000,000 sterling, 
June 9, 1846. 

NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh 
account of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — V Es- 
trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times. — Addi- 
son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective 
new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent 
practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters 
of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; — 



-w 



importing that these papers, contained intelligence from the four quarters 
of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. * 
NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi- 
dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger 
L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued 
nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gazette. A 
publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had 



The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, ur 
Certain lnformatio7i. 

The Mercurius Civicus, or London's In- 
telligencer. 

The Vomitry's Complaint, Sfc. 

The Weekly Account. 

Mercurius Britannicus. 



In 1810 - - -20,172,83t 

In 1820- - -24,862,186 

In 1825 - - -26,950,693 

In 1830 - - - 30,158,741 



In 1835 • -32,874,652 

In 1840 - - 49,033,;«4 

In 1843 ■ - - 56,443,977 

In 1849 • • - 76,569,235 



HEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 44S 

previously appeared; it was called the English Mercury,'^ and came out un- 
der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the 
Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. 
In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and 
in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- 
lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which 
the following were the titles : — 

England's Memorable Accidents. 

The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 

The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- 
liament. 

The Mercurius Aulicus. 

The Scotch Intelligencer. 

7'he Parliament's Scout. 
A paper called the London Gazette was published x\ugust 22, 1642. The 
London Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the 
court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1685, and afterwards at 
London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and 
pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., lQd,Q.—.<c2mon's Chron. Newspa- 
pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued :— 

In 1753 - - - 7,411,757 

In 1760 - - - 9,404,790 

In 1774 - - - 12,300,000 

In 1790 - - - 14,035,639 

In 1800 - - - 16,084,905 
The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 
was 603, viz: 160 in London, 232 in the Enghsh provinces, 117 in Ireland, 
and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London 
newspapers in 1849 Avas 886,108, paying a gross duty of i;66,458 25. ; in the 
English provincial newspapers, 834,729, yielding to the crown a revenue of 
^62,604 13s. M. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying £11,026 4s,, and in the 
Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty £18,075 16s. &d. 
NEWSPAPERS. &c. in the United States. The first was the " Boston Neios 
Letter," in 1704. which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston 
Gazette, 1719 ; the third the American Weekly Mcrmry, at Philadelphia, 
started one day after the last. First New York Gazette, in 1725; first 
newspaper in the Carolinas at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga- 
zette, at Newport. 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736. 
In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers; in 1810, in the United 
States, 358 : in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit. 
NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de France, established 
by Renaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827.. when 
it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced 
1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Com- 
stituiionelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula- 
tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri- 
odical Lit. 
NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pite's Occurrences, pub- 
lished in 1700 : Faulkner's Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a 
man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 
1728 —Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers, 



* The full title is, " No. 50, The English Mercuric, published by authoritie, for the preveiiicn 
of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer. No. 50." It descnlea 
the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this 
month, between her Majestie's fleet and tliat of Spayne, transmuted by the Lord Highe Admirall to 
the Lordes of council." , ,- r i <t. . 

[It is said bv Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a_ forgery, and its&t 
'.be first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler m lo22.] 



446 THE vI^ORLD's PROGRESU [ NIT 

is the Freeman s Journal, founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about the year 
1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest 
of the provincial prints, was established in 1768. — Idem. 

NEY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince 
of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of 
France. After the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath 
of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIIL On Napoleon's return to France 
from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded 
the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris. 
March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he 
fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five 
horses having been shot under him, unt.l night and defeat obliged him to 
fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guar- 
anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken 
in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to 
trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of 
Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced 
to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly 
fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. 

NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by 
the first general council held there in the palace of Constantine the Great. 
In this celebrated council, which assembled a. d. 325, the Arians were con- 
demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers i)arts, who both set- 
tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter. 

NILE, Battle of the. One of the greatest in British naval history, between 
the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora- 
tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the 
celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French hne-of-battle ships were taken, 
two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called 
the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of 
baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
" Victory or Westminster-abbey !" 

NILE, SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, 
in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives 
no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the 
source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of 
Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 
1773. This river o^^erflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to 
the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to 
the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the 
inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were 
drowned, and immense property lost. 

NIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between 
France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his- 
tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the 
British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 •" but were 
defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov, 8, following. 

KITRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by 
Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav- 
endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. 
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid, 
nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas 
was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discov- 
ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 



nor] ^ DICTIONARY OF DATES. ' 447 

NOBILITY. The origin of nobilit}^ is referred to the Goths, who, after they 
had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to 
distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to 
have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first 
granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of 
Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de- 
graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his utter want of 
property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained ia 
June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also 
Peerage. 

NOBILITY OP FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and 
continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period 
of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered- 
itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
marquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; 
that all citizens take their family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings, 
shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol- 
umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A 
new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary 
peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See France 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into confori/i- 
ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen 
and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship 
and form of church-government which are established and supported by the 
state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their 
own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, was established 
at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con- 
formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed, 
August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re- 
signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. 

NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was un- 
justly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to 
"the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several 
of the bishops, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a 
double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates, May 1723. 

NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by 
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed 
a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in 
1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. 
The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was 
amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to 
England in 1790. 

NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, 
by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle- 
ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay, 
on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest 
penal colony of Great Britain. 

NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen- 
tury this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called 
Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles 
the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, a. d. 905 to 912, 
and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first 
duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his suc- 
cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, onquered England, in 



448 



THE world's progress. 



[noj 



1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in 
the reign of king John, 1204, and remiited to the crown of France. The 
English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which 
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 

NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was 
made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted 
by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen 
Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and 
was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." 
The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British 
navigators, in the years respectively stated : — 



Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to 
find a north-west passage to China, 
sailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553 
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find 

a north-west passage to China - 1576 

Captain Davis's expedition to find a 

north-west passage - - - 1585 

Barentz's expedition - - - 1594 

Weymouth and Knight's - - 1602 

Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken 

(See Hudson's Bay.)- - -1610 

Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 

Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay - - 1616 

Foxe's expedition' - - - - 1631 

[A number of enterprises undertaken 

by various countries, followed.] 
Middieton's expedition - - - 1742 

Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746 

Hearne's land expedition - - 1769 

Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- 

grave, his expedition - - - 1773 

Captain Cook in the Resolution and 

Discovery - - • July 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789 

Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 

The Discovery., captain Vancouver, re- 
turned from a voyage of survey and 
discovery on the north-west coast of 
America - - Sept. 24, 1795 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 
Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's 

expedition in the Doi-othea and Trent 1818 
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the 

Isabella and Alexander - - 1818 

Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla 

and Griper - - May 4, 1819 

They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820 

Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the Fury 

and Hecla - ■ - May 8, 1821 

Capt. Parry's third expedition with the 

Hecla - - - May 8, 1824 

Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having 
attempted a land expedition, again 
sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 



Captain Parry, again in the Hecla, 
sails from Deptford - March 25, 1827 

And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 

Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re- 
turn from his arctic expedit. ^n, after 
an absence of ^ur years, aud when 
all hope of hiE. return had been near- 
ly abandoned - - Oct. 18, 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived 
at Liverpool from their perilous Arc- 
tic l>and Expedition, after having 
visited the Great Fish River, and ex- 
amined its course to the Polar Seas 

Sept. 8, 1835 

Captain Back sailed from Chatham in 
command of His Majesty's ship Ter- 
ror, on an exploring adventure to 
Wager River. [Captain Back, in 
the month of Dec. 1835, was award- 
ed, by the Geographical Society, the 
king's annual premium for his polar 
discoveries and enterprise June 21, 1836 

Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- 
vening space between the discover- 
ies of Ross and Parry, and establish 
that there is a north-west passage 

Oct. 1839 

Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in 
the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- 
land - - - May 24, 1345 

Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- 
ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849 

Another expedition (one sent out by 
lady Franklin) in search of sir John 
Franklin, consisting of two vessels, 
sailed from England, April-May 185C 

Still another, consisting of two vessels, 
the Advance and Rescue., liberally 
purchased for the purpose by Henry 
Grinneli, a New York merchant, and 
manned at Government cost from the 
U. S. navy, under command of lieut. 
de Haven, sailed from New York 

May 1850 



^URTH CAROLINA, one op thk UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- 
ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- 



* The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radcliffe, on his fatal voyage for 
discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the 
court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared 
at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alnne lost the 
noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal object of the parade 
was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen \» 
death, on the coast of Lapland. — Hackluyt. 



NUL ] DU-'TIONARY OF DATES. 449 

secution, about 1660. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced 
the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chief 
magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. 
This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- 
ed by the crown for £17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. 

NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- 
ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- 
cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The 
city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark 
in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden ^vwo 
united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- 
change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was 
proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two 
countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- 
navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of 
Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. 

NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notabks of France was con- 
vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI. , in 1788. The deranged state 
of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled 
Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any 
good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having 
lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. 
de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General 
were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, vMck 
see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish 
notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, 
in the first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a 
commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to estabhsh their 
authenticity in any other country. 

NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- 
ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name 
of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed 
rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of 
Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745, and 1758 ; but was again confirmed 
to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784; 
and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. 

NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its 
name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 
B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators 
(for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished 
to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
Csesar, and Augustus ; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, 
" What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars 1 '' 

NO VI, Battle of, in which the French army commanded by Joubert was de- 
feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. 
Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several 
other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- 
trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8, 
1800. 

NULLIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right 



450 THE world's progress. [oat 

claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature 

of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against tho 
Nullifiers, l)ec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S, C, 
same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United 
States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in 
consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834. 

NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with tlie 
Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge 
to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 
141 B. c.—Livij. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia 
Avas unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The 
inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- 
ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu- 
mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely 
opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear 
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the 
Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- 
gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on 
that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill 
and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all 
destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the 
triumph of the conqueror. 

NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In 
early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of 
Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission 
to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- 
tion. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of 
St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in 
France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Du 
Fres7ioy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald, 
king of Kent, 630. — Dugdale's Monasticon Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys 
and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, 
in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 
1790. 

O. 

GATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chap- 
lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, 
he became a lecturer in London ; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- 
vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, 
Catholics, Avere accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, 
A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James 
II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- 
ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685 ; 
but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. 

OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced 
by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a 
judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first 
framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Slowe^s Chron. Of abjuration, 
being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- 
mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and 



OGY "] DIOTIONARY OF DATES. 451 

ahjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William III. 1701. 
Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528; and the words " So 
help me God and sAl saints," concluded an oath until 1550. 
OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of 
an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths 
to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a 
decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, 
the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths 
less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has 
left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients 
swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, 
for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those pei* 
sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above 
any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair.— 
Ovid, <f'C. 
OBELISK. The first mentioned in history Avas that of Rameses, king of 
Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and 
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to 
their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; 
one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the 
pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 
14 B. c. 
OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the 
temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was 
another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at 
Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was 
at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel, 
1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. a. d. 
1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers make 
their calculations. 

First modem meridional instrument, 
by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540 

■ - ~ ■ 1561 

1576 

1657 

1667 

1675 

1678 

1690 



First observatory at Cassel - 

Tyclio Bralie's, at Uranibourg - 

Astronomical tower at Copenhagen 

Royal (French) - 

Ruyal Observatory at Greenwich - 

Observatory at Nuremberg 

At Uu-echt . - - - 



Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc- 
tion .... - 171' 
At Bologna - - - - - 171'i 
At Petersburg .... 1725 
Oxtbrd, Dr. Radcliffe ■ - - 1772 
Dublin, Dr. Andrews - - • 1783 
Cambridge, England - - - 1824 
Cambridge, Mass. 

New Haven - - - - - 

Cincinnati .... 



OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, 
and the tentL in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has 
still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which 
the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered 
it to be called Fmistinus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the 
emperor; Commodus would have had it called Invictus ; and Domitian 
Doviitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 

ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions 
accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps 
the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are 
those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 
757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; 
and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes 
were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing 
is that of our court poets at this day. 

OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 
200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other 



452 THE world's progress. [ OMK 

than the universal deluge ; hut according to some writers, if it at all oc- 
curred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country. 
See Deluge. 
OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Mai-ietta, 
April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, G miles below Cincin- 
nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New 
Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature 
met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- 
necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 
1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 
1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 
1830, 937,637 ; in 1840, 1,519,467. 

OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, 
about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was 
the prize at the Panathensean games. It was the custom of the Jews to 
anoint with oil persons appointed to high oflices, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid 
seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress. 
Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be 
resolved into a combustible gas, Avas long known to chemists ; and after the 
process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- 
^tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. 

OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 

OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- 
piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Corcebus 
was successful i.i the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in 
being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- 
riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year 
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 
772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 
740, &c. 

OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- 
tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every 
fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, 
now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those 
who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun- 
trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of 
wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 
1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules ; and were revived 
by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 

OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having 
drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said 
to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- 
brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- 
four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were 
• seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed 
that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of 
the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- 
dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with naturo 
to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. 

OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the London 
circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named 
Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- 
bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous, [n New 



OPT J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



45& 



York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There wore 465 
licensed in New York in 1849. 

OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of 
the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other 
dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with 
him. A. D. 1590. — Nuuv. Did. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the 
chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1G69, the abbot Perrin ob- 
tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, 
was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in 
London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build- 
ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel 
were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres 
a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's 
Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive 
nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain 
refused to license for performance a second pavt of it, entitled " Polly." 
This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication 
with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200Z., 
whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gay. 

OPORTO. Ey nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great 
mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the 
regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See 
article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by 
lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- 
guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- 
rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. 

OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of 
Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- 
tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley. and is now one%f 
our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. 



424 



300 

280 



50 

120 

1108 

1280 



Burning lenses known at Athens at 
least - - - - B. c. 

Two of the leading principles known 
to the Platonists - - - - 

First treatise on, by Euclid, about 

The masinifying power of convex glass- 
es and concave mirrors, and the pris- 
matic colors produced by angular 
glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.n. 

Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy 

Greatly improved iDy Alhazen - 

Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- 
en by Roger Bacon about 

Spectacles (said to have been) mvented 
by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been in- 
vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 

Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, 
about - - - - - 1571 

Telescope made by Jansen (who is said 
also to have invented the micro- 
scope), about . - - - 1609 

[The same instrument constructed by 
Galileo, without using the produc- 
tion of .lansen] 

Astronomical telescope suggested by 
Kepler 1611 

Microscope, according to Huygens, in- 
venteil by Drebbel, about - - 1621 



[.Tansen and Galileo have also been 

stated to be the inventors.] 
Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621 

Law of refraction discovered by Snell- 

ius, about - - - a. d. 1624 

Reflecting telescope, .Tames Gregory - 1663 

Newton - - 1666 

Motion and velocity of light discovered 

by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 
[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 

millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained by Bartho- 

linus - - - - - 1669 

Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 

Telescopes Avith a single lens, by 

Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690 

Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 
Structure of the eye explained by Petit, 

about 1700 

Achromatic telescope constructed by 

Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 
Constructed by DoUond, most likely 

without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope, 

erected at Slough - - - - 1789 

Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807 

Ramase's reflecting telescope erected 

at Greenwich - ' - - 1820 



GPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been 
N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1538. — Nouv 
Diet. 



454 THE WOE.LD's PROGRESS. [ ORD 

ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- 
mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles 
were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what 
would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to 
mean the event that came to pass. Among- the Jews there were several 
sorts of oracles ; as firs^, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God 
spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, 
visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being- properly neither asleep nor 
awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied 
with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued 
with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; 
fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- 
ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but 
it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere ; Pardon. 

ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, 
and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- 
sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, 
and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of 
Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories 
in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey 
count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter 
and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other 
domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau 
family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau 
in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, 
landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his 
queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. 

ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio 
*■ in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 
1732. 

ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear 
to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
although they had doubtlesslj" existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- 
viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. 

ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a terra 
signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences 
by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions 
taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the 
upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence 
the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women 
accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- 
nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would 
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this 
day, or upon God only; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- 
suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- 
footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry 
burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were 
judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used 
from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- 



' Tlie water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected 
were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course of 
nature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or le^s into scalding water, whick if they 
brought out without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime. 



ORR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455 

ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III., 1261. — Lmo Diet. Ryvier's 
Padcra. 

ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and 
absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was 
to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and 
ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; 
and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- 
tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- 
culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. 

OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. 
First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1592 ; by sir Francis 
Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- 
tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, 
May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 
1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St, Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur 
Company (J, J. Astor) at New York, 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of 
the Columbia, by Aster's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813: 
occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of 
the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- 
ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole 
of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. 
McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 
1846. Population at that time about 20,000. Territorial government esta- 
blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. 

ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 
220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- 
tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The 
organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and Avas first applied 
to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellarviine. Organs were 
used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658, — Avwwnius. It 
is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis L, 815, 
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an 
organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile 
oft'; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount 
of Olives, The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 
stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes. 
The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human 
voices. 

ORGANS IN Engl.^nd. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the 
Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. 

ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark 
to Scotland in a. d. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of 
money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of 
Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm 
by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 
1689. 

ORLEANS, Siege of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, 
Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as 
its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it 
was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan 
of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege 
of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 

ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain 



456 THE world's progress. [ ov> 

the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the 
construction of the cleps)^dr£e and other horological automata. Ptolemy 
devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130. 
The planetary clock of Fin^e, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of 
De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by 
Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. 
Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has 
been greatly improved of late years. 

OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spa- 
niards, from July 1601 to September 1604, when it surrendered by an honor- 
able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized 
Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the 
allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 
the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen 
Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which they 
evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. 

OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- 
tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' 
banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for 
fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without 
any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been 
first introduced by the tyrant Hippias; by others it is ascribed to Clys- 
thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they 
most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and 
presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
written was sentenced by the council to he banished, ab aris etfocis. But 
this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- 
wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, 
Miltiades for his victories, &oc. It was abolished by ironically proscribing 
Hyperbolus, a mean person. 

OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the 
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of 
Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it 
was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Oraai, 
a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the 
district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- 
pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She 
retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by 
admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- 
zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. 

OTTERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the Enghsh under the earl 
of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- 
glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- 
tained the victoiy, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle 
the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Walsingham. 

OITOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman [. 
on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. 

OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed, the generals of 
their array whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re- 
warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being 
consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the 
honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be 
allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called 
ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capitol, 



PAl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



457 



whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius 
Tubertus v^as the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. 

OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered by 
captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden 
resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- 
ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage 
till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- 
mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook 
and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to hav^ been 
a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- 
vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though 
the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving 
the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. 

bishop of Winchester ; first called St. 
Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 

Oriel College. Kin? Edward II. ; 



COLLEGES. 

All Souls' College, founded by Henry 
Chichely, abp. of Canterbury a. d. 1437 

Baliol. John Baliol, knt., and Deborah 
his wife ; he was father to Baliol king 
of the Scots - - - -1263 

Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop 
of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 

Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; 
and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 

Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop 
of Winchester - - - - 1516 

Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- 
eter - - - - - - 1314 

Hertford College ... - 1312 

Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen 
Elizabeth - - - - - 1571 

Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 
1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop 
of Lincoln .... 1475 

Magdalen. Waynflete, bishop of Win- 
chester - - - - - 1458 

Merton (.'ollege. Walter de Merton, 
bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 

New College. William of Wykeham, 



Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 
Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. 

Whitwick, clerk - - - 162C 

Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, 
clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, 
consort of Edward III. - - -1340 

St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 

Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 1554 

University. Said to have been founded 
by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- 
liam of Durham - - -1172 
Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and 

Dorothy his wife - - - - 1612 

Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- 
ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- 
inally called Gloucester College - 1714 

HALLS. 

St. Albans .... 1547 

St. Edmund's - - - - 1269 

St. Mary's .... 1616 

St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 

New Inn Hall .... 1392 



OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical 
phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
Aug. 1774. 



PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in 
A. D. 1540. 

PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- 
tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- 
lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure 
us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- 
lief Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire, a.d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the 
reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tlllemont. 

PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. 
Os>Tnandyas (See Egijpt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting, 
2100 B. c. — Usher. "Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a 
method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 385 b. c. The ancients 
considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said 
to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — Pliny. The art waa 

20 



458 THE world's progress. [ PAl 

introduced at Rome from Etruria, by Qiiintus Fabius, who on that account 
was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy.'^ The first excellent pictures were 
brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, 
not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages; Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint« 
ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the 
Saxon historian, Avho died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived 
about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is 
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- 
erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother 
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in 
oil, 1415. — Du F'resiifly. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- 
tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which 
time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court, 

PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity 
was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting por- 
traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in 
Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist; born in 
Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster, 
Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738 ; first painted in 
1760: he was the father of lord Lyndliurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. 
Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode 
Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756). William Dunlap (New 
Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists 
in succession in the United States. See Dimlap's Arts, of Design, &c. 

PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, 
Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070". 
Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy 
of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. 

PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from 
the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived 
in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a 
brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the 
protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, 
where parliament granted them 24,000^. for their support. 3000 were sent 
to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the 
inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged 
by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss 
Protectants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 
Anne. 1709. — Anderson. 

PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- 
gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was build- 
ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the 
oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium 
was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, 
they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though 
some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that 
the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^neas, 1183 b. c, 



* Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended 
for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds 
came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and 
Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was tliu 
painting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, '• Zeuxis has deceived 
the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis !'' Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, and wore 
ft crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 b. c. — Plutarch. 



pap] dictionaky of dates. 459 

and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of 
Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. 

PALM SUNDAY. When Clirist made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, 
multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took 
branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations 
and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish 
countries, to carry palms on the Sundaj^ before Easter ; hence called Palm 
Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their 
hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga 
palviata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. 

PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English 
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiyfly 
of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than 
even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- 
ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman 
power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the 
place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the 
city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 
1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, 
on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent 
sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were 
so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed 
to touch one another. 

PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles. 

PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 
504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a, d. 1137; 
they were removed from Pisa in 141G ; and are now preserved in the library 
of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectce Plorctitince. 

PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention 
of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper 
round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. 
In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the 
first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- 
don, having adopted the name of ' Pa?io?-a7;ia,' to attract notice, and was 
ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for 
that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, 
a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent 
in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since which numerous similar works 
have been achieved. 

PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Cassar, some say by 
Agrippa his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in 
the wall, w'lere the particular image or representation of a particular god 
was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and 
the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the 
Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda. 

PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among 
the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of 
stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the 
same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- 
poraneous with our stage. 

PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170 
B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a.d. 1000; and of rags in 1319. 
White coarse paper v/as made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, 



460 THE \vorld's progress. [tab 

in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.— 
Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and au 
act parjsed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid 
for these articles to France and Holland 100.000/. annually. The French 
refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- 
clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 
1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis 
Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. 
The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinler, 
lie perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- 
turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made 
tediously by the hand, A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and 
-four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. 

PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain 
and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- 
ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved 
in this country from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been 
brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shiJ- 
lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. 

PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and 
India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c. 
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- 
gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript 
of the Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among 
the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library 
at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. 

PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), 
of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on 
the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this 
time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the 
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the 
Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long 
before Eumenes's time. 

PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward 
III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege 
suce dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, 
Stat. 27 Henry YHI., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; 
hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- 
tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king 
cannot pardon a nui*.ance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- 
vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- 
ment of the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- 
doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice 
which upsets Blackstone's tlieory. 

I'ARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 
264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a. d. 
1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university 
of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
Anmdelian Marbles, which see. 

P^RIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town^ 
ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed 
u]jou it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- 
vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it 
fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, 
when the hungry \volves entered the city and committc-d, v/e are told, great 



PAR ] DICTIONAHY OF DATES. 461 



The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis • 1594 

Hospital of Invalids - - - 1595 

The Hjtel Dieu founded - - - 1606 

The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610 

The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645 

Arch of St. Denis erected , • -1672 

The Palace of ihe Deputies - ■ 1722 

The Military School - - . 1751 

The Pantheon ; St. Genevieve - • 1764 



devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found 
under their respective heads. 

St. Denis founded - - A. d. 613 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 

The Louvre built (see Louvre) • - 1522 
Hotel de Ville - - - - 1533 

The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 

Fountain of (he Innocents - - 1551 

The Tuileries built (see Tuileries) • 1564 
The Pont Neuf begun • - -1578 

Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, 
and detached forts, with an enceinte of 15^ leagues, were commenced in Dec. 
1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding X5,000.000 ster- 
ling. See France. 

PARK, MUNGO, his Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first 
voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the 
source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after 
having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertroDi- 
cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- 
pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac- 
counts of his murder on the Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily 
however, thej^ were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. 
It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, 
and all killed, with the exception of one slave. 

PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Poni- 
pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first 
great park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, 
formed by Henry L, 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen- 
tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained 
by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare 
for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River, 
although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, 
by order of queen Caroline, consort of Gewge 11, This queen once inquired 
of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would 
cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, 
your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- 
tained. 

PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin 
from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots. ; but their constitu- 
tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken 
from parler la meiit, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's 
mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name 
was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, 
about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared 
in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d. 
1272 ; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, 
when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of 
Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- 
rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account wcj 
have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was 
in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, 
that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three 
parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's 
Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 



462 THE world's progress. [pas 

place 49 Henry III., 1265. — DugdaWs Summonses to Parliam-ent, edit. 1685. 
The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, 
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. 
It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing 
lav/s. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done 
in the i-eigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the 
religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward 
VI.. Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke. 
PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- 
centia) A. D. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth 
Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, 
with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni- 
ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon 
was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- 
bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates, England, France, 
and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, 
June 29, 1731. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon- 
ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10 000 men, and four 
generals, July 12 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the dulce of 
Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for 
reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people 
revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency; 
flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, 
March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and 
is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. 

PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not 
being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius 
having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed 
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and 
an ape, and tlius cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp 
reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus 
wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In 
France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. 

PARTHIA. The Parthians were, originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being 
exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. 
Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over 
all Asia, 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the 
world with the Romans, and could never be whoiily subdued by that nation, 
who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The 
last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were 
annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. 

PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, 
for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the 
second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke 
• Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- 
ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the 
first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the 
second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year; the third 
was between Russia, Austria and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other 
similai treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. 

PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous hbels, originated in 
this way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of 
idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and 
to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge then> selves in raillery at 
the expense of the passers-by. A fter the cobbler's death in the sixteenth 



* A f\^ 

p^^-i DICTIONARY OF DATES. 

century, the statue of a Sla^-t- was fo^.nd nea J^^^^^^^ 
pie gave his name, and on which *« "''^ «' "'<j™.'=;\i^bors, secretly at 
fcl nSiri:^a^a wXt Sa? S, n-ont this ohtaine. the 
name of Pasquinades, about a. d. Ioo6. comraem- 

PASSOVER. A solenm festival of tl^eJe^jS^.^^^^^^^^^^ ,^, 

oration of their coming out of Egypt because inc ^ ^^^^ ^ 

parture,thedestx^ymgan^^^^^^^^ them they 

tians, passed '^^'^\^}'^.^l''?^^^^^^ that was killed the evenmg before, 

being marked with the blood ot ^jie lamu uua celebrated in 

and which for this reason is called the Paschal LamD. 
the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c.-Usker. 

PATAY, BATT.E OP, in -^^^^^^^^I'^^'^^J^, L: 10 1429 TalbotVas 
Maid of Orleans) fSr^^^^y.^^^f^li^^^l^^^ In consequence 

taken prisoner, a?,^ '^f ^ o?Fr Jnce en^^^^^ ^^^ ''%'. 

of this victory, Charles of France en eiedKie^m^ ceremony in full 

crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Aic assistin m 

armor, and holding the sword of state. S^^/^^/^^;'- p^,^^,, ,,^ted 
PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the kin|- ^^ate^ J ^^,^^^ 
^""far titles of nobility, were first n^^^t^;^°of mlnthl<^ bX in 1591, about • 

PA^s^s;?!::^^^^^ 

among the Jews is referred to the time ot ^^eiva, a^d. ^ Constanti- 

a church on this spot, built by ^^y.^J'if, nidations for his own design. He 
was confirmed when he searched foi the f-^™^ The first church 

explodes the notion of there having been a temp^^^^^^ persecution, and. 

is supposed to ha^ve been destroyed ^^^ " |^^^^^^^^T^ f^^^^ by 

to have been rebuilt m th^^^L^f^^fgS in^ol' It was destroyed by the 
the pagan Saxoiis, ^?^\^'^f ^^^/J^^ then bishop of London 

great conflagration ^^ W86 aftei whicn Mam p.-eceded the present 

:;ii,t:rorp;:^e1 frn%ir untrthl mSous avcMtect si,. ChHsto- 

pher Wren. . «, Peter's, Rome - 669 feet. 

Length ofSt. Paul's, within - gf ^«H {tf^tt/st iiS^vW^ • -442 - 

li^esrrsxf Sound • - : 340 ^ ««*=^^^ ^^''^^^^ 7^^^ '^^ ,,;, ^Ld 

PAVEMENT. The Cavthaginians are sa^^^^^^^^^ S^gustus tad "^t 

their towns with stones The ^^^^^^^1^^^^^^^^^^^^ a%aved road, and 

rirns-SSe^/r^flniJ^S^i^i^ 
«T;^e"n^-'4Snee^tT83T%«;f rstentally disu'sed in 1847. 



464 THE WOP^LD's progress. f PEL 

and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender 
himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of 
the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived 
in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdtc, madame, fors 
Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian 
soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. 

PAWNBKOKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- 
posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about 
A. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers 
was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 
1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively 
of London, 1127. 

PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- 
dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and 
absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 
SO.OOOZ. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size 
of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996Z. A pearl 
spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal 
to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of 
Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 
110,400Z. 

PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz 
Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first 
peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
Richard II.. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by 
Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
Kinsale, &.C., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by 
Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — 

At the death of Charless II. • 176 peers. I At the death of George III. - 339 peers. 

At the death of William III. - 192 \ At the death of George IV. - 396 

At the death of Anne - - 209 I At tlie death of William IV. • 456 

At the death of George I. - 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 

At the death of George II. • 229 I 

PELAGIANS. A sect foimded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect 
maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of 
Adams sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are 
in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified 
men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with 
the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in 
virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at 
Rome, and in Carthage about 412. 

PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. 
The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil- 
son, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after 
of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over 
his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war Avhich continued for twenty- 
seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, 
with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting 
of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It 
ticgan 431 b. c, and ended 404 b, c. 



PER ] DJCCTIONARY OF DATES. 465 

PENAL LAWS, ArFBcxiN^ ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against 
Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the 
period of passing the Emancipation Bill manj^ of them remained unre- 
pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the 
Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. 

PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted 
in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession 
upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of 
penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced 
into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- 
judged to the sin of fornication. 

PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the 
younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this 
discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.— 
Dufresnoy. 

PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- 
ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Mar- 
seille's, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- 
gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious hfe, formed about 
1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 
1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William 
Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes 
and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres 
sold by Penn for i;400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. 
The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the 
legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors i;130,000 in lieu of quit- 
rents. Battles of Brandy wine and Germantown, and other important ac- 
tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal 
Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental 
Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 t-o 1800, 
when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000; 
1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1 724,033. 

PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- 
holsterer. A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the 
undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's 
Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke 
of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to 
the revenue of the crown.— Ddatme, 1690. This institution was considera- 
bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two- 
. penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- 
office. 

PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and 
in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty 
days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast 
of ^\ee\^s,- Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the 
PassOver. 

PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to 
the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses 
and perfumes. No such tradr as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763, 
—Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- 
gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- 
ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- 



tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 



20* 



466 THE world's progress, [ PER 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about 
342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- 
totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same 
river, where there were trees and shades: this spot was denominated the 
Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- 
sophy was called Peripatetic. 

PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early 
Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the 
Tarpeian precipice; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- 
sition that the gods Avould vindicate their own honor by some remarkable 
judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon 
them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely 
upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the 
primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance; and in some states the 
false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. 

PERONNE, Treaty of. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the 
power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, Avith some other stipulations of a re- 
strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. 

PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon 
ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium 
of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, 
massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn 
and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, 
A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- 
jan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor 
Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Decius, 
more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their 
habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 
8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The lOfch. under 
Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with 
Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. 

PERSECUTIONS of the JEWS. See articles Jeivs and Massacres. 

PERSECUTION of the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude 
of Luther's followers Avere massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525. — 
Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La- 
timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great 
numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner^ s Eccles. Hist. Of the 
Protestants in France, when numbers perished ; their assemblies Avere pro- 
hibitefl, their places of AA^orship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys , 
proclaimed against all AA'ho harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- 
testants at Thorn, AA^ien great numbers Avere put to death under pretence of 
their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724, 
See Massacres and Bartholomeio. 

PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire 
Avas originally called Elam, and receiA^ed the appellation of Persia from Per- 
seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, a^jJio settled here, and perhaps 
established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it Avas subject 
to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian 
monarchy ; and Avhen that empire Avas dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it 
appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from 
the Greeks, and was. tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when 



PET 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



467 



Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian 
monarchy, a. d. 229. 



Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of 
the Magi. — lustin - b. c. 2115 

Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- 
nerally confounded with the king of 
Bactria. — Zanthus - - - 1082 

Cyrus, king of Persia - • • 560 

Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548 
Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 
Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see) 525 
Darius made king of Pej'sia - - 522 

Revolt of the Babylonians - - - 512 

Conquest of Ionia; Miletus destroyed - 498 
Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with 
an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade 
the Peloponnesus 
The troops advance towards Athens, but 
are met in the plains of Marathon, by 
Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- 
nians. — See Marathon 
Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of 
this year, at the head of an immense 
force. The battle of Thermopylae - 
Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 
200,000 of his troops, and is defeated 
in a naval engagement off Salamis - 
Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 
250 vessels, takes several cities from 
the Persians, and destroys their navy, 
consisting of 340 sail, near the island 
of Cyprus 
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- 
ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 

The assassin is put to death in a horrible 
manner . - - - - 

leign of Artaxerxes 
Oyprus taken from the Persians 
Hemorable retreat of the Greeks. See 
article Retreat • - - - 



- 490 



490 



480 



480 



- 470 

465 

465 
464 
449 



401 



The sea-fight near Cnidus 

The Sidonians being besieged by the 
Persians, set fire to their city, and pi 
in the flames 

Alexander the Great enters Asia; first 
battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra- 
nicus 

[For the exploits of Alexander in Per- 
sia, see the article Mocedon.] 

Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is 
torn in pieces - - - - 

Alexander Ibunds the third or Grecian 
monarchy .... 

Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, 
at the instance of his mistress Thais, 
sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 

[The riches of this town, whose ruins, 
even as they exist at this day, are of 
indescribable magnificence, were so 
immense that 20,000 mules and 5000 
horses were laden with the spoils.] 

Persia was partly reconquered from the 
Greeks, and remained tributary to 
Parthia for near five hundred years, 
till about - - - A. D. 

Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a 
common soldier, restores to Persia its 
ancient title . . - - 

Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 

He is assassinated 

Hormisdas reigns - - - - 

P».eign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel 
and successful tyrant - 

Persia was conquered by the Saracens 

It fell under the dominion of Tamer- 
lane, by the defeat of Bajazet 

Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan 

He carried the Persian arms into India, 
which he ravaged. See India 



■ 394 



rish 
351 



- 334 

331 
331 

330 



25C 



229 
233 
273 
273 

310 
651 

1402 
1732 



- 1738 



In ' m, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- 
pete ors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughter 
and iesolation till 1794, when Mahomed Kban became sole monarch. 

PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- 
niard '., whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest 
of th.vs country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1580, and others, 
with ^.ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, 
which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three 
small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with these, and two re- 
inforce aents of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid 
the foLidation of that vast power which the Si^aniards enjoy in the New 
World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the 




Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 

21, ]828. 

PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at 
Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, 
because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on 
all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they 
paid one penny. It was confirmed by Oflta, 7-77, arid was afterwards claimed 



468 THE world's progress, [ PHA 

by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected^ till sup- 
pressed by Henry VIIL — Camden. 
PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- 
wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, 
and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- 
posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark 
of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of tha 
many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage 
habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, 
at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented hjm as an instance of the hy- 
pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 

PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About 
the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- 
nificent pile, which Avas not completed under numerous succeeding popes, 
until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, 
and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious 
hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St. 

PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched 
wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick; 
and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a 
house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial 
city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels 
were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. 
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- 
sumed 11,000 houses ; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were- destroyed. 
The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. 

PETERSBURGH, Peace op, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring 
all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh, 
for the partition of Poland, (see article Partitio7i Treaties,') Aug. 5, 1772. 
Treaty or Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. 
Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince 
royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join 
in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive 
Norway, March 24, 1812. 

PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- 
teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- 
mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject 
of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned 
with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at 
Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 

PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx 
consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears 
crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called 
the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c. 

PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- 
brew word which signifies -to separate or set apart, because they pretended 
to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The 
admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri- 
tual pride, and to recommend the. virtue 6f humility. — Luke xviii, 9. 



fHl ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469 

PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and 
esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white 
marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires 
were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this 
.ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100/. English, if 
Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon 

it " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but . 

Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote 
the above inscription.' When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's 
name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible; — 
" Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours; for 
ihe benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. 
PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Caesar and Pompey, in which the for- 
mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its 
consequences. Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200. 
Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his 
army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After 
this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- 
der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on 
the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that 
way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. 
PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo- 
#^v ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay 
in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view 
to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- 
sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at 
Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 
4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken 
by the British, Sept. 26, 1777 ; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- 
tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a 
constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. 
Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established 
here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. 
Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42^000; in 1810, 96 664; in 1830, 
167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423. 
PHILIPPI, Battle of, between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side, 
and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former 
obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who 
commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care 
of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him 
through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- 
ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself 
surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and 
soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b.c. 
— Bossuet. 
PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- 
mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the 
second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which 
latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c. 
PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- 
pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- 
ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. 
PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition t.) his- 
tory, which is only the Knowledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the 



470 THE world's progress. [ PHf 

knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which 
natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of 
philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. 
See Moral Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their 
schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has 
undergone four great changes: — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and 
superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason 
and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- 
nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa- 
tion taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &-c. The world, at present, are divided 
between the two last. 
PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a poAvder, which 
some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all 
imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- 
ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- 
petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have 
cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a loii-g time, 
without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in 
relation to this subject, see Alcheviy. 

PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured 
it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from 
bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 
1670, and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos- 
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- 
lier; the distinction was first pointedi out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's- 
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768, Protophosphurated hy- 
drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812, 

PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod- 
ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803, See Craniology. Dr, Spurzheim 
improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- 
nological Society has been established in London. 

PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- 
tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed 
to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- 
ting, — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen 
a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which 
he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. 
— Hygimis. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; " and 
the priests," says Cabanus, " soon seized upon the province of medicine, 
and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands 
of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it 
from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the 
formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- 
cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine 
and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 
131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery 
of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new 
system of phj-siological and pathological speculation, 1628. 

PHYSICS, Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching 
from an atom to God himself It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of 
the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and 
efi:ects. Mr, Locke would include God. angels, and spirits, under this term. 
The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi and Hebrew and 
Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- 
larly Thales, Avho first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 



PIG j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



471 



B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic 
schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. 
PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- 
sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy 
or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of 
the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it 
is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- 
ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. 
Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see. 
PHYSIOGNOMY This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are 
discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is 
referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a 
fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the 
last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. 
Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck 
with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at 
which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. 
PIANO-FORTE. Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- 
ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, 
G Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano- fortes 
with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- 
strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by 
Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were 
• made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since 

greatly improved by others here. 
PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU^S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable 
conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau 
arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- 
fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 
6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- 
ticle Georges, &c. 
PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by 
Jonuemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
of France, who was at the time in feeble health, l^^dQ.—Mezerai. See ar- 
ticle Cards. 
PICTS A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about 
the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebud^, or Western Isles. 
They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands 
and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d^ 
838 to 843 the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized 
all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-iyne. 
PICTURES Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the 
Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his _ pictures was 
purchase! by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740b. c. 
See Painting. 
^IGEON The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use The 
ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when 
they took a long iourney, and were desirous of sending back any news with 
imcommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they tbought 
nroper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- 
ters fastened to its neck: the bird, once released, would never cease its 
fliffht till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenesannoimced to 
his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at A^gmd, a 



472 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ PIT 

pigeon stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded b;; 
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted 
were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and 
Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- 
don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them 
arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the 
remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. 

PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, 
but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many 
licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 
7 Henry VI., 1428. 

PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- 
mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, 
that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with 
them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- 
victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put 
through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded 
with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- 
gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, 
by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and 
putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, 
in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 
1837. 

PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins arc first mentioned in the sta- 
tutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France 
in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- 
bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and 
skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — 
Stowe. 

PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated tovver, likewise called Campanile, 
on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, 
stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of 
white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with 
a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side 
from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 
188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have 
been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the 
architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another 
cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that 
side. 

PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the 
saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, 
&,c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 
1544. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by 
Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the 
ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or 
rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the 
Botinty. 

PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states- 
man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which see), Dec. 
27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right 
honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died 



PLA } 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



473 



Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still 
loftier pretensions : and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a 
IsLT^e portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- 
nor by parliament, and a grant of ^£40,000 to pay his debts. 

PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called 
Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name 
was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- 
ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also 
been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in 
A. D. 142. 

PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying 
locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the 
world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible 
that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b, c. — Ba- 
ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred 
thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it 
spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. 
Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 
2000 persons every day, 188 b. c. Pliny. 



At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- 
sons perish daily, a. d. 78. 

The same fatal disease again ravaged the 
Roman empire, a. d. 167. 

In Britam, a plague raged so formidably, 
and swept away such multitudes, that the 
living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 
dead, a.d. 430. 

A dreadful one began in Europe in 568, ex- 
tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is 
said did not cease for many years. Univ. 
Hist. 

At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- 
habitants perished, a. d. 746. 

[This plague raged for three years, and was 
equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and 
Greece.] 

At Chichester in England, an epidemical 
disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — 
Will. Malms. 

In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a 
pestilence, a. d. 954. 

In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ; 
and in Ireland, 1095. 

Again in London : it extended to cattle, 
fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. 
—Holings. 

In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry 
II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. 

Again in Ireland, when a prodigious numlier 
perished, 1204. 

A general plague raged throughout Europe, 
causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- 
tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In 
London alone, 200 persons were buried 
daily in the Charterhouse yard. 

In Paris and London a dreadful mortality 
prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- 
land, in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland, called the 
fourth, destroyed a great number of the 
people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- 
lence in London, 1407. 

Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- 
ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub- 
lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. 



An awful pestilence at Oxford, 147! ; and 
throughout England a plague which de- 
stroyed more people than the continual 
wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478, 
— Rapin; Salmon. 

The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating 
sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — 
Delnune. 

The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- 
ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 
1500.— -S-^oz^e. 

Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in 
three hours). In most of the capital 
towns in England half the inhabitants 
died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 II. 
VIII., \b\7.—Stowe. 

Limerick was visited by a plague, when 
many thousands perished, 1522. 

A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and 
the English Sweat, 1528; and a pestilence 
in Dublin, 1575. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in 
London alone, 1603-1604. It was also 
fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- 
tinople, in 1611. 

In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 
35,417 persons perished, 1625. 

In France, a general mortality; at Lyons 
60,000 persons died, 1632. 

The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- 
ples (being introduced by a transport with 
soldiers on board), raged with such vio- 
lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- 
ants in six months, 1656. 

Memorable plague which carried off 68,59(6 
persons in London, 1665. 

[Fires were kept up night and day to purify 
the air for three days ; and it is thought 
the infection was not totally destroyed till 
the great conflagration of 1666.] 

60,000 persons persons perished of the 
plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, 
brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. 

One of the most awful plagues that ever 
ra^ed, preva;iled in Syria, 1760. — Abbi 
Mariti 



474 THE world's progress. [ PLA 



bers were earned off by a pestilent dis« 
ease in 1804 and 1805. 

Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much 
resembling the plague, caused great mor- 
tality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832> 
1834, 1849. 



PLAGUE, contimued. 

In Pei-sia, a fatal pestilence, which earned 

off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 

1773. 
In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died 

of plague, 1792. 
In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 

247,000 perished, 1799. 
In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- 

PLAGUES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although 
he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display 
of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated the 
plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen- 
ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red 
Sea. — Usher, Blair ^ Lenglet. 

PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry 
II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {jvkich see), 1485. Anti- 
quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the 
best derivation they can find for it is, that Fuik, the first earl of Anjou, of 
that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- 
grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement ; where being scourged with 
broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or 
Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity, 

PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- 
ing likenesses by its use was first discovered bj" Andrea Verrochio, about 
A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, 
whence it obtained its name, 

PLAT^A, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of 
Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian 
army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their 
lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few 
men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen 
Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The 
plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau- 
sanias received a tenth of all- the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor 
during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their 
respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same 
da)'' as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c; and by it Greece was totally deliver- 
ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account 
of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia 
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. 

PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely 
traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in 
public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. Tlie celebrated Plate Act 
passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty 
upon plate passed in 1784. 

PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and 
gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from 
the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery 
color. It was tmknovvn in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio 
LTlloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — 
Greig. 

PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle of; 14,000 British 
troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet 
on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. 



1»0E ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 475 

PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece 
and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 b. c. ; 
but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The 
Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a 
proper head or captain, wlierein the utmost dexterity was practised. The 
plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 
20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went 
with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The 
plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. 
The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their 
ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays 
were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company 
of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, 
and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, m 
1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See 
Drama. 
PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- 
French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued un- 
til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to 
DC taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the 
courts of law till 1731. 
POET LAUREAT. Seldcn could not trace the precise origin of this office. 
The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 
1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- 
lings were his annual stipend.— Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on 
his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth 
year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 
marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles 
I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary 
Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 

NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OF Q,UEEN ELIZABETH. 

Nahum Tate, died - - A. d. 1716 

The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 

CoUey Cibber, died - - - - 1757 

William Whitehead, died - - 1785 

Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 
Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813 

Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 
William Wordsworth, died - - 1850 

The present laureate is Tennyson. 
POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest 
species of refined literature. It w^as the first fixed form of language, and 
the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, 
and before painting in description.— J/a^rZii^i^. The exact period of the in- 
vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptm-al history, the song of Moses on 
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, 
is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- 
lime.— S'.wt^ws XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed 
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 
B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished 
sihowi 907 B. c— Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by 
Archilochus, 700 b. c.—Dio Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are 
told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to 
England by Aldhelme, or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of 
the seventh century. 



Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, 

who died - - - A. d. 1.598 

Samuel Daniel, died - - - 1619 

Ben .Jonson, died - - - 1637 

Sir William Davenant, died - - 1668 

John Dry den ; lie was deposed at the 

revolution ... - 1688 

Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 



476 



THE world's progress. 



\l>OL 



POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy f&r poisoning 
their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A I'eraale slave 
denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maxim us, v/ho ordered them to be pub- 
licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this Avas the lirst public knowledge 
. they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re- 
markable instances) 23 Henry VIIL 1532. See article Boiling to Death. 

POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John 
king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of 
France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. 
The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through 
which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings, 
prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- 
rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, 
Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. 

POLAND, Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to 
invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550; 
and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the 
emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- 
ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its 
political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king 
formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- 
tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 
1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. 



842 



992 
1059 



Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- 
cal dignity - - - a. d. 
[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his 
reign was so prosperous that every 
succeeding native sovereign was call- 
ed a Piast.] 
Introduction of Christianity 
Red Russia added to Poland 
Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of 
Cracow with his own hands ; his 
kingdom laid under an interdict by 
the pope, and his subjects absolved 
of their allegiance - - -1080 
He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is 
refused it by order of Gregory VII., 
and he at length kills himself - 1081 
TJladislaus deposed - - - 1102 
Premislaus assassinated - - - 1295 
Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 
War against the Teutonic knights - 14.47 
The Wallachians ti-eacherously carrv 
off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to 
the Turks as sla'ves - - - 1498 
Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 
Stephen forms a militia composed of 
Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom 
he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 



Abdication of .Tohn Casimir - -1669 

Massacre of the Pi'otestants at Thorn • 1724 
Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 
He abolishes torture - - - 1770 

An awful pestilence sweeps away 

250,000 of the people - - -1770 

The evils of civil war so weaken the 
kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the 
royal plunderers, the empi'ess of 
Russia, emperor of Austria, and king 
of Prussia - - - -1772 

The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 

The public partition treaty Aug. 6, 1772 
A new constitution is formed by the 

virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791 

[The royal and imperial spoliators, on 
various pretexts, pour their armies 
into Poland, 1792, et seq.] 
The brave Poles, under Poniatowski 
and Kosciusko, several times contend 
successfully against superior armies, 
but in the end are defeated. Kosci- 
usko, wounded and taken, is carried 
prisoner to Russia - - - 1794 

Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 
Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 

[Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- 



* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- 
viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; but in per- 
mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and 
Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia ; yet they now conspired against a 
country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became l<^agued in a 
scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives! Russia seized Lithuania, 
and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most ferule of the 
provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ; and Prussia secured the maritime .listricts. 
The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affair was the total inaction of the two great 
powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policy 
as well as justice, and deplored by the food and brave among mankind. — Haydn. 



i»OL 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



477 



PO'' ND, continued. 

ersi 30,000 Poles of all ages and condi- 
tions in cold blood.] 
Courland is annexed to Russia- - 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- 
tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 
Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, 

Feb. 12, 1798 
Treaty of Tilsit (lohich see) - July 7, 1807 
[The central provinces form the duchy 
of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] 
General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 

New constitution - - Nov. 1815 

Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 

Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; 
the army declare in favor of the peo- 
ple - - - Nov. 29, 1830 
The Diet declares the throne of Poland 

vacant - - - .Ian. 25, 1831 

Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the 



Russians lose 7000 men ; the Poles, 
who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20. 1831 
Battle of Ostrolenka ; signal defeat of 

the Russians - - May 26, 1831 

The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831 
Grand Duke Constantine dies. June 27, ISil 
Battle of Winsk (see Wmsk) July 14, 1831 
Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1331 
[This last Iktal event terminated the 
nemorable and glorious, but unfor- - 
lunate struggle ot the Poles.] 
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, 
decreeing that the kingdom of Poland 
shall henceforth form an integral part 
of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 

A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march 

on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 
Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and 
the treaty which had made it inde- 
pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 
Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 



DCKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 



/ 0. 550 

700 



1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- 
sassinated. 

1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus ; 
he refused the title of king ; deposed. 

1.300 Winceslaus. 

1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 

1-333 Casimir the Great, killed by a fall 
from his horse, while hunting. 

1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by 
his daughter, 

1383 Hedwigis, who married, in 

1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- 
braced the Christian religion, and 
took the name of 
Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to 
Poland. 

1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 

1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 

1447 Casimir IV. 

1492 John Albert. 

1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 

1507 Sigismund I. 

1548 Sigismund 11., Augustus, chose 

1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue 
ceeding to the French throne. 

1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- 
vania. 

1.5S7 Sigismund III., son to the king of 
Sweden. 

1632 Uladislaus VII. 

1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 

1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 

1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter- 
regnum for a year. 

1698 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re- 
sign. 

1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re- 
tire in 1710. 

1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 

1733 Stanislaus I., again. 

1733 Frederick Augustus III. 

1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crowu. 

So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men 
when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. 



750 
760 



810 

815 

830 

8i2 

861 

892 

913 

964 

999 

1G25 

1041 

1058 

i0S2 

".1:02 

'..40 

11^6 

1173 

1178 

1194 

1200 



1203 
1206 



1^8 
1279 



Lechus I. His posterity held the 
dukedom for about 150 years. 

Cracus I. 

Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. 

Lechus II., deposed. 

Venda, drowned herself 

Premislaus. who on being elected was 
named Lescus or Less. 

Lescus II., killed by the French. 

Lescus III. 

Popiel I. 

Popiel II. 

Piastus, a country peasant. 

Zemovitus. 

Lescus IV. 

Zemomislaus. 

Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. 

Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 

Miecislaus II., went mad. 

Casimir the Pacific. 

Boleslaus II., killed himself 

Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus. 

Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 

Uladislaus II., fled. 

Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 

Miecislaus III., deposed. 

Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 

Lescus v., relinquished. 

Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a 
few months restored Lescus V. ; but 
for bad conduct he was again forced 
to relinquish the government. 

Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired. 

Lescus v., a third time, being chosen 
by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- 
ceeded by his son, an infant. 

Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 

Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son 
of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 
died 1289. An interregnum of five 
years, when the Poles chose 



fOLAR 
lage 



REGIONS. For voj'-ages of discovery to the, see North-west Pas- 



478 THE world's progress. [pom 

POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Polo causes it ne- 
ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the 
seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese 
to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned 
and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 

POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- 
riods. Its jurisdiction! Avas extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 
1610 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The 
London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The 
London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by statute, 
June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1810, in introducing a 
suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but 
we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the 
world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and 
useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but 
preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A 
science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. 
Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth 
of Nations. 1776. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or 
the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- 
ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — 
Henault. 

POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- 
bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tijler), 1381. It was 
again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed 
by the head, viz. — a duke 100/., a maniuis 80/., a baronet 30Z., a knight 20Z., 
an esquire 10/., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous 
impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. 

POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. 
It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and 
Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the fiist who 
took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- 
dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles Y. punished this offence Avith death. 
In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- 
fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See 
Marriages. Polygamy forms an article of the Mormon Creed. 

POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Gieek words denoting " many lan- 
guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible 
termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 : 
the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- 
])ies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483/. 
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printea 
at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- 
ris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by 
Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunei. 

POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished 
by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed 
up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the 
night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- 
ed at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles were 



POP ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES- 



479 



.- exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding 
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning 
up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- 
ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- 
tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. 
Diflferent monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried 
city ; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. 

FONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by 
the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and 
was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in 
January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- 
tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. 

PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a 
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- 
tus Euxinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus by Darius 
Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of 
the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. 



Art.-ibazes made king of Pontus by Da- 



487 
383 
363 
336 
301 
266 



252 



- 219 



rius Hystaspes 

Reign of Mithridates I. - - - 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 

Mithridates II. recovers it - - - 

Mithridates III. reigns - 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 

Mithridates lY. is besieged in his capi- 
tal by the Gauls, &c. - 

Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- 
tack upon the free city of Sinope, and 
IS obliged to raise the siege by the 
Rhodians 

Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, 
and makes it the capital of his king- 
dom - - - - - 183 

Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 

He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 

Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or 
Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 
years of age - - - 123 

Marries Laodice, his own siste/ - - 115 

She attempts to poison him; he puts 
her and lier accomplices to death 

Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ; 
conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- 
chis, and otlier countries 

He enters Cappadocia 

His war with Rome 



- 112 



Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. 

Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes 
himself master of many Roman pro- 
vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to 
death ----- 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Clisero- 
nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates 
up to this time - - - . 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un- 
der Luculius, in two battles 

Mithridates defeated by LucuUus 

Mithridates defeats Fabius - 

But is defeated by Pompey 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies 

Reign of Pharnaces 

Battde of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces 
defeated by Csesar 

Darius reigns - - - - 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 

Polemon II. succeeds his father - a. d. 

Mithridates VII. reigns 

Pontus afterwards became a Roman 
province, under the emperors. 

Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire 
of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this 
country, A. u. 1204, which continued 
till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 



Sf 



8L 

86 

74 

73 
69 
68 
66 
63 
63 

47 
39 
36 
33 
40 



POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as 
the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By 
an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the poor were to 
be sustained by '• parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. 
impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no 
compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of 
the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. 



£188,811 

665,562 

819,000 
1,556,804 
2,184,950 
4,952,421 

POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy- 
genus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phocas, emperor of the 



In 1580, the Poor Rates were 
1680, they amounted to 
1698, they amounted to - 
17G0, they amounted to 
1785, they amounted to 
1802, they amounted to 



In 1815, the Poor Rates were 
1820, they amounted to 
1830, they amounted to 
1835, they amounted to 
1840, they amounted to 
1845, they amounted to 



JE5,418,845 
7,329,594 
8,111,422 
6,356,345 
6,468.699 
5,54.3,650 



480 



THE world's progress. 



[pop 



East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho- 
cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The 
custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign 
act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined 
with his name, 780. , Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, 
on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John 
XIT. or XIII. See Names. John XVIIL, a layman, was made pope 1024. The 
first pope who kept an armj'^ was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 
lY., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- 
footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority 
was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the 
pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Vine?-'s Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- 
land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and 
also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown 
off" his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- 
ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of 
England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, 
for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by 
parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. — 
Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books, 1541. 
The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other 
ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- 
titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in effigy 
at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was 
expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died at Valence, 
August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was 
dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- 
leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected 
June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry. 
May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 
16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and 
grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace 
for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 
24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed 
Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See 
Italy ; Rome; Reformation, <^c. 



POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 



A,» 



1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for 
crime led to the reformation. 

1522 Adrian VI. 

i523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. 
of England. 

1534 Paul III. 

1550 .lulius III. 

1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 days. 

1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haushty. 

15.59 Pius IV. 

1566 Pius V. 

1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- 
formed the Calendar, (which see). 

1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 

1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 

1590 Gregory XIV. 



I 1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months. 
1592 Clement VIII. ; leai'ned and just. 
1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 
1605 Paul V. 

162 L Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 
1623 Urban VIII. 

1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 
1655 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned. 
1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 
1670 Clement X. 

1676 Innocent XI. ; reformed abuses. 
1689 Alexander Vlll. 
1691 Innocent XII. : abolished nepotism. 
1700 Clement XI. 

1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontifF of 
his family. 



• " When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle 
Of Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the 
reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into 
the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. Hi? 
arrogance was such, that ne obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold 
his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeaie. 
He waa elected to the popedom in 1154. 



pop] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



481 



POPES, continued. 

1724 Benedict XIU. 
1730 Clement XII. ; 
1740 Benedict XIV. 

1768 Clement XIII. 

1769 Clement XIV. 



reformed abuses. 
; wise and pious. 



1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Vea 
ice, as Pius VII., March 13. 

1823 Annibal della Genga,Leo XII., Sept.28. 

1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVI.,Feb.2. 

1846 Mastai FeiTetti, Pius IX., inaugurate*! 
June 21, aged 54. - - June 16. 

Views, from page 



Ganganelli. 
1775 Pius VI., February 14. 

For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular 

50 to page 115. 

POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, 
named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda, 
and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit. 
On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being 
very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan- 
dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was -epeated 
and believed without offence." — Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to 
assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have 
affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and 
others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three 
particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- 
pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason 
as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the 
scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — 
Rapin. 

POPULATION. The population of the woi'ld may now, according to the best 
and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c., be 
stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to 
contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions ; America, 75 
millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 
1377 was 2.092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483, it 
had increased to 4,689,000. The following tables of the population of the 
United Kingdom are from official returns : — 

POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOB ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 



Year 1700 


Population 5.475,000 


Year 1770 


Population 


7,428,000 


1710 . 


ditto 5,240,000 


1780 - - - "ditto 


7,953.000 


1720 - 


- - ditto 5,565,000 


1790 - . - ditto 


8,675,000 


1730 - 


- ditto 5,796,000 


1801 - • . ditto 


10,942,646 


1740 


- - ditto 6,064.000 


1821 - . - ditto 


14,391,631 


1750 - 


ditto 6,467;000 


1841 - . - ditto 


18,844,434 


1760 - 


- - ditto 6,736,000 








POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 




Year 1790 


Population 3,929.827 


Year 1830 Population 12.866,920 


1800 - 


ditto 5,305;925 


1840 - - - ditto 


17,063,353 


1810 - 


- - ditto 7,239,814 


[See the several States.] 


1820 - 


ditto 9,638,131 






PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OP THE WORLD. 


Chinese empire 




Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 


Holland - - - 


5,100,000 


{Balbi) - 


180,000,000 


United States of 


Dutch monarchy 




Russia - - - 


58,500,000 


America* • 17,063,000 


{total) ■ 


14,750,000 


Russian empire - 


72,000,000 


Turkey - - - 12,000,000 


Bavaria - - - 


4,600.000 


France 


36,500,000 


Ottoman empire 


Sweden and Nor- 




Austria - - - 


34,599,000 


{total) - - 24,500,000 


way - 


4,550,000 


Great Britain and 




Persia - - - 11,800,000 


Belgium- - - 


4,50(3,000 


Ireland - 


27,000,000 


Mexico - - 9,500,000 


Poland 


4,250,000 


British empire - 


158,000,000 


Kingdom of the 


Portugal - - 


3,950,000 


Japan - - - 


27,000,000 


two Sicilies- - 8,750,000 


Republic of Co- 




Spain - 


17,500,000 


Brazil- - - 6,250,000 


lumbia - 


3,350,000 


Sjianish empire 




Sardinia- - - 5,800,000 


Eccles. States- - 


2,970,000 


{total) - - - 


19,500,000 


Morocco - - 5,200,000 


British America - 


2,950,000 




' In 1840, 


In 1850, estimz 
21 


itedat22,000,OC 


K). 





482 


THE 


WORLD'S PROGRESS. 




POPULATION, continued. 








Switzerland 


2,450,000 


St. Petersburg!! • 


405,000 


Hamburgh • - 


Denmark - - 


2,400,000 


Vienna - - - 


395,000 


Lyons 


Hanover 


1,780,000 


New York (1845) 


37LO0O 


Palermo - - - 


Wirtemberg - - 


1,680,000 


Moscow 


355.000 


Marseilles - 


Saxony 


1,650,000 


Grand Cairo - - 


3-35,000 


Copenhagen - - 


Tuscany - - - 


1,550,000 


lisbon 


298.000 


Turin - 


Baden 


1,400,000 


Aleppo • 


280;000 


Seville - - - 


CITIES, 




Berlin - 


280,000 


Warsaw 


Cities. 


Inhab. 


Amsterdam - - 


274,000 


Tunis - - - 


London {Parlia- 




Madrid 


270,000 


Baltimore (1848) 


vientary Ret.) 


1,776,556 


Philadelphia (1848) 


258,000 


Prague 


Jeddo {reputed) - 


1,680,000 


Bordeaux - - 


247,000 


Smyrna - - • 


Pekin (reputed) 


1,600,000 


Bagdad 


245,000 


Brussels 


Paris - 


1,000,000 


Mexico • - - 


£25,000 


Florence - - 


Nankin - - - 


850,000 


Rome - 


S24,000 


Stockholm - 


Constantinople - 


800,000 


Rio Janeiro • - 


200,000 


Munich - - - 


Calcutta 


710,000 


Milan - 


193,000 


Dresden 


Madras - • • 


435,000 


.Barcelona - - 


183,000 


Boston (1845) - - 


Naples 


410,000 






Frankfort - 



[ POU 



172,000 
168,00(! 
147,000 
146,000 
145,000 
143,000 
142,000 
141,000 
138,000 
134,000 
133,000 
132,000 
! 30,000 
1;>2,000 
1^1,000 
113,000 
114.000 
114;000 
110,000 

PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annSes, it being- 
formerly believed that tlie materials of porcelain were matured under 
ground 100 years. It is not known who hrst discovered the art of making 
porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried 
on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here ?till the finest 
porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after 
which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain.^ and Dresden 
China. 

PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth ; burnt by 
the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3 677 ; in 1820, 8.581 ; in 1840. 

15,082. 

PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken 
from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 
1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, 
and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the 
rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke 
of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when 
Cosmo 11. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by 
the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residsnce of 
Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. 

PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most 
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses 
were established in the reign of Henry VIII. 

PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, 
the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman 
arras about 250 b. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall 
of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 713. They kept 
pofsession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, 
assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone 
most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of 
Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- 
tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, 
which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093. 



Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths 
here - - - - a. D. 

Invasion by the Saracens 

The kings of Asturias subdue some 
Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos IIL 
establishes episcopal sees 



472 
713 



900 



Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish 
kings, and is proclaimed king by his 
army ... - - 1139 

Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their 
way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- 
bon from the Moors - - - 1147 



FOR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



483 



rORTFJGAL, continued. 

The kingdom of Algarve taken from the 
Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189 

Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father 
of his country, who builds 44 cities 
or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 

Military orders of Christ and St. James 
instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries 
his arms into Africa - - - 1415 

Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420 

Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape 
of Good Hope, discovered - - 1493 

Discovery of the Brazils - - 15CKJ 

The Inquisition established - - 1526 

The kingdom seized by Philip II. of 
Spain 1580 

The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and 
place John, duke of Braganza, on the 
throne. His posterity still possess 
the crown .... 1640 

The great earthquake which destroys 
Lisbon. See Earthquake - - 1755 

Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and 
narrowly escapes death - - 1758 

[This affair causes some of the first 
families of the kingdom to be tortured 
to death, their veiy names being for- 
bidden to be mentioned ; yet many 
were unjustly condemned, and their 
mnocence was soon afterwards made 
manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- 
pelled on this occasion.] 

Joseph, having no son, obtams a dis- 
pensation from the pope to enable 
his daughter and brother to intermar- 
ry. See Incest. - . - 1760 

The Spaniards and French invade Port- 
ugal, which is saved by the valor of 
the English - - 1762 and 1763 

Regency of John (afterwards king) 
owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 

The Court, on the French invasion, 
emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 

Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 

Convention of Cintra (see article under 
that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 

Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 

Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 

Return of the Court - - July 4, 1821 

Independence of Brazil, the prince re- 
gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 

The king of Portugal suppresses the 
constitution - ^ ■ June 5, 1823 

Disturbances at Lisbon; Don Miguel 
departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824 

Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 

KINGS OF 

k.v. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 
ugal. 

1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 

1 185 Sancho I. 

1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or 
the Fat. 

1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 

1247 Alphonsus III. 

1279 Dennis. 

1325 Alphonsus IV. 

1357 Peter the Severe. 

1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- 
num for 18 months. 



Death of John VL - Feb. 18, 825 

Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- 
firms the regency - April 26, 1826 

He relinquishes the throne in favor of 
his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826 

Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at 
Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 1526 

Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- 
ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 

Portugal solicits the assistance of Groat 
Britain - - - Dec. 3, 182G 

Departure of the first British auxiliary 
troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1826 

Don Miguel formally assumes the title 
of king - - - -July 4, 1828 

He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 

Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 

Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 

Insurrection in favor of the queen, in 
which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 

Don Pedro's expedition sails from 
Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 

At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- 
self regent of Portugal, on behalf of 
his daughter - - April 2, iSJ2 

He takes Oporto- - -July 8, 1832 

After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- 
pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 

Don Miguel is permitted to leave the 
country unmolested - May 31, 1834 

Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834 

The queen declared by the Cortes to be 
olase - - - Sept. 15, 18-34 

Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834 

Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of 
Leuchtenberg), just mari'ied to the 
queen, dies - - March 28, 1835 

The queen marries prince Ferdinand of 
j Saxe Coburg - - -Jan. 1,1836 

' A sudden change of ministry leads to a 
j formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 

I Action atEvora; the insurgents defeat- 
I ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 

[Oporto, where a revolutionary junta 
is established, and other large towns, 
are seized by the insurgent army.] 

Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos, 
Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c., favorable 
to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the 
Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men 
in killed and wounded - May 1, 1847 

Intervention of England, France, and 
Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 

Claim of the United States on Portugal 
for damages in the war of 1812, re- 
I sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- 
1 bon - - - - July, 1850 

PORTUGAL. 

1385 John L, the Bastard, natural son to 

Peter the Severe. 
1433 Edward. 
1438 Alphonsus V. 
1481 John II. 
1495 Emanuel. 
1.521 John III. 

1557 Sebastian, killed in Africa. 
1578 Henry, the Cardinal. 
1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Enian 

uel, deposed by Philp 11. of Spain, 

who united Portugal to his other do» 

minions, lill 1640. 



484 



THE world's progress, 



fPOS 



1750 Joseph. 

1777 Mary Frances Isabella. 

1799 .Johii VI. 

1826 Don Pedro ; he abdicates May 2, m 

favor of his daughter. 
1826 Maria de Gloria. 



PORTUGAL, continued. 

1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos- 
sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 
claimed king, Dec. 1. 

1656 Alphonsus VL 

1668 Peter II. 

1707 John V. 

POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established. "Byl^yrus, who 
erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the 
first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed 
post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800. — 
Ashe. Louis XL first established post-houses in France owing to his eager- 
ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 
1470. — Henault. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward 
IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty 
miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence 
of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen Wj^th the 
Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post com- 
munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype. 

POST-OFFICE, The General, of England. See preceding article. The first 
chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by 
queen Elizabeth in 1581.* 

THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. 



In 1643 It yielded 

1653 Farmed to John Manley, 

Esq., for - - - 

1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 

Esq., for - 
1674 Farmed for - - - 

16S5 It yielded - 
1707 Ditto - - - - 

1764 Ditto 
1800 Ditto - • - - 



j£5,000 
10,000 



In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424,994 

1815 Ditto - - - - 1.75.5,898 

1820 United Kingdom - - 2^402,697 

1825 Ditto - - . -2,255,239 

1835 Ditto - - . 2,353,340 



1839 Last year of 
postage 



the heavy 



1840 First year of the low rate, 
1 penny for all distances 



2,522,495 
471,000 



The first post-office in the colo- 



21,500 

43.000 

65,000 
111,461 
432.048 
745,313 

POST-OFFICE IN THE UNITED STATES 

nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general 
post-ofiice for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- 
partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of 
the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the 
Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of 
the cabinet. For successive Postmaster- Generals see Administrations. The 
following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States 
>it different times since 1790. 



Year. 

1790 
1800 • 
1810 . 
1820 • 
1830 ■ 
1840 
1845 ■ 
1346 

1847 . 

1848 ■ 



No. of Post 
Offices. 
75 - 

- 903 - 

- 2.300 - 

- 4'.500 - 

- 8,000 - 

- 13.468 . 

- 14; 183 - 

- 14.601 - 

- 15,146 - 

- 16,159 - 



Amount of 
Postage 

- 280,804 - 

- 551,684 - 
-1,111,927 - 
- 1,850,583 - 

- 4,539.265 - 
-4,2S9;842 - 

- 3,487,199 1 - 

- 3,955,893 1 - 
-4,371,077$ - 



Net Revenue. 

- $5,795 - 

- 66,810 - 

- 55,715 - 

1 - 

1 - 

1 - 

1 - 

- 44,227 - 



Exter.t 171 viilea 
of Post Rjoda 

• 1,875 

- 20,817 

- 36,406 

- 72,492 

- 115,000 

- 155,739 

• 143,940 
■ 152,865 

- 153,818 

- 163.208 



The number of dead letters returned quarterly is estimated at 450,000. 



' Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week be- 
iweoii Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, 07ily sent a single letter, which 
was for an Edinburgh banker, named Kamsay. 

t In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures. 

t The returns 'for 1S46', 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed ^larch 3, 1845 
reducine the letter postage 'o 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances. 



pba] dictionary of dates. 485 

POTATOES. The potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori- 
ginally carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, b}^ sir John Haw- 
kins, A. D. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 
1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as 
occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the 
coimty of Cork. It is said that potatoes were noV known in Flanders until 
1G20. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that 
" patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding- 
ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It is 
affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine. 
— Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great 
alarm and distress, Oct. 1845. 

POTOSI, Mines of. These mines wei-e discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, 
and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the 
form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in 
Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in 
comparison of what was formerly obtained. 

POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
about A. D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, 
consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. 
The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some sup- 
pose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 3Z. 4s. Id. Our avoirdupois 
weight {avoir du poids) came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; 
it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chambers. 

POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad- 
singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them- 
selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it Avas adopted from the low by the 
high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered- 
hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice 
of using powder Avas at its height ; this tax was one guhiea for each person. 
The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 
7000Z. per year, and in Scotland about 250Z. It Avas abolished in Ireland, 

PR^TORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, Avhen 
one pr^tor only AA^as appointed ; but a second AA^as appointed in 252 b. c. 
One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges 
in all causes Avhich related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, 
tAvo more prsetors Avere created to assist the consul in the government 
of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, 
and two more when Spain Avas reduced into the form of a Roman province, 
A. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Caesar increas- 
ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 
64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, 
in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers 
Avere reduced to three. 

PRAGA, Battle of, in Avhich 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless 
Russian general SuAvarroAV. fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which 
the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded 
b}^ general Giesmar, Avho loses 4000 killed and Avounded, 6000 prisoners, and 
12 pieces of cannon ; fought betAA^een Grothoff" and Wawer, March 31, 1831. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some- 
times state affairs; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings 
of France, vyherein the rights of the Galilean church AA^ere asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's 
letter by advice of his council, in ansAver to high personages in particular 



4S6 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



[^PRE 



contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany 
in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published the 
Pi'agmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should 
succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713, 
and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity 
thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, in 
which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. 

PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latterj 
who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) foi 
their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flee 
with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money 
behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and 
the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla- 
nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by the 
Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by thy 
French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was 
taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same 
year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. 
In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Hemy of Prussia, 
and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Brown j, 
was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was 
killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but 
he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so 
called from one of the members (who had thus fantasticall}^ styled himself 
according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament 
consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they were 
to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parliament 
themselves. 

PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by 
the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and 
signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy 
state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease. 
The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intent 
and import. — Aske. 

PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris- 
tian church about a. d. 190. — Eusebius. Prayers addressed to the Virgin 
Mary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593. The 
mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface 
IL, A. D. 532. 

PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most 
of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws of 
Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour- 
tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency was 
regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIII., 1539 ; 
and the other, 1 George I.. 1714. 



THE QUEEN. 

Prince of Wales. 
Prince Albert. 
Queen Dowager. 
Queen's other sons. 
Princess royal. 



TABLE OF PRECEDENCY. 

Princess Alice ; and other 

princesses. 
Duchess of Kent. 
Queen's uncles. 
Queen's aunts. 
Queen's cousins. j 



Archbishop of Canteibury. 
Lord Chancellor. 
Archbishop of York. 
'Lord high treasurer. 
'Lord president. 
'Lord privy seal. 



* If of the rank of barons. 



pre] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



487 



PRECEDENCE, continued. 

'Lord high constable. 

tLord great chamberlain of 
England. 

*Earl marshal. 

*Lord high admiral. 

Lord steward of the house- 
hold. 

Lord Chamberlain. 

Dukes, according to patent. 

Marquesses, according to 
their patents. 

Dukes' eldest sons. 

Earls, according to their pa- 
tents. 

Marquesses' eldest sons. 

Dukes' younger sons. 

Viscounts, according to their 
patents. 

Earls' eldest sons. 

Marquesses' younger sons. 

Bishop of London. 

Bishop of Durham. 

Bishop of Winchester. 

All otfier bishops, according 
to their seniority of conse^ 
cration. 

Secretary of State, being a 
baron. 

Commissioners of the great 
seal. 

Barons, according to their 
patents. 

[All the above, except the 
royal family, hold their 
precedence of rank by act 



COMMONERS. 

The Speaker. 

Treasurer, comptroller, and 

vice-chamberlain of the 

household. 
Secretaries of State, if they be 

under the degree of baron. 
Viscounts' eldest sons. 
Earls' younger sons. 
Barons' eldest sons. 
Knights of the Garter. 
Privy councillors. 
Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Chancellor of the duchy of 

Lancaster. 
Lord chief justice of the 

queen's bench. 
Master of the rolls. 
Vice-chancellor. 
Lord chief justice of the com- 
mon pleas. 
Lord chief baron. 
Judges and barons, according 

to seniority. 
Hereditary bannerets. 
Viscounts' younger sons. 
Barons' younger sons. 
Baronets. 

Bannerets for life only. 
Knights of the bath. 

Grand Crosses. 
Knights commanders. 
Knights bachelors. 
Eldest sons of the younger 

sons of peers. 
Baronets' eldest sons. 



Knights of th J Garter's eldest 
sons. 

Bannerets' eldest sons. 

Knights of the bath's eldest 
sons. 

Knights' eldest sons. 

Baronets' yoimger sons. 

Flag and field olhcers. 

Sergeants-at-Iaw. 

Doctors, Deans, and chan- 
cellors. 

Masters in chancery. 

Companions of the hsih. 

Gentlemen of the privy 
chamber. 

Esquires of il/e knights of the 
Bath. 

Esquires by creation. 

Esquires by office or com- 
mission. 

Younger soi /3 of knights of 
the garter. 

Sons of bannerets. 

Younger sons of knights of 
the bath. 

Younger sons of knights ba- 
chelors. 

Gentlemen entitled to bear 
arms. 

Clergymen, not dignitaries. 

Barnsters at iaw. 

Officers of the army and 
navy, not esquires by com- 
mission. 

Citizens, burgesses, &c. 



31 Henry VIIL] 

PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably 
appointed whatever conies to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of 
the most perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It 
was taught by the ancient Stoics and earlj'' Christians ; and Mahomet intro- 
duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the 
strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose 
in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus. 
a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470. 

PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient 
states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of 
the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsbxu^g, the Tyrol, all the possessions 
of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec- 
tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of 
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel- 
vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called 
from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the 
New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling 
elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting- 
house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey, 
Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguish- 
ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri- 



* Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIIL 
t When in actual office only, by I George I. 
N. B. Th5 priority of signing any treaty or pub fie instrument by ministers of state ia faken oj 
rank of office, and net title. 



488 THE world's progress • [ PRE 

buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformci in 1560. Tt was 
approved by the parhament, and ratified, 1567. and finally settled by an act 
of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with 
England in 1707. 
PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously elected 
president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 
to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United 
States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations. 

PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from 
the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the 
eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton, 
a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Slov^e^s 
Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 18U6. 
The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in . 811. and Applegath's fol- 
lowed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced in 1814 ; and the 
Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few 5^ears after. 
Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at 
The Times oflSce, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and 
Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought in'i o 
use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within 
a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac- 
turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New- York. Their largest presses 
for newspapers are capable of throwing off' 10,000 sheets per hour, which is 
so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders 
from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the 
best in the world for book printing. See article Printing. 

PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur, "let it be printed," was much used 
on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The 
liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in 
London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. 
And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast, 
"The liberty of the press— it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not 
we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig 
dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required 
to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France 
and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but 
again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it 
was fully guaranteed by the constitution. 

PRESSING to death. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of 
Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of 
the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, i? the 
following : — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered 
t\^o of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign- 
ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James 
I. 1605. — Stoive's Chron. 

PRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles 
Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army imder sir John 
Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to 
fiy at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the 
field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce 
his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish 
ballad, called, from the doughty hero, " Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21, 
1745. 

PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender, 



PRl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 489 



or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac- 
K:nowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- 
claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, 
Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, 
to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had 
promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines) 
Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. 

PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, 
born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 
1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, 
January 18, 1746; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and 
sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds 
of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000/. was offered for taking bim, 
he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but still rescued by .some lucky accident, and he at length es- 
caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- 
al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died m 1789. His 
brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Fngland, born 
Ltarch 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the 
head of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing 
in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low 
room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none 
admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion 
of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- 
bers were named the Ruvip. to whom nothing remained to complete their 
wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith. 

PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. 
In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among 
the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- 
mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and 
the crown were superadded to the high priesthood; it was the peculiar 
privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but 
that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arcli-flamen or 
high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular 
sects. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- 
merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should 
publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the 
Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — 
Ashe. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right of, an usage brought down from the earliest times. 
The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, 
and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by 
the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It 
came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. 

PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention has 
been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, 
Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to 
attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes 
John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and 
letters. Speculum Humana Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous 
and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a, d. 1438," The 
leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards jjasted to- 

21* 



490 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[PRk 



getlier, John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the 
'Tra'ctatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal 
types, and used them in printing the earhest edition of the Bible, which was 
commenced in 1414, and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schaefter cast 
the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete 
PRINTING, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy. 



Book of Psalms printed -1 a. D. 1457 

The Diirandi Rationale, first work 
primed with cast metal types 1 - 1459 

[Printing was introduced into Oxfoi-d, 
about this time. — Collier. But this 
statement is discredited by Dibdin.] 

A Livy pnMed.—Dufresnoi/ ■ 1 - 1460 

The first Bible completed. — Idemi - L460 

[Mentz taken and plundered, and the art 
of pi-inting, in the general ruin, is 
spread to other towns] - - 1462 

The types were uniformly Gothic, or 
old German (whence oux English, or 
Black Letter) until - - - 1465 

Greek characters (quotations only) first 
used, same year - - • - 1465 

Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 

Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 

A Chronicle, said to have been found 
in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- 
lace (the fact disputed), bearing the 
date Oxford, anno ■ - - 1468 

William Caxton, a mercer of London, 
set up the first press at Westminster' 1471 

He printed Willyam Caxton's Recuyel 
of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul 
le Feure. — Phillips - - - 1471 

His first pieces were, A Treatise on the 
Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices 
(see below). — Dibdin- - '" -1474 

^sop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is 
supposed to be the first book with its 
leaves numbered - - - 1484 

Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a 
Greek book printed (ap Aldi) • - 1476 

He introduces the Italic - - - 1496 



4S3 
J509 



1517 
1550 



The Pentateuch, in Hebrew • a. d. 1482 

Homer, infolio, beautifully done at Flo- 
rence, eclipsing all former printing, 
by Demetrius 

Printing used in Scotland - 

The first edition of the w^hole Bible was, 
strictly speaking, the Complutensian 
Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see 
Polyglot 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in 
Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - 

The first Newspaper printed in England 
(see Newspapers) .... 1588 

First patent granted for printing - 1591 

First printing-press improved by Wil- 
liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601 

First printing in America at Cambridge, 
Mass., when the Fi-eeman's Oath and 
an Almanac were printed - - ^.639 

First Bible printed in Ireland was at 
Belfast. — Hardy's Tour. - 

Fir.'^t types cast in England by Caslon. — 
Phillips. 

Stereotype printing suggested by Wil 
liam (aed, of Edinburgh. — Nichols. 

The present mode of stereotype inven- 
ted by Mr. Golden, of New York - 1779 

Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
land in the last century. — Phillips.] 
See Stereotype. 

The printing-machine was first suggest- 
ed by Nicholson 

The Stanhope press was in general use 
in 

Machine printing (see Press) - 

Steam machinery (see Press) 



1704 
1720 



1735 



1790 

1806 
1811 
1814 



TITLES OP THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE. 



The Gam f and Playeofthe Chesse. Trans- 
lated out of the Frenche and emprynted 
by me Willia m Caxton Fynysshiathe last 
day of Marche the yer of our Lord God a 
thousandfoure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

TULLY. 

The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted 
by ine simple persone William Caxton in 
to Englysshe as the p.'aysir solace and re- 
verence of tnen growy7i<r in to old age the 
xij day of August the yere of our lord 
M.CGCC.l.ix.rj. — Herbert. 

THE POLYCRONYCON. 

The Polycronycon cofiteyning the Berynges. 
and Dedes ofm.any Tyines in eyghtBokes. 
Imprinted by William Caxtori after hav- 
ing somewhat chaunged the rude and 
olde Englysshe, that is to icete (to wit) cer- 



tayn Words ichich in these Days be ney- 
ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the 
second day of Juyll at Westinestre the 
xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward 
the fourth, and of the Incarnacion of oure 
Lord a Thousand four Hondred four 
Score and tweyne [1482.]— Dibdin's Tvp. 
Antiq,. 

the chronicles. 

The Cronicles of England Eripnted by me 

Wyllyam Caxton thabbsyof Westmynstre 

by London the v day of Juyn the yere 

of thincarnacion of our lord god 

M CCCC.LXXX. 

POLYCRONICON. 

Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth dayt 
of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne of 
kinge Harry the seuenth and of the Jn- 



*vTo the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printins-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged b/ 
the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced ■' The Game and Play of the Chesse,'' \ia 
first book ever printed in thepe kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which'U 
was printed, but all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh. 



pr:] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



491 



PRINTING, continued. 

carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv 
Emprynted by Wynkyn Theworde at 
Westmestre. 

HILL OF PERFECTION. 

The Hylle of Pefection emprynted at the 
instance of the reverend relygyous fader 
Tho. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or- 
der of the charterouse Accumplyshe^d] 
andfynysshe[d] att Westmynster the uiii 
day qf'janeur the yere of our lord Thou- 
eande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the xii yere 
ofkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 

ENGLAND. 

77je Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot- 
land and Ireland speaking of the Noblesse 
and Worlhy7iesse of the same Fymiysshed 
and enprynted in Flete strete i?i the syne 
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde 
the yere of our lord a m.ccccc and ij. men- 
sis Mayiis [mense Mali]. — Dibdin's Typ. 
Ant. 

the festival. 

The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and 
holidais taken out of the golden legend en- 



prynted at london in Fletestrete at ye syne 
of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our lordM.ccGCC.viii. And ended 
the xi daye of May e. — Ames. 

THE lord's prayer. 

As printed by Caxton in 1483. 
Father our that art in heavens, halloiced be 
thy 7iame : thy kyngdome come to us ; thy 
will be do7ie in earth as is in heaven : oure 
every days bred give us to day ; and for- 
give us oure tresspasses, as ice forgive 
them that tresspass against us ; and lead 
us not into temptation, but deliver us from 
all evil sin, atntn. — Lewis's Life op 
Caxton. 

A placard. 

As printed by William Caxton. 
If it plese ony man spirituel or temp)orel to 
bye 07iypies of two or thre comemoracios of 
SalisBuri use * enpryntid after the forme 
of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and 
truly correct, late hirn coine to westmon- 
ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale 
[red pale] and he shall have them good 
there. — Dibdin's Typ. Antiq,. 



Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, 
interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the 
semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of 
abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered 
leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced 
with the art of printing. 

PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, 
and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many 
hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in the 
Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. 
See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- 
toria, 1839. 

PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a, d. 722 in 
England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first 
seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between 
England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on 
the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. 
These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 
Henry V. 1414. — Rymers Fadera. 

PRISONERS or WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when 
spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less 
continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead 
of enslaving, commonly exchanged their. prisoners. The Spanish, French, 
and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in nimiber, Sept. 30, 
1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence- 
ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri- 
soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, 
Sept. 1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest 



* Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is sup 
posed from the ditferent color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign print 
«rs. — Wheat ley. 



492 THE world's progress. [ PRO 

number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the 
last war. 

PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- 
thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held 
its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by 
the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, 
the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of 
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, 
on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.— 
Haijdn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object 
was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active 
promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for 
the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems 
ad(pted and practised at Wcthersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- 
phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from 
Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady 
— Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per- 
son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a 
higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. 

PRIVY COUNCIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted 
by Alft-ed, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was 
afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and 
despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the 
principal officers of state (councillors ex ojicio), and ten lords and five com- 
moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To 
attempt the life of a privy -councillor in the execution of his ofiice made 
capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was 
examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. 

PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures 
made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- 
buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless 
under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the 
said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants, 
&c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. 
Que-eighth ; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth ; ordinary and 
able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths. 

PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who. 
having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until the 
end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; 
they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of 
a head in a very majestic manner." — Addiso7i. 

PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign- 
able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 
1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish 
Church, Congregatio de Propaganda PHde, was constituted at Rome by pope 
Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- 
ceeding pontiffs. 

PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy 
of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid 
the king in a war with France, 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- 
posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy 
to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this 
tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects ; 
but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to give 



PRU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 493 

an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- 
pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was 
pleased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves, 
— Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount 
in the last years of the late war. The assessments on real property, under 
the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,423Z, 

PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred 
writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- 
ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve 
lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter 
are Hosea. Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- 
phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the 
earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed 
by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem i^IsaiaJi, xxix. 1 — 8) 
executed by Titus, a.d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in 
Scripture. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to 
request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means 
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- 
position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to 
support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, ,vith 
the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 
April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of 
Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated 
from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, 
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two 
dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- 
stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, t|«c. 

PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100 
men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry 
I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and 
eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 
1200. — Burton's Annals. When wheat was at 65. per quarter, the farthing 
loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole 
grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6^. per quarter, 
the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninetj^-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat. 
Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat I5. 
per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Stowe. The price of provisions fixed by 
the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ; 
a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from 
Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299. 
Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of 
our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn SI. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two 
dozen of eggs, od. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common- 
council above recited, 7 Edward II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold 
for 20s. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 
1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by 
the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, 
and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — An- 
derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, for 
one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi. about 320 
B.C. The Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi. who in- 



494 



THE world's progress. 



[PRU 



habited the Riphiean mountains ; and from these the country was called 
Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- 
nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The 
Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, 
and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known 
until about a. d. 1007. 



Si . Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
Christianity, but is murdered by the 
pagans - - - A. d. 1010 

Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death 
by dreadful ravages - - - * * * 

Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- 
lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 

The Teutonic knights, returning from 
the holy wars, undertake the conquest 
of Prussia, and the conversion of the 
people - - - - - 1225 

Konigsberg, lately built, made tlie capi- 
tal of Prussia - - - - 1286 

The Teutonic knights, by their barba- 
rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It 
is repeopled by German colonists in 
the 13th century - - . * * • 

Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by 
purchase from Sigismond, emperor 
of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- 
denburg .... 1415 

[This Frederick is the head of the pre- 
sent reigning family.] 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- 
tives against the oppression of the 
Teutonic knights - - - 1446 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master 
of the Teutonic order, renounces the 
Roman Catholic i-eligion, embraces 
Lutheranism, and is acknowledged 
duke of East Prussia, to be held as a 
fief of Poland - - - - 1525 

University of Konie;sberg founded by 
duke Albert . " -' - - 1544 

The dukedom of Prus.sia is joined to the 
electorate of Brandenburg, and so 
continues to this day - - - 1594 

John Sigismund created elector of Bran- 
denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608 

The principality of Halberstadtandthe 
bishopric of Minden transferred to the 
house of Brandenburg - -1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia 
as an independent state, under Frede- 
rick William . - - - 1657 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian 
Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish 
the part he had taken in restoring 
peace to Europe - - - 1660 

The foundation of the Prussian monar- 
chy was established between the years 
1640 and .... 1680 

Frederic III., in an assembly of the 
states, puts a crown upon his own 
head, and upon the head of his con- 
sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- 
sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 

Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 

Frederick 1. seizes NeufchatelorNeun- 
burgh, and Valengia, and purchases 
the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707 

Reign of Frederick the Great, during 



which the Prussian monarchy is 
made to rank among the first powers 
in Europe - - • a. D. 1740 

Breslau ceded to Prussia - - - 1741 

Silesia, Glaiz, &c., ceded - - 1742 

Frederick the Great visits England - 1744 
General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, 
and a Russian army, march to Berlin. 
The citv laid under contribution ; and 
pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000 
crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and 
foundries destroyed - - - 1760 

Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786 
The Prussians take possession of Hano- 
ver - - - Jan. 30, 1806 
Prussia jcins the allies of England 

against France - - Oct. 6, 1*508 

Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18o6 

[Here followed the loss of almost every 
corps in succession of the Prussian 
army, the loss of Berlin, and of every 
province of the monarchy except 
Prussia proper.] 
Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 
Peace of Tilsit {which see) ■ July 7, 1807 
Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808 

Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813 
Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 

The king promised liberty of the press 

March, 1847 
Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists 
urgent demands for liberal measures, 

March 14, 1847 
Barricades and fights between troops 

and students - - March 15, 1847 

The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 
— issues decree demanding a federal 
union of Germany, and granting li- 
berty of the press - ~ March 18, 1847 
Another bloody collision, 274 killed 

March 18, 1847 
New ministry formed - March 18, 1847 
The king grants general amnesty 

March 20, 1847 
Agitations general throughout Prussia 
A free constitution granted, in a solemn 

convocation, by the king - April 11, 1347 
The duchv of Posen reorganized by the 

king ' - - - March 26, 1843 

Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1648 
Constitutional assembly of Prussia 

meets - - - May 22, 1848 

The arsenal at Berlin captured by the 

mob - - - June 16, 1S4S 

The king prorogues the assembly at 
Berlin, and appoints its meeting at 
Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 1848 

The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the 
order of the king to disband. Berlin 
in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848 

The assembly dissolved, and a new con- 
stitution promulgated - Dec. 6, 1848 



MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG, ETC. 

, D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. I succession of time, passed into the 

** Geron, margrave of Lu.satia. which, in | 



families of Staden, Ascania, Bellen- 



PUB. ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



495 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

stadt, and that of Bavaria; till the 
emperor Sigismond, with the consent 
of the states of the empire, gave per- 
petual investiture to 

1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 
elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 

1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferrous, or 
Ironside ; resigned. 

1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil- 
les. He confirmed the deed made by 
his predecessor, of mutual succession 
with the families of Saxony and 
Hesse ; resigned. 

1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 
his son. 

1499 Joachim I., his son. 



1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew, 
1571 John George. 
1598 Joachim Frederick. 
1608 John Sigismund. 
1619 George William. 
1640 Frederick William the Great. 
1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king 
of Prussia. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701 Frederick I. 

1713 Frederick William I. 

1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Griat. 

1786 Frederick William 11. 

1797 Frederick William III. 

1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. 



PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted 
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, 
A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was 
about 13 000. In 1700 the number was 32,600 ; and in 1790, the number in 
Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 
public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The 
number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. 

PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- 
ments, are said tohave been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple 
of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in 
a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- 
bination the power is twice the number of puUies, less 1. — Phillips. 

PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to 
take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch 
would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he 
not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a 
Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. 
This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to 
the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, 
which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able 
to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- 
vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although 
the invention is ascribed to l)anaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in 
general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on 
the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well 
beneath was tirst sunk in a. d. 1282. 

PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against 
Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it 
lasted twenty- three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- 
gan 218 b. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 
foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the 
gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with 
uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his 
progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and 
of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and 
ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated 
by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. 

PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 



496 THE world's progress. (" PYT 

where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the 
fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of 
purgatory was known about a. d. 250; and was introduced into the Roman 
church in 593. — Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — 
Dupin. 

PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to 
the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the 
Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the 
birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was 
to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among 
the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of 
the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she 
presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- 
gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called 
Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- 
beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of 
living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were 
members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon 
account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- 
verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sandersoii. 

PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- 
nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu- 
ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found 
but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and 
diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- 
nificence. Tlie pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high 
mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, 
it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the 
seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- 
dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of 
the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed 
of such' stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- 
man labor has not been found on the earth. 

" Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids, 

" Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Young. 

PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord 
Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The 
latter army was defeated with gi-eat slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the 
battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- 
dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of 
more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from 
July 25 to August 2. 

PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain; 
by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her 
rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c., 
and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head 
of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
tran.3migration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- 
ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been 
produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the 
world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported 
that the universe was created from a shapeless heai) of passive matter by 



QUA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 

the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the 
world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im- 
prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at 
this day, 539 b. c. 
PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple 
of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received 
opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had 
obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ; 
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, 
or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphic- 
tyons, B. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. 

Q. 

QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a 
French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a 
shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor 
added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addison. Qo.acks 
sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly 
England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their (esta- 
blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 
1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady. Miss 
Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- 
slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct. 
30, 1830. 

QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. 
The solar quadrant M^as introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- 
nomers under the Caliphs, in a.d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches 
radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- 
suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See 
Navigation. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great 
Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the 
accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple 
Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the 
reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of 
the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718, 

QU^STOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of 

the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship was the first ofiice 

. any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the 

senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was 

greatly increased. 

QUAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic 
of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear 
towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the 
name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished hira and 
those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respects 
able sect, excelling in morals prudence, and industry, was commenced in 
England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- 
ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith, 
Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by the 

• The Quakers early sufTered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where 
Ac first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and theii 



498 THE world's progress. [ QUE 

Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instruc- 
tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was 
enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- 
quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696. 
QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a.d. 1127, whereby all 
merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in 
the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- 
mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of 
Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other 
nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- 
rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged 
most safe. 

QUATRE-BRAS. Battle of, between the British and allied army under the 
duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the 
French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo, 
In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. 

QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, 
with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged 
by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, 
after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. 
Quebec was besieged hj the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, Avho was 
slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The 
public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 
1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 165U 
houses, the dwellings of 12.000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 
1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 
28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan, 12, 1846. 

QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was 
Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the 
city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most 
magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with 
that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name o-f queen, 
that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of 
king. See note to article Hungary. 

QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- 
land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate 
Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19. 1820. Illumi- 
nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her 
funeral, Aug. 14. 

QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the 
present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own 
right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady 
Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- 
four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of -kings who 

ears cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 
2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered tliem- 
selves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger 
(from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by^an 
order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, a:; em- 
bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service. 
But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured 
by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in that 
y^ear. See Plague. Of the 120 few reached America. 



que] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



499 



died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty-five ac- 
tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen 
The following list includes all these royal personages : — 



Of William I. 
Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and 
died 1084. 

William II. 
This sovereign died unmarried. 

Of Henry I. 
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
Scotland; she was married November 11, 
1100; and died May 1, 1119. 

Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of I>ou- 
vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129. 
Survived the king. 

Maude oi Matilda. 

Dt nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to 
the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- 
ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry 
v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. 
She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the 
English succession by Stephen. 1135; landed 
in England and claimed the crown, 1139. 
Crowned, but was soon after defeated at 
Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with 
Stephen, which secured the succession to 
iier son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. 

Of Stephen. 

Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and 
lied May 3, 1151. 

Of Henry II, 

Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; 
and died 1204. 

[The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of 
this prince. See article Rosamond. 

Of Richard I. 

Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- 
varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- 
vived the king. 

Of John. 

Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
6he was married in 1189. Divorced. 

Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- 
leme : she was the young and virgin wife of 
the count de la Marche ; married to John in 
1200. Survived the king, on whose death 
she was remarried to the count de la Marche. 

Of Henry III. 
Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. 
Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- 
nastery, whither she had retired. 

Of Edward I. 

Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 
1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- 
land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. 

Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she 



was married September 12, 1299. Survived 
the king. 

Of Edward IL 
Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
she was married in 1308. On the death, by 
the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she wae 
confined for the rest of her life in her owa 
house at Risings, near London — Hu7iie. 

Of Edward III. 

Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland 
and Hainault ; she was married January 24, 
1328 ; and died August 16, 1369. 

Of Richard II. 
Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi 
Winceslaus of Germany ; she was marrieu 
in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. 

/sa6d/a, daughter of Charles VI. of France; 
sibe was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mi.i- 
der of her husband she returned to her fa- 
ther. 

Of Henry IV. 

Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; 
she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
in 1394. 

Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- 
vived the king, and died in 1437. 

Of Henry V. 

Catherine, daughter of the king of France > 
she was married May 30, 1420. She outliv- 
ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, 
grandfather of Henry VII. 

Of Henry VI. 

Margaret, daughter of the duke of Aujou ; 
she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- 
ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and 
died in 1482. 

Of Edward IV. 

Lady ElizabetJi. Grey, daughter of sir 
Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John 
Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1. 
1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection 
of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in 
confinement. 

Edward V. 

This prince perished in the Tower, in 
the 13th year of his age ; and died unma ■• 
ried. 

Of Richard III. 

Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, 
and widow of Edward, prince of Wales, 
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is 
supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
(having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to 
make way for his intended marriage with 
the princess Elizabeth of York. 

Of Henry VII. 

Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; she was married 
January 18, 1486 ; and died February 1 1 
1503. 



50C 



THE world's progress. 



[qub 



QUEENS, continued. 

Of Henry VHI. 

Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She 
was married June 3, 1509; was the mother 
of queen Mary; was repudiated, and aftei*- 
wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533 ; died 
January 6, 1536. 

Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- 

leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She 

was privately married, before Catherine was 

divorced, Nov. 14, 1532; was the mother of 

I queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- 

1 or. May 19, 1536. 

Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- 
mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. 
She was married May 20, 1536, the day after 
Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- 
ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, 
Oct. 13, 1537. 

Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke 
of Cleves. She was married January 6, 
1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died 
in 1557. • 

Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of 
Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; 
and was beheaded on Tower hill February 
12, 1542. 

Catherine Par?; daughter of sir Thomas 
Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. 
She was married July 12, 1543. Survived 
the king, after whose death she married sir 
Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and 
died September 5, 1548. 

Edward VI. 
This prince, who ascended the throne in his 
tenth year, reigned six years and five months, 
and died unmarried. 

Lady Jane Grey. 
Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife 
of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen 
on the death of Edward. In ten days after- 
wards returned to private life ; was tried 
Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 
1554, when but seventeen years of age. 

Mary. 
Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended 
the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. 
of Spain, July 2.5, 1554 ; and died Novem- 
ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 
1598. 

Elizabeth. 
Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to 
the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 
4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. 

, Of James I. 

s 

I Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 

Frederick II. ; she was married August 20, 

1589; and died March 1619. 

Of Charles I. 
Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
king of France ; she was married June 13, 
1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and 
died in France, August 10, 1669. 



Of Charles II. 

Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughtei 
of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. ; she 
was married May 21, 1662. Survived the 
king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 
21, 1705. 

Of .Tames II. 

Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep 
tember 1660 ; and died before James ascena- 
ed the throne, in 1671. 

Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh 
ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- 
ried November 21, 167-3. At the revolution 
in 1683, she retired with James to France; 
and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur- 
vived her consort seventeen yeij-.«. 

William and Mary. 

Mary, the princess of Orange, daughtei if 
James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16^ 7 ; 
ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- 
cember 28, 1694. 

Anne. 
Daughter of James II. She married George 
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeea- 
ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 
1, 1714. 

Of George I. 
Sophia. Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol 
Zell. She died a few weeks previously to 
the accession of George to the crown, June 
8, 1714. 

Of George II. 
Wilhelmina Carolir.e Dorothea, of Bran- • 
denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and 
died Nove;iiber 20, 1737. 

Of George III. 
Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke oi 
Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married Septembei 
8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. 

Of George IV. 
Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 
8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- 
cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. Sea 
article Queen Caroline. 

Of William IV. 

Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline^ 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she 
was married July 11, 1818 ; and survived the 
king. 

Victoria. 
Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen 
daughter of the duke of Kent ; bornMay 24, 
1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 18:37, 
crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin 
prince Albert of Saxe-Cotwrg-Goiha, Feb- 
ruary 10, 1840. 



QTJEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Auieri- 



RAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 501 

ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, wbo defeated the 
Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
same day. 

QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It 
is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight 
of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- 
ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the 
chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- 
many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 
17&7. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It 
was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by 
Mr. Walker, in 1787. 

(iUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, 
whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the f-^iindation of the sect of Quietists 
in France. His principal tenet was, that tho purity of religion coi.'sisted in 
an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and 
the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of 
absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when 
arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then 
imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- 
dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastiie for her visions 
and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, the celebi-ated 
archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she 
occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect 
sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. 

QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some 
say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty 
from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, 
ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillips. 

QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {whicli see) celebrated as having been the 
scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and 
Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls 
were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost 
overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. 

R. 

RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chari- 
ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz- Stephen, 
who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the dehght taken by the citi- 
zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, 
and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were 
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of 
Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, 
although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, 
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. 

RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- 
sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. 
The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in- 
strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., 
erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now 
teen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of 
Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- 
ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as 
being contrai-y to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac. 



502 THE world's progress. [ EAl 

RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- 
clifFe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40,000Z. to the Uni- 
A^ersity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone of 
the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 
1749, and was opened April 13, same year. 

R ADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- 
gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, 
Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- 
cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian 
regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. 

RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but on 
rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was "brought 
among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fied from his brother Rameses, 
1485 B. 0. — Heylin.. 

RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram- ways in and about New- 
castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of 
wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the 
pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " The 
manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the 
river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- 
ers fitting those rails, Avhereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will 
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the 
coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, ai'. 
Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at 
Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament 
(with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small 
branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames 
at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first 
great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester 
railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. 

KXTENT OF RAILWAY.? OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. 

Miles. Miles. 

■ 115 

- - 106 
- 800 

- - 52 
- 1,000 

- - 500 
Total length of railways opened throughout the world :— in 1847, 21,761 miles. 

In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles 
per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; 
in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the 
North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present 
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During 
the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been 
diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for 
one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- 
ponding ratio. — Tack's Railways, 1847. 

RAILROADS IN the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines complet- 
ed reached an aggregate of 

In New England 1,219 miles. 

In New York 840 do. 

In other parts of the United States 4,058 do. 

Total .... 6,117 do 
[See American Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.] 



Great Britain and Ireland 


- 3,375 


Italy - 


United States (in 1849, 6,117) - 


■ 3,800 


Denmark . 


Germany (in 1849, 3,100) 


- 1,570 


Cuba 


Holland - - - - 


- 200 


Russia 


Belgium 


. 1,095 


British Colonies 


France .... 


- 2,200 


East India - 



RAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503 

A considerable number of miles have since been -completed, including a 
portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The 
first railway in the United States, Avas the Quincy and Boston, to convey 
granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, 
opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- 
cester, July 6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- 
timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 
1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 
12, 1840. 

RAILROADS in FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 
1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, 
commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident 
on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- 
ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and 
Brussels Railway, train ran off* a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 
8, 1846. 

RAILWAYS, BELGIUM, That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in 
Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. 

RAMILIES, Battle of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough 
and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other ; fought on 
Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious 
victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- 
ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which 
had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his 
daughters. 

RATISBON, Peace of, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- 
many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under 
the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. 

RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat. the great pest 
of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions 
of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. 
Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in 
the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, 
that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western 
deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- 
vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, and 
in some parts of France are still unknown. 

RAVENNA, Battle of, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix 
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal 
armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment 
of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 
11, 1512. 

RAVILLAC^S MURDER of HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death of Ravil- 
lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, May 
14, 1610 ; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. 
. He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the 
shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened 
the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. 
Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot 
pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin were 
poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain ; and 
his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to be 



In Ireland (Browne) .... 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, I u- 
cer, Fagius, 4"c.) . - - . [547 

In Scotland (Knox) 1560 

In the Netherlands .... 1562 



504 THE world's progress. [ RET 

pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, 
and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the 

streets. 

REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation 
for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for 
a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- 
sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- 
form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl 
Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by 
lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords 
by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. 
New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers 
(106 to 22) June 4, 1832. 
REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church 
may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinu^, bishop of Aqui- 
leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal 
reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, 
Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca. Browne, and Knox, The 
eras of the Reformation are as follows : — 

In England ( TFzcMjfe) - - A. D. 1360 In Sweden (Pein) - - - A. D. 1530 

In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 In England (Jlenry VIII.) - - - 1534 

In Germany (Luther) - • - - 1517 

In. Svfhzerland (Zuinglius) - • -1519 

In Denmark 1521 

In France (Calvin) 1.529 

Pi'otestants first so called - - - 1529 

The jeforraed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession 
to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first 
prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Luther, 
Protestants, <^c. 

RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to 
God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and 
applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false 
gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes 
and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits 
being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — PJiillips. Religious 
ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- 
troduced by Enos, 2832 b. c. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described 
throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced 
with the Reformation {which see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for 
the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered 
death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; 
they were reduced from forty-two to thirtj-nine in January 1563, and receiv- 
ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. 

REPEAL OP THE UNION op Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- 
tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 
1829. A new and more i-esolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 
1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- 
berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in 
various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and 
called "monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf on Oct. 8, 
was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were 
brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. 

RETREAT op the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had 
joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- 
xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the 
retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under 



lEV] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



505 



continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled 
to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops cf moun- 
tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. 
This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned 
home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 
215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might 
now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher 
Avho planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which 
he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 b. c. — Vossius. 
REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list 
and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- 
nary, i;l,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles 
II. Raised ito je6, 000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, 
which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 
1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE 

- ^£400,000 

.350,000 

300,000 

2.50,000 

200,000 

150,000 

100,000 

80,000 

150,900 

100,000 

154,000 

130,000 

100,000 

76,643 

6-1,976 



William the Conqueror 
William Rufus - 
Henry 1, 

Stephen - - - 
Henry II. 

Richard I. - - - 
John 

Henry III. - 
Edward I. 
Edward II. 
Edward III. - 
Richard II. 
Henry IV. 
Henry V.- 
Henry VI. 
Edward IV. 
Edward V. 
Richard III. 
Henry VII. 



100,000 
130,000 
400,000 



THE CONftUEST, BY SIR JOHN 

Henry VIII. - - 

Edward VI. • - - 

Mary .... 

Elizabeth 

James I. .... 

Charles I. 

Commonwealth 

Charles II. - - - • 

James II. - 

William III. - - . . 

Anne (at the Union) - 

George I. . . . . 

George 11. ... 

George III., 1788 - 

Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 

George IV., 1825, ditto - 

William IV., 1830, ditto - 

Ditto, 1835, ditto 

Victoria, 1845, ditto • 



jE 800,000 

400,000 

450,000 

500,000 

600,0OL 

895.819 

1,5I7;247 

1,800,000 

2,001,855 

3,892,205 

5,691,803 

6,762,643 

8,522,540 

15,572.971 

65.599,570 

62.871,300 

55;43 1,317 

50,494,732 

61,067,856 



REVENUE OF THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and 
sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 

1790 - - $4,399,473 1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 - - $16,993,858 

1795 - • - 5,926.216 1830 - - 24,280,888 1844 - - 28,504,519 

1800 - . 10,624;997 1835 - - - 34.163,635 1845 - ■ - 29,769.134 

1805 - - - 13,520,312 1836 - - 48;288,219 1846 - - 29,499,247 

1810 . - 9,299,737 1837 - - - 18,032,846 1847 - - • 26,:346,79C 

1815 - - - 15,411.634 1838 - - 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750 

1820 • - 16,779,331 1839 - - - 30,399,043 

REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a re- 
view was the '■^Journal des Savants'^ established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis 
de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- 
tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De 
Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la 
Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society of 
learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 
1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued ; but in 
1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- 
tributors, as De Sacy, Langl<5s, R^musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other 
literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few 
years. 
The Gentleman'' s Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly 
Revieio, in 1749, were the first works of fhe kind published in London, that 
obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals 
which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated 
by Nichols : viz. " Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth," 



606 THE WOE.LD's progress. [ REV 

1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722 ; " New Memoirs oi 
Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 
18 vols., 1728 to 1736 ; " Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. 

The Ge7itleman's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the 
first editor, who died in 1754. leaving the work in the hands of his associate, 
David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 
1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more 
than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary,- and author 
of " Literary Anecdotes," 9 Vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole 
editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession ; 
and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work 
from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag- 
azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- 
tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of 
this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is 
spoken, — that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which 
literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun 
January, 1834 ; the first series having be.en completed in 103 voluraes 

The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was 
established in 1749, by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to co-nduct it 
54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was 
continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, 
from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 
1825, 108 volumes. 

The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756. by Archibald Hamil- 
ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 
1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished 
upwards of 2,620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. 
First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 
to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 
volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series 
was begun in 1815. 

The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were, 
the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom di'^d 
in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the 
work till the completion of the 42d volume. It Avas at first published in 
monthly numbers ; but from 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of 
" The British Critic and Theolo|;ical Review," until 1843, when a new work, 
called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- 
bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High 
Church principles. 

The establishment of the Edinburgh Revieto, in 1802, formed an era in peri- 
odical criticism ; as this v/ork from its commencement took a wider range 
and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- 
ing publication oi^the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of 
Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith 
(the'^first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among it.9 
principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jefirey, are the distinguished 
names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham, 
and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, 
upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- 
what less than 9000. 

The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as 
1812, it is said to.have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It 
may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- 



REV ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 507 

ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. 
It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gilford ; then by 
H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- 
bered sir Walter Scott,. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and 
learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected 
with the government. 

The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. 
It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- 
ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had 
many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert 
Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, from 
1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 
30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. 

The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members 
of the established church, was commenced, in 1802, and maintains what are 
commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- 
butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay; the present, the Rev. Samuel 
Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have bevn republished 
in this country. 

Blackwood' s Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. 
It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. 
The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 

Ihe Westminster Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- 
iham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- 
lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, 
and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1815. 

The Foreign Quarterly Revieio [London], established in 1827, devoted to 
foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united 
to the Westminster Review. — Amer. Almanac, &c. 

REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- 
land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English libert}^ James 
II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- 
sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 
1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was 
consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) 
being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. 

REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- 
stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 
536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the'Per- 
sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 
B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or 
Greek monarchy, by Julius Cffisar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded 
by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. 
The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. 
This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire 
under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, 
from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern 
empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the 
Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, 
France. Portugal, &c. 

REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated i.m modern history. In Portugal, a. d. 
1610. In England, 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Rus.sia, 1730 
and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. (n America. 1775. In France. 1789, 
1830, and 1848. In Holland, 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In 
the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 



508 



THE world's progress. 



[RIO 



N. Y. 

Literary "Repository, 

(to 1792) - - 1787 

Literary Revieis. R. C. 

Sands, &c. Cto 1823) - 1822 
Atlantic Mag., Sands, 

afterwards Neio York 

Monthly Review, 
Knickerbocker Mag. , C. 

F. Hoffman, succeeded 
by Flint, and now L, 

G. Clark 
Democratic Review (un- 
til 1841 at Washington) 1837 

American Monthly Ma- 
gazine, N. y.,(to 1838) 
Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- 
jamin - • - 

N. Y. Review, (quar- 
terly) J. G. Cogswell, 
(to 1842) 

American Review, G. 
H. Colton - - 1844 

HunVs Merchant's Ma- 
gazine - - - 1839 



Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only 
— tlie former governments were restored, 1849. See these ccuntries respec- 
tively. 
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- 
rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- 
rary journals in several places in this country, particularly Boston, New 
York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or 
bad a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and 
religious reviews and magazines : 

BOSTON. Founded. new york. 

American Monthly Ma- N. Y. Magazine and 

gazine, (the first) es- '' " 

tablished by Jeremy 
Gridley, continued 3 
years, about - - 1745 

Massachusetts Maga- 
zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 
Monthly Anthology, Prf. 
Ticknor, A. H. Eve- 
rett, Buckminster, &c. 
(to 1811) - - - 1803 

General Repertory and 
Review, (1st Amer. 
quarterly,) edited at 
Cambridge by Andrews 
Norton - - 1812-13 

North American Re- 
view, commenced by 
W.Tudor* - -1815 

Christian Examiner, 
{quarterly) Channing, 
Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 
American Biblic. Repo- 
sitory, founded by E. 
Robinson, D.D., at An- 
dover - - - 1831 

Christian Review, (.Bap- 
tist) quarterly - - 1835 
Boston Quarterly Re- 

viete, (lirownson) - 1837 
New England Maga- 
zine, Buckingham - 1833 
American Quarterly Re- 
gister. Edwards - IS — 
The Dial, (quarterly) 

Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 
Massachusetts Quarter- 
ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846 

RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt 
in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, 
the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. 
The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, 
becouse Clovis. the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from 
paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city 
was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric Avas first taught in Latin at 
Rome by Photius Gallns, 87 b. c. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is 
to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to 
be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in 
Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 



1824 



1832 



1835 



1837 



182- 



NEW HAVEN. 

Christian Observer 

American Journal of 
Science ^ Arts, (Silii- 
man's) quarterly - 1818 

New Englander, Theol. 
.(quarterly) - - 1843 

Church Review (quar- 
terly) - - - 1848 



PHILADELPHIA. 

Aitkin's Pennsylvania 
Magazine was the 
most popular before 
the Revolution ; Thos. 
Pame and Francis 
Hopkinson, editors 

Amer. Museum, pub. by 
Matthew Carey, (to 
1792) - . -1787 

Literary Magazine and 
American Register, C. 
Brockden Brown, (to 
1810) . - - -18 6 

Portfolio, pub. monthly 
from 1809 by Jos. Den- 
nie ; edited by Nicho- 
las Biddle, 1812-16, and 
1816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 

Analectic Alag., Moses 
Thomas, (to 1820) - 1813 

Amer. Quar. Review, 
Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 

Graham's Magazine - 

Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale 

Stryker's America7i Re- 
gister, (quarterly) - 1847 

Southern Quarterly Re- 
view, at Charleston, 
(to 1833, recommenced 
1842) • 

Southern Lit. Messen- 
ger, at Richmond, by 
T. W. White - - 1834 

Biblical Repertory and 
Theological Review, 
Princeton, N. J. - 18 — 



1828 



* Subsequent editors ! — W. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks, 1817; Edward 
Everett, 1819; Jared Sparks. 1823: A. II. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835; F. Bowen, 1842. 



ROM ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



509 



RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article CoyifederaUon of the Rhine. 

RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Roger Williams 
and h]s associates, Avho left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution 
and founded the town of Providence, in 16B6. Williams obtained a patent 
from Plymouth Co. in 1644, incKiding Providence Plantations and Rhode 
Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663 
which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution! 
Dorr s attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in 
June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti- 
tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United 
States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Pop- 
ulation in 1790, 68,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130 

RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- 
dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- 
itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not 
completed till 480 e.g. The city built 432 e.g. Its famous Colossus 
(which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 b. g., and finally destroyed 
by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a, d. ^12— Priestley. 

RJALTO, AT Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in 
his "Merchafht of Venice."' It Avas built in 1570, and consists of a single 
arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near 
the middle, where it is the narrowest: this celebrated arch is ninety feet 
wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. 

RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- 
land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of 
Rights. •' 

RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : 



At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- 
ed to the war, demolished, .July. 1812. 

At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- 
tary, Sept. 24, 1831. 

At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 
killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1335. 

At New York, '• abolition riots," caused by 
discussions on slavery, and supposed in- 
tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- 
gamation" between whites and blacks, 
July 10-12, 1834. 

At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary 
or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. 

At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 
40 houses destroyed, Aus. 12, 1834. 

At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause. 1835-6. 

At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- 
ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 
30, 1835. 

At New York, caused by the high price o} 
flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- 
troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. 

At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- 
very newspaper. destroyed, and he was 
killed, Nov. 7, 1837. 

At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 
slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- 
nia Hall, &c., May 17, 1838. 

in the Pennsylvania legislature, two different 
legislatures organized, the Senate expelled 
from their Chamber by a mob. Militia 
called out and the contest settled after 4 
days, Dec. 8, 1838. 



At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against 
abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. 

Disgraceful affray in Pennsylvania legisla- 
ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 
8, 1843. ^ 

Another in House of Representatives of U. 
S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, 
Jan. 25, 1844. 

Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- 
ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 
churches burned, fourteen perKons killed, 
forty wounded ; finally put down by the 
military, May 6-8, 1844. 

The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and 
wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- 
ed out, July 7,1844. 

Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer 
County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 
1844 : renewed in December. 

Delavvare Co., N. Y., declared by governor 
Wright to be in a state of insurrection. 
Collection of rents being resisted by rioters 
disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff 
murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. 

Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 
25, 1847. 

Riots at the Astor Place Opera House. N. Y 
against Mr. Macready, the English' actor 
21 killed ; May 10, 1849. 

Disgraceful rencontre betv/een Foote of Mis 
sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the 
Senate of the U. S., the first gross insult to 
that assembly. May, 1850. 



RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements. &c. 



as- 



510 THE world's progress. [ R3M 

sembled at Chicago, 111., July 5, 1847. House of Representatives votea 
(112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- 
ment to promote such improvements, July 1818. 
ROBESPIERRE'S REIGN op TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the 
populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of 
the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of 
eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- 
tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- 
bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through 
the hall; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked 
minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and 
suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. 

ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of rubbers, who 
infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made 
excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians 
assert ti.at this Avas onl}^ a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, 
who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. 
Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- 
merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247, 
when he died. — Stowe's Chron. * 

ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were 
invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were 
first ut^dL at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated 
in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See 
article Boulogne Flotilla. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of 
its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy' Land was 
alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the 
rise" of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of 
Christianitj^ by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the 
papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of 
Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- 
phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. 
The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform- 
ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed 
doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the 
earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under 
the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 
1539. The.Y were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to ftivor 
there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded 
from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and 
estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament 
in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 
1780. The '-no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation 
Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his 
seat under the act. 

ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic 
flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — 
Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author 
of EtJiioj^ics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence 
styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tend(;ncy, and 
particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.-- 
Huet de Or '^ine Fabul. Roman. 



ROS ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



511 



ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the 
most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. 
Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- 
brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of 
the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the 
birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of ^ 
the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
the summit of Mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give his followers the 
appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard 
ab a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from 
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From 
such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the 
death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the 
Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and 
Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, 
to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neari) tiie 
whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting 
for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. 
The three Horath, Roman knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, having 
'been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- 
bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 c c — 
Livij. See Tahilar Vieios. p. 15 to p. 63. 



Foundation of the city cemmenced by 
Romulus - - -B.C. 753 

Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters 
Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the 
title of king of Italy, which ends the 
Western empire - - A. d. 476 

Rome is recovered for Justinian, by 
Belisarius .... 5.37 

Retaken by the Goths - - - 547 

Narses, Justinian's general, again re- 
conquers Rome - - - 553 

Papal power established - - - 606 

Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, 
and becomes free - - - 726 

Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- 
poral dominion of Rome - - 756 

Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor 

of the West - - - - 800 

* * * * * * 

Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at 
Rome .... - 1347 

[The popes continued in possession of 
the city and territories. See article 
Popes and If ah/.] 

The recent struggles of Rome for free- 
dom commenced in - - - 1848 

Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 

Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- 
ter, assassinated at the senate-house. 
The populace march to the Quirinal, 
and present their demands to the 
pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- 
stituent asseinbly, a new ministry, 



&c. The pope refuses ; the people 
attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the 
pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- 
nistry • - - Nov. 16, 1848 

The pope, after being a prisoner in his 
palace for seven days, escapes from 
Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis- 
guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 

Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- 
stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1S48 

The Roman republic proclaimed ; Maz- 
zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 

French armament against the republic 
reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 

French repulsed under the walls of 
Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 

Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 
days, and false promises on the part 
of the French - - July 2, 1849 

Rome entered by the French under Ou- 

. dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi 
and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 

Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 

Oudinot surrenders the government 
into the hands of three commissioners 
of the pope, who begin the work of 
reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1819 

Letter of the French president, dictat- 
ing the basis of the restoration of the 
pope's temporal power, viz. : general 
amnesty, secularization of the admi- 
nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- 
ral government - Aug. 18, 1849 

Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 



ROSARY." " We owe to Dominic de Gnzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- 
gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary 
and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as 
being said in 1093, 

ROSES, The WnrrE and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated 
England, were parried on under the symbols of the Whiie and tbe Red Rose, 
and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the bouse of Jjan- 



512 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [kUM 

caster chose the i ed roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York 
were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- 
ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- 
chard IL, who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed kijig 
by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii 
to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward 

^ III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the/.iw-a 
son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira- 
cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- 
"scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom 
with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parf^cularly ir 
the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle foughl, May 22 
1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VIL 
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward'IV., 1486 

ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger 
many in 1302, and again early in the 17th century, They swore fidelity 
promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an- 
cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno- 
sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. 

ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng- 
land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch Avere first called Cava- 
liers, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This 
latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselve! 
putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii 
hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 

ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS m England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- 
age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was 
appointed its first president. — Leigh. 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of 
persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- 
berden. Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions 
of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the 
metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus, 
and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- 
der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as 
" The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and 
facilitating the general -introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and 
improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and 
experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. 
The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- 
tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thi» 
establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. 

ROYAL SOCIEIT. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon, 
Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of 
divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in tht 
apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the societj 
continued till 1658. Charles IL, April 22, 1663, constituted them a body 
politic and corporate, by the appellation of the '• President, Council and 
Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.'' 

RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the 
civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- 
aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the 
Presbyterian party, whom he confined ; above 160 more were excluded ; 
and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60. were 



RUP 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



513 



permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was 
called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 

1Q4:9.— Goldsmith. 

RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of thi? 
vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son 
of Japliet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion 
from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- 
guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- 
pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. 
Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- 
thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian 
king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- 
cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in 
subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In 
the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered. 
Siberia. 



The foundation of the present monarchy 

laid A. D. 1474 

Basil IV. carries his '/ictorious arms in- 
to the East, 1509 to - - - -1534 

Ivan Basilowirz takes the title of czar, 
signifying great king, and drives the 
Tartars clear out of his dominions, 
1534 to 1550 

The navigation from England first dis- 
covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554 

The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 
30,000 of the people - - - -1571 

The Novogorodians having inti'igued 
with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief 
inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- 
ces before his eyes ... - 1581 

The race of Rurick, who had governed 
Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598 

The imposition practised by Demetrius 
See Impostors. 1606 

The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their 
own king, Sigisniund II., upon the 
throne of Russia - - - -1610 

Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of 

Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 
■ Revolt from Polish tyranny • - - 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 

Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682 

He visited England, and worked in the 
dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697 

Orders of Si. Andrew, and of St. Alex- 
ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 

The Russians begin their new year 
from January 1 - - ' - 1700 

Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 

Peter JI. deposed, aad the crown given 
to Anne of Courland - - -1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 
in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, 
who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 

Peter III. dethroned ami murdered ; suc- 
ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 



A. D 



The young prince, the rightful heir, till 
now immured, put to death a, n. 1763 

The dismemberment of Poland com- 
menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177> 

This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 

Catherine gives her subjects a new code 
of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- 
ing criminals; and dies - -1796 

Murder of the emperor Paul, who is 
found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 

Great deleat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 
by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 

Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 

The grand-duke Constantine renounces 
the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 

The emperor Nicholas is crowned at 
Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 

Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1820 

Nicholas invested with the order of the 
Garter - - - July 9, 1827 

Peace concluded between Russia and 
the Persians - - Feb- '^2, 1828 

War between Russia and the Ottoman 
Porte declared - - April 26, I82S 

[For the disastrous consequences to 
Turkey of this war, see Turkey and 
Battles. ^, 

The war for the independence of Poland, 
against Russia - . Nov. 29, 1830 

This war closed with the capture of 
Warsaw, and the total overthrow of 
the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 

[For the events of this last war, see ar- 
ticle Poland. '\ 

Cracow, which had been erected into a 
republic, and its independence gua- 
ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 
1815, is occupied by a Russian and 
Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 

Failure of the Russian expedition a- 

gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, ISIO 

Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15, 1840 



1461 John III. 

1504 Demetrius 

1504 Basil V. 

1534 John IV. 

1584 Theodore I. 

1598 Bo vise Godoimove. 

1605 Theodore II. 

1605 Demetrius II. , assassinated, 



THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OF RUSSIA 

1606 Chousky 
murdered 



1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 

1645 Alexis. 

1676 Theodore III. 

1682 Peter I., the Great. 

1725 Catherine I. 

1727 Peter II. 

1730 Anne, a nun. 



22* 



514 THK world's progress. [ s^o 

RUSSIA, continued. 

1740 John V. ; murdered, July 17, 1762. I 1762 Catherine II. 

1741 Elizabeth. 1796 Paul 1. ; murdered, Feb. 25, 1901. 
1762 Peter III. ; deposed, and died soon af- 1801 Alexander. 

terwards. [ 1825 Nicholas, December 1. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy t* 
assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James 
II.) at a place called R^^e-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. 
This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New- 
market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight 
days before the plot was to take place. March 22, 1683. The plot was discov- 
ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a 
false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. 

RYSWICK, Pbace of, concluded betAveen England, France, Sptx.in, and Holland, 
signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. 

S. 

SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh 
day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- 
dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in 
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- 
sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be 
kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at 
break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one 
shilling on everj^ person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. 
Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform- 
ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, 
meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charit}^, on forfeiture of 
five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. 

SABB ATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts 
of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- 
dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not 
a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath 
was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently 
that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the 
Jews, 1549. 

SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, 
during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every 
forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, 
&-C., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, 
&c. — Josephus. 

SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away 
their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some 
public sports or shoAvs on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to 
revenge this aff"ront, the women became mediators to their fathers in belialf 
of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- 
tween them, 750 b. c. 

SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c. 
The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 
356 B. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all 
the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Pkitarch. 

SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con- 
sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; UsJicr. 
Sacrifices to the gods were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of 



ST. V ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 

Ar^os. 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated 
with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and 
other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- 
fice of the Redeemer, A. d. 33. 
SADDLES In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, 
which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use m 
the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in a.b. 304. They 
were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were m 
use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard, II., introduced them to the En- 
glish ladies. — Slowe. 
SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one 
Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrme 
taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; that the soul 
was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. 
As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the Sama- 
ritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This 
sect began about 200 b. c.~Pardon. 
SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- 
cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- 
proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in 
passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to he 
capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- 
nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are 
authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in 
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year. 
SIGUNTUM Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now 
Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after 
exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the 
ruins of their city rather than surrender to- Hannibal. They burnt them- 
selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became 
master of a pile of ashes and of dead. 
^ SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or 
America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for 
his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed m his voyage of 
discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. 
ST SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied array under lord Wel- 
lington St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most 
heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in rums, 
was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31, 
1813. 
ST SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- 
lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by 
Justinian ; 'and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- 
rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of 
Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the bun, at 
Rome. 
ST VINCENT Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets off the 
"Cape The' latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. 
Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged th^ 
rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 



516 THE world's progress. [ sa^ 

SALAMANCA, Battle or, between the British and allies commanded by lord 
Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 
1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington vvaa 
victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in 
killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy 
was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 
pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed 
to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- 
shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An 
immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 
more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. 

SAL AMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- 
fight, October 20. 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 
366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. After 
this battle. Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, 
with 300.000 menj to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- 
treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, 
now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. 

SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- 
ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- 
fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French 
monarchy, in 51 L — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to 
the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual 
to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but 
this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring 
the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. 

SALT and SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from 
salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near 
Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been 
lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered 
about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine 
salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. 

SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They 
Avere the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and 
were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple 
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- 
tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place 
between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- 
proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lemyriere. 

SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one 
entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety 
of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- 
cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. 
St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- 
minster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- 
tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were 
privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- 
pressed in 1696. 

SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At 
first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot 
ft'ora the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of 
cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and- made of the riche'.5t 
materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, 
princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals -were also worn 
by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, 



»ar] dictionary of dates. 517 

among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of 
which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry 
their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See 
Shoes. 

S A.NDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They 
were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- 
tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard 
of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna- 
vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. 
Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, 
effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of 
Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds 
him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihorihoand his queen died in Eng- 
land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established 
by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 
pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- 
Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- 
aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king. Dr. G. P. Ji dd, an Ame- 
rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2630 tons, belong- 
ing to the Islands— which are important to the United States as a whaling 
station. See OiohyJiee. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- 
enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from 
Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John 
xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon 
at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. 

SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- 
lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her 
amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth 
of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid 
her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. 

SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their 
language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; 
and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part 
of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the 
empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. 
— Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants 
of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. 

SARAGOSSA. Anciently Csesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name. 
Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, 
while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel and 
left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little 
• Jesus in its arms7 ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- 
luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of 
the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by 
the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re 
nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. 

SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman 
der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir 
the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to th( 
American general (Jates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17 
1777. 

SARD AN A P ALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assi/rm. One of the mos< 



518 



THE world's PROGRES?. 



fSAl 



infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to 
his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into 
their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused 
a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon 
it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, 
and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart- 
ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. 
This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches 
thus destroyed were worth a thousand m,ynads oj talents of gold, and tea 
TiMKs as manij talents of silver !!! about i,400,000,000Z. sterling. — Athenceus. 

SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to 
have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls 
(when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from 
whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the 
Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, 
from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has 
been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- 
nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v. Inch 
various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. 



Subjugated by the Romans 



B.C. 231 



Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 

Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 

The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, 
who are, however, too weak to expel 
the Saracens 1132 

Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes 
master of Sardinia - - - - 1324 

Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- 
lish naval forces .... 1708 

Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 

They again lose possession - - • 1719 

Ceded to tlie duke of Savoy, as an equi- 
valent for Sicily .... 1720 

Victor Amadeus, having the title of king 
abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 

Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is 
taken, atid dies in prison - - - 1732 

[The court kept at Turin till 1706, when 
these dominions were overrun by the 
French arms, and shortly afterwards 
annexed to the French empire.] 

The king resigns his crown to his bro- 
ther, duke of Aoust - . June 4, 1802 

Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- 
parte crowned king of the whole. 

December 26, 1805 

Restored to its rightful sovereign, with 
Genoa added to it December 1814 

King Charles Albert, having protested 
against Austrian encroachments in 
Italy, calls out an additional force of 
25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1848 

rroclaims the basis of a Constitution 

Feb. 8, 1848 



Declares war against Austria, enters 
Milan with An army, to assist the po- 
pular cause, and drives the Austrians 
towards Mantua - - March 23, 

Takes Lodi .... April 1, 

Forces the Austrian line near Verona, 
April 17, 

Takes Peschiara - - - May 30, 

Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, 
at Goito 

Sardmian army driven from Vicenza, 
Verona, the Adige, <fec., June-July - 

Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of 
Milan Aug. 4, 

Followed by an armistice - - - 

Rupture of the armistice - -March 

Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under 
Charles Albert, totally defeated by 
Radetsky 

The king abdicates in favor of his son, 
Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and 
leaves the kingdom - March 23, 

Insui'ection at Genoa against the new 
king April 1, 

Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, 
and fully reduced - - April 11, 

Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- 
bon July 28, 

Victor Emanuel opens the legislative 
chamber with a moderate speech, and 
is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. 

Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, 

The chamber votes 100,000 litres to re- 
lieve the refugees fom various parts 
of Italy - ' - - Aug. 30, 



1848 



1848 



1849 



KINGS OP SARDINIA. 



, B. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- 
nuel duke of Savoy. 
1730. Charles Emanuel 
1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 
1795. Charles Emanuel. 



1802. Victor Emanuel. 
1821. Charles Felix. 
1831. Charles Albert, April 27. 
1848.' Victor Emanuel 



SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made ita 
appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in 
this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 



saw] dictionary of dates. 519 

B.C. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand: we 
may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, aC' 
companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. 

SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with 
the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol 
worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern Avaa 
named by them Saterne's-day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, 
die% Satxirni. — Addison, 

SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the 
sun, and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by 
Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1034 ; 
his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by 
Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the 
planets. 

SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long 
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and 
equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, 
however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in . ho 
reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while 
others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that the}'- were first 
celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- 
mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were 
encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased 
to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. 

SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- 
cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was 
adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an 
extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks 
to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. 
Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings 
banks considerably increased up to 1816 ; and the number of depositors in 
that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount 
deposited, 32,661,924^. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- 
ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous 
throughout the United States. 

SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 
395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title 
of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- 
nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor 
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the ki;igdom of Sicily, by treaty, from 
Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country 
in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont 
Blanc, in 1800. 

SAW. Invented by Daedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — Apollodorus. Ta- 
lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. 
Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century; but he 
errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. 
Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 
1555. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur- 
key, the crane in Strasburg. &c. The attempts to introduce them were 



520 THE world's progress. [ SCH 

violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be 
abandoned. 

SAXONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied 
to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the 
same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more thair 
two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many 
centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick 
Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his 
brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- 
gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became 
the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at 
Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put 
down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating 
to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, 
such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other 
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, 
false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. 

SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. 
Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, 
never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, 
and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. 
As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life 
and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he 
did not hurry himself out of the world? "Because," says he, "there 
is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- 
lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — 
Strabo. 

SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the 
earlier ages of the w^orld, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; 
they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was 
the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The 
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Lc. 
Gendre. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- 
tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — 
Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scnlly. In Eng- 
land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the 
education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- 
chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday 
schools) 4,836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of 
schools in Wales is 841, and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland, 
13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of 
public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund 
in Maine amounts to $350.000 ; in Massachusetts, ^'850,000 ; in Connecticut, 
S2 077.641 ; New York, $6,491.803 ; New Jersey, $369,278 ; Delaware, 
$225,000; Virginia. $1.448.261 ; Georgia, $262 300; Alabama, $1.215,381 ; 
Tennessee, $1,346,068 ; Kentucky. $1,221,819 ; Ohio, $1,566,931 ; Michigan, 
$500,000; Indiana, $2,195,149; Missouri, $575,668; Iowa, $132,909. Total 
in 1849, $21,420,275. In the State of New York the number of District 
School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libroj-ies, &c. 

SCIENCE IN THE United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. 
American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United 
States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N, Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of 



«CT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 

Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. 

SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are mcn- 
. tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck 
of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This 
brave admiral returning- from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these 
rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which 
were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men. Avent 
instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romneii iiv,(\ 
Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707.' Sir 
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in 
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. 

SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire 
was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued 
an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, 
when James VI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the 
throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- 
cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each 
country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of 
queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name tf 
Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et seq. 

SCREW, This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping- 
screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, 
is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the 
screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the 
two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each 
handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be 
seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, 
the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the 
assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could 
do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the 
spirals and the length of the handles.— G7ao-. 

SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. 
The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Ee-vptians, and by 
others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to" 1020 b. c, and 
sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach 
to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel 
and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the 
vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and 
their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipcenus and 
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of 
them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact 
so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art 
was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making 
his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were 
so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in 
gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the 
Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of 
the sister art, painting, it revived also; and Donate di Bardi, born at 
Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- 
ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460 — 
Ahb6 Lenght. 

SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and 
Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 



522 



THE world's progress. 



[SEM 



Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia Avere uninhabited, on account 
of the extreme coldness of the chmate. The boundaries of Scythia were 
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast 
tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians mado 
several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 
624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight 
years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in 
Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ 
they invaded the Roman empire. 
SEAS, SoA EREiGNTY OF THE. The claim of England is of very ancient date. 
Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, 
and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England 
over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken 
by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death 
of Charles L, made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated 
by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, 
to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. 

SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign ^o secretaries were appointed ; 
and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for 
Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside ; but in the 
reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the 
American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- 
liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the 
secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of 
State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washmgton, 
Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- 
tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected 
by the people. 

SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of 
things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all 
others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- 
tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- 
sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balhi. 



Jews 

Christians 

Mahometans 



. 4,500.000 

- 225,000;000 

- 155,000,000 



Idolaters, &c., not professing the 
Jewish, Christian, or Maho- 
metan worship - - 665,500,000 



SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first 
seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by 
the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex- 
claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of 
beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- 
cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of 
such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use 
in 1649. 

SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other 
punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And 
even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in 
the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss 
of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paleifs 
Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by 
the legislature of New York in 184 . 

SEMPACH, Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The 
heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic- 
tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es- 



sex] dictionary of dates? 523 

tablished the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo- 
rated with great solemnity at'Sempach. 

SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the 
seventh from March, whence its name, from septivms, seventh. It became 
the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by 
Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate vrould have given this month the name 
of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his 
own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of 
Antoninus : Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor 
Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into 
disuse. 

SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- 
lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and 
on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or 
letter. — Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen- 
tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- 
lemy gave the Jews* about a milHon sterling for a copy of the T.'^stai aent, 
and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Josephus. 
Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. 

SERINGAPATAM, Battles of, called also the battle of Arikera; in which the 
British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts 
were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792, 
After this capture,, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed 
to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 
3,300,000Z. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his 
two eldest sons as hostages. In a new Avar the Madras army arrived be- 
fore Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 
14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. 

SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily 
attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus 
along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many 
of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was 
afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American 
papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the 
coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from 
Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which 
was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an 
Orkney pony, 1808. 

SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 
1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants 
was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on 
servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000Z. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue 
from it had fallen to 201,482Z. 

SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at 
Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the 
Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and 
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 
9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810 ; and was taken by 
assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 
1812. 

SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains 
sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of 
the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 



524 



TflE world's progress. 



[sin 



in 1550. — Vinces Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are 
said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d. 

996.—As/ie. 

SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed 
being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved 
detrimental to our Avoollen manufacture, 8 Edward lY. 1467. — Anderson. 
Their exportation prohibited on pain of tine and imprisonment, 1522. The 
number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some 
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. 

SHERIFF. The office of sheriff" is from shire-reve, governor of a shire or 
county. London had its sheriffs prior to William 1. s reign ; but some say 
that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by "William 
in 1079. 

SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal arm)'' under the duke of Ar- 
gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier 
de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insur- 
gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The 
battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same 
cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. 

SHIP-BUILDING.* The art is attributed to the Egj^ptians, as the first inven- 
tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece 
by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by 
the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- 
land Avas of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called 
the Great Harry, and cost 14,000Z. — Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships 
were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being 
on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 
1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- 
gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping 
of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from 
New York — are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the 
world. See Navy and Steam Vessels. 

SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the 
river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle 
of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons 
— less than London now. In 1840, the' number of ships in the British em- 
pire was 29,174 ; tonnage, 3,277,388 ; seamen, 205,904. These returns were 
exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam Vessels. 

SHIPPING OP THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage 



Years. 


Tonnage. 


Years. 


Tonnage. 


1791 


502,146 


1806 


. 1,208,735 


1792 


564,437 


1807 


. 1.268,548 


1793 


491,780 


1808 


■ 1,242,595 


1794 


628.817 


1809 


- 1,350,281 


1795 


747,964 


1810 


- 1,424.783 


1796 


831,900 


1811 


- 1,232,502 


1797 


876,913 


1812 


- 1,269,997 


1798 


898,328 


1813 


- 1,666.628 


1799 


946,408 


1814 


- 1,159:209 


1800 


972,492 


1815 


- 1,368,127 


1801 


1,033,219 


1816 


- 1.372,218 


1802 


892,101 


1817 


- i;399,911 


1803 


949,147 


1818 


- 1,225,184 


1804 


• 1,042,404 


1819 


- 1,260,751 


1805 


1,140,369 


1820 


- 1.280,160 



Years. 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1834 



different 


periods. 


Tonnage. 


Years. 


1.298,958 


1835 


1,324,699 


1836 


1 ,336,565 


1837 


1,389,163 


1838 


1,423,112 


1839 


1,534,190 


1840 


1,620,608 


1841 


1,741,392 


1842 


1,260,978 


1843 


1,191,776 


1844 


1,267,846 


1845 


1,439,450 


1846 


1,601.150 


1847 


1,758,907 


1818 



Tonnage. 

1,824,940 
1,892,102 
1,896,685 
1,995,639 
2,096,478 
2,180,764 
2,130,744 
2,092,390 
2.158,602 
2,280,095 
2,417,002 
2,562,084 
2,839; >4b 
3,150,502 



BHR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 

SHIP-MONEY It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. 
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- 
tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ; 
Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000/. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 
tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- 
den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place 
in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June 
24, 1643. 

SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Skipping. 

SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- 
ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Fresnoy. 
Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of 
Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period 
from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans, — 
Stowe. 

SHOES. Among the Jews thej^ were made of leather, linen, rush, or 'iv^od. 
Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah 
iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would 
have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that 
they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- 
frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by 
women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, 
like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- 
land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves 
in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for- 
feiture of 20s. and on i)ain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467. 
See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The 
buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe ; Mortimer. 

SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops 
was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in 
London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was 
passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See 
Acts. 

SHREWSBURY, Battle of, betw^een the royal army of Henry IV. and the 
army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of 
Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- 
sisted of about 12,000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry 
was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; Vy'hile his valliant son, 
who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, 
and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- 
formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur 
supported -the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and 
every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 
gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur 
by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory 
to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.] 

SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, 
and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the 
treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51. 



526 THE world's progress. f SIO 

While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by 
the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas !'' he cried, " how is it possible 
that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an 
humble cottage in Britain V The emperor Avas affected with the British 
hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained 
upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith. 

SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- 
fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- 
mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake 
of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and hence arose the 
custom 3^et preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek 
Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. On these 
days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, 
provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; 
and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in 
every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the 
parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- 
ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the 
name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. 

SIBYLS. The Sibyllse were certain women inspii-ed by heaven, who flourished 
in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks 
of one, others of two, Plin}^ of three, ^Elian of four, and Varro of tea, an 
opinion wliich is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is 
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- 
nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon 
the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for 
the other six, wliich being still denied, she burned three more, and again 
demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring 
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created 
to consult them on all occasions, 531 b. c. 

SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, 
a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A 
second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 3^ears before the destruction of Troy, 
1264 B. c. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, 
and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they 
were dispossessed of it b}^ the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors 
suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was 
sejjarated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb- 
dis were formed. — Jwslin ; Livij. 

Arrival of Ulysses. — Homer - - B.C. 1186 i The Romans arrive m Sicily - B.C. 264 

He puts out the eye of Polyphemus - 1186 Agrigentum taken by the Romans - 202 



Syracuse founded. — Eusebius - - 7! 

Gela founded. — J'hucydides - - • 713 

Arrival of the Messenians - - - 668 

Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to 

death. — See Brazen Bull - - ■ 552 

Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela - 496 

Law of Petalism instituted - - 466 

R 3ign of Dionysius - - - - 405 

O Tended with the freedom of the philo- 
sopher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a 

slave. — Stanley .... 386 

Plato ransomed by his friends - - - 386 i Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the 

Damon and Pythias flourish. — See Damon title of count of Sic;ily - - - 1080 

and Pythias .... 386 Roger II., son of the above-named, unites 

The sway of Timoleon - - - - .346 Sicily with Naples, and is crowned king 

Usurpation of Agathocles - - - 317! of the Two Sicilies - - -1130 

Defeat of Hamilcar - ' - - - 309 j Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, king 

Pillage of the temples of Lepari - 304 ' of France, conquers Naples and Sicily. 



Palermo besieged by the Romaai - - 254 

Archimedes flourishes - - - 236 

The Romans take Syracuse, and make all 

Sicily a province - - - - 212 

The servile war began. — Livy • - 135 

Conquered by the Saracens - a.d. 821 

[They made Palermo the capital, and the 

standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 

years. ] 
They are driven out by a Norman j rince, 



see] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



527 



SICILY, contimied. 

depo!5es the Norman princes, and makes 
himself king - - . a. d. 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Sici- 
lians, a general massacre of the invaders 
takes place, one Frenchman only escap- 
ing. — See ii'icilia7i Vespers - • 12S8 

la the same year Sicily is seized by a fleat 
sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; 
buf Naples remains to the house of An- 
jou, which expires - - - 1.382 

Jane, the late sovereign, having left her 
crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre- 
hensions are resisted by Charles Du- 
razzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the 
throne - - - - - - 1386 

A'lphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- 
sion of Naples .... 1453 

Th i kingdom of Naples and Sicily united 
to the Spanish monarchy - . - 1504 

The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an 
insurrection, excitecf by Masaniello, a 
fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises 
two hundred thousand men - - 1647 

Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of 
these commotions, procures himsetf to 
be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few 
days, delivered up to the Spaniards by 
his adherents - - - - - 1647 



Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the 
treaty of Utrecht - - a. d. 

Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI., 
Sardinia being given to him as an equi- 
valent - - - . . 

The Spaniards having made themselves 
masters of both kingdoms, Chai'Ies, son 
of the king of Spain, ascends the tnrone, 
with the ancient title renewed, of king 
of the Two Sicilies _ . " - 

Order of St. Januarius instituted by king 
Cliarles - - - - . 

The throne of Spain becoming vacant, 
Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne 
of the two Sicilies in favor oi his brother 
Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicilv, 
which destroys 40,000 persons - ' - 

Naples preserved from the power of the 
French by the British forces under admi- 
ral Nelson .... 

Violent earthquake in the neigliborhood 
of Naples ...... 

The French invade Naples, depose I. 'ig 
Ferdinand IV., and give the crov/ii of .lie 
Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- 
ther to the emperor of the French 
For subsequent events, see Naples. 



1713 

1720 

iriH 

1738 

17£3 

1783 

1799 
1805 

1806 



KINGS OF THE T"VV0 SICILIES. 

A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he 



resigned it to the emperor Charles 

VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in 

lieu of it. 
1718. Charles VI. emperor. 
1734. Charles, second son to the king of 

Spain, resigned in 1759. 
1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 

king. 



1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 

1808. Joachim Murat ; he was shot, October 13, 
1815. 

1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of 
Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand 
III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- 
dom of the Two Sicilies. 

1826. Francis I. 

1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8. 



SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French hi Sicily, known 
by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 80, 1282. The French had 
become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou 
was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- 
plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- 
lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a 
Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under 
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- 
front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, 
crying out " Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, 
or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number ot 
8000. Even such as had fled to the churche-s found no sanctuary there— the 
massacre became general throughout the island. 

SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out 
for mneteen years.— C/sAer. It held out for twenty-nine years.— Herodotus. 
This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siego 
of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- 
lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen- 
tury :— ■ 



Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- 
■parte ; siege raised after 
60 days, open trenches. 

Algesiras, 1341. 



Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessels 
first used by a French en- 
gineer named Renau, 1816 
Alkmaer, 1573. 



Almeida, August 27, 1810. 
Amiens, 1.597. 
Ancona, 1798. 
Angouleme, 13^. 



628 



THE world's progress. 



[SIE 



STEGESj continued. 

Antwerp, 1576. Use of. in- 
fernal tnach ines, 1553,1585 
1705, 1792, 1814. 

Arras, 1414. 

Ath, 1745. 

Avignon, 1226. 

Azoff, 1736. 

Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- 
ken by escalade on the 
night of April 6, 1812. 

Bagdad, 1248, 

Bangalore, March 6, 1791. 

Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 

Bayonne, 1451. 

Beauvais, 1472. 

Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 
1688, 1717, 1739, 1789, 

Bellesarde, 1793, 1794. 

Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. 

Berscen-op-Zoom, 1583, 1622, 
17^17, 1814. 

Berwick, 1293. 

Besancon, 1668, 1674. 

Bethune, 1710. 

Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 

Bologna, 1512, 1796. 

Bommel ; the inventioji of 
the covert-way, 1794. 

Bonifacio, 1.553. 

Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 

Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. 

Bouchain, 1676, 1711. 

Boulogne, 1545. 

Brannau, 1744, 1805. 

Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. 

Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. 

Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. 

Brisac, 1638, 1703. 

Brussels, 1695, 1746, 

Buda, 1526,1541, 1686. 

Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 
1812 ; raised. The French 
in their retreat blew up the 
7Dorks, .June 13, 1813. 

Cadiz, 1812. 

Caen, 1346, 1450. 

Calais, 1347, (British histo- 
rians affirm that cannon 
were used at C'ressy, 1346, 
and here in 1347. First 
used here in 1388. — Ry- 
mer's Fobd.) 1558, 1596. 

Calvi 1794 

Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. 

Candia ; the largest cannon 
then known inEurope used 
here by the Turks, 1667, 

Capua, 1501. 

Carthagena, 1706. 

Castillon, 1452, 1586. 

Ceuta, 1790. 

Chalons, 1 199. 

Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 
1736, 1794. 

Chanres. 1568, 1-591. 

Chaves, March 25, 1809. 

Cherbourg, 1450. 

Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. 

Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706; July 
10, 1810 ; Jan. 19, 1812. 

Colberg, 1760,1807. 

Colchester, 1645. 



Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 

1430. 
Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. 
Coni, 1691, 1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu, 1715. 

Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. 
Cracow, 1772. 
Cremona, 1702. 
Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 18)3 

to Jan. 12, 1814. 
Dendermonde, 1667. 
Dole, 1668, 1674, 
Douay, 1710, 
Dover, 1216. 
Dresden, 1745, 1813. 
Drogheda, 1649. 
Dublin, 1500. 
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
Edinburgh, 1093. 
Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811. 
Flushing; Aug. 15, 1809. 
Fontenoy, 1242. 
Frederickshal ; Charles XII. 

killed, 1718. 
Frederickstein, August 13, 

1814. 
Furnes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 
Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, 

July, 1806, 1815. 
Genoa 1747, 1800. 
Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809, 
Ghent, 1576, 1708. 
Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See 

Gibraltar), 1782. 
Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
Gottingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. 
Gravelines, 1644 
Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. 
Guastalla, 1702. 
Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
Ham, 1411. 
Harfleur. 1415, 1450. 
Heidelberg, 1688. 
Herat, June 28, 1838. 
Huningen, 1815. 
Ismael: the merciless Suwar- 

row butchered 30,000 men, 

the brave garrison, and 

6000 toomen, in cold blood, 

Dec. 22, 1790. 
Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 

1792, and 1793. 
Landrecis, 1543, 1712. 
Laon, 991, 1594. 
I..eipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 
Lemberg, 1704. 
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. 
Ley den, 1574. 
Liege, 1468, 1702. 
Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. 
Lilo, 1747. 

Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Louisbourg, 1758. 
Lyons, 1793. 
Maestricht, 1576, 1673. Vau- 



ban first came into notte9, 
1676, 1743, 1794. 
Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. 

Malaga, 1487. 

Malta, 15a5, 1798, 1800. 

Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. 

Marseilles, lo44. 

Mentz, by Charles V., 1552, 

1689, 1792 et seq., 1797, 
Melun, 1420, 1559. 
Menin, 1706, 1744. 
Mequinenza, June 8, 1810, 
Messina, 1282, 1719, 
Metz, 1552. 
Mezieres, 1-521. 
Middleburgh, 1572. 
Mons, 1.572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 

1792, 1794. 
Mcntargis, 1427. 
Moniauoan, 1621. 
Montevideo, .Jan. j808. 
Mothe : theFrench, taught by 

a Mr. Midler, an English 

engineer, first practised ths 

art of throwing shells, 1634. 
Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. 
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. 
Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 

1792, 1799, 1806. 
Nice, 1705. 
Nieuport, 1745, 1794. 
Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, 1423, 1563. 
Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. 
Oudenarde,'1708, 1745. 
Padua, 1509. 

Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813, 
Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594. 
Parma 1248. 
Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796. 
Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
Philipville, 1578. 
Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 1638, 
first experiment of firing 
^artillery ii-ricochet, 1734, 

1795. 
Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. 
Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. 
Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. 
Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. 
Quesnoy, 1794, 
Rennes, 1357. 
Rheims, 1359. 
Rhodes, 1522. 
Riga, 1700, 1710. 
Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
Rome, 1527, 1798. 
Romorentin ; artillery firai 

used i7i sieges.-VohvxiKB. 

1256. 
Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1808. 
Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 
Roxburgh, 1460. 
St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. 
Salamanca, June 27 1812, 
Salisbury, 1349. 
Saragossa, 1710, 1809. 
Saverne, 1675. 
Schweidnitz ; fi,rst expert- 

ment to reduce afortreat 



sil] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



5%9 



Thorn, 1703. 

Thouars, 1372,1793. 

Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. 

Toulon, 1707, 1793. 

Toulouse, 1217. 

Toumay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 
1667, 1709, (this was the 
best defence ever drawn 
from countermines), 1745. 
1794. 

Treves, 1675. 

Tunis, 1270, 1535 

Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. 

Urbino, 1799. 



Valencia, Dec. 25, 181.1. 

Valencienes, 1677, 1794. 

Vannes, 1343. 

Venloo, 1702, 1794. 

Verdun, 1792. 

Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1S17. 

Vienna, 1529, 1683. 

Wakefield, 1460. 

Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. 

Xativa, 1707. 

Xeres, 1262. 

Ypres. 1648, 1744, 1794. 

Zurich, 1544. 

Zutphen, 1572, 1586. 



SIEGES, continued. 

by springing globes of com- 
pression, 1762, 1807. 

Sclo (see Greece), 1822. 

Seringapatam. 1799. 

Seville 1096, 1248. 

Smolensko, 1611. 

Soissons, 1414. 

Stralsund ; the method of 
throicing red hot balls first 
practised with certainly, 
1675^13, 1807. 

Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. 

Tarragona, May 1813. 

Temeswar, 1716. 

Thionville, 1643, 1792. 

SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with 
free negroes living- in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whit(!S, 
mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra 
Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. 
The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, 
February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- 
ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at 
Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the 
use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves 
by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for 
weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. 
Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- 
lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. 
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, 
when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the 
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south 
of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510; and Henry IV. 
propagated mulberry-trees and silk- worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. 
In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at 
Kenilworth Castle, 1286, Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. 
Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 
1620. Brought to pei'fection by the French refugees in London, at Spital- 
fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- 
ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. 

SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other 
ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 
1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. 
In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a 
mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum 
at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680Z. In England silver-plate 
and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty 
and ambitious man, a. d. 709. — TyrelVs Hist, of England. Silver knives, 
spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. 

SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by 
Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius l*ictor, 
269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which 
were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin 
in England. See Shillings, &c., and Com. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 

23 



530 THE world's progress. [ SLA 

were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265^, 155, in silver, being a yearly 
average of 4U,UB0l.—ParL Net. 

SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder 
Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome 
about A. D, 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet lie 
had 'many followers, a. d. 67. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in 
France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and 
the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- 
Lirly by Dr, Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan, 
24, 1834. 

SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien. custom both 
among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which 
was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode 
and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the 
empress Justina, mother of the then young Valeiitinian IL a. d. 386, eC'cle- 
siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it 
was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern 
nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with a tedious 
sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregation.s of 
the world. — St. Atcgusti?i. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the churcl» 
music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- 
neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. 

SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and 
distinctions ; as Sote?-, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- 
nefactor ; Phitopater, lover of his father ; Philovieter, lover of his mother, 
&c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- 
tides was called the Just; Phociou the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; 
Xenophon, the Attic Muse ; Aristotle, the Stagyrite ; Pythagoras, the Saviian 
Sage ; Menedaemus, the Eretrian Butt; Democritus, the Lavghing Philoso- 
pher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Svmin, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- 
land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a, d. 1100. The old 
Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, 
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed 
Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald, The Saxons added the word son to the 
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such 
as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and 
other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — 
Rymer's Fcedera, vol. x, 

SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- 
nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaidea into Egypt, Arabia, 
and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. 
The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, 
they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold 
the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 b. c. See 
Helots. 

SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a 
great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. 
By one of the la,ws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent 
debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, they 
had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as j^-ave 
him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b, c, 
Cszcilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 b. c. 



SLA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 531 

SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect- 
ing the sale of slaves waa, made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so 
commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were 
sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- 
land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted b}^ Edward VI. that a 
rnnaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before 
two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take 
the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and 
cause him to work b}' beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that 
space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead 
or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second 
desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, 
arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, md, on running 
away, become a slave to his master, 1547. 

SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola Avas begun by the 
Portuguese in 1481 Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, 
describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized 
a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four 
millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the 
Christian nations during the last 250 years and wars carried on to make pri- 
soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computes that, at the 
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consimied by the Europeans, 
"Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. 
Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. 
the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, 
the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the 
English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, pi-oduced by 
government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn 
from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been 
sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave 
trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, 
allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives 
of Great Britain, France. Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. 
King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 
9, 1847. 

SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was 
the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic 
of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West 
Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the 
colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should 



' Eurojjean avarice has been glutted Avith the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, 
rocollectiiig that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in tlieir own land in war, and 
tliat a filth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — (.'ooper's Letters on ■iiie Si a vs 
Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been ptirpetrated with im- 
puDuy. Not ordy its prosecution, but its effects liaye in some measure called down upon us tha 
frowns and the judgments of heaven. 

'• By foreign wealth an; British morals changed, 
And Afric's sons, and India's, smiie avenged." 

1.>? trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United 
States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it. February 
1815. Napoleon," in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spam, 
1817; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic continuea 
to be encouraged in several states. — Haydn. 



532 



THE world's progress 



[ SMD 



be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and 
that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantable 
negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, 
and carried off 42 000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; 
and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- 
riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of 
slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 
770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament 
in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The 
motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. 
After several other efforts of humane and just m^n, the question was 
introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis- 
ters, March 31. 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament. 
March 25, 1807. 

SLAVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe, 



Many of the early navigators to Ame- 
rica, including Columbus himself, 
carried considerable numbers of the 
aborigines to Europe, where they 
were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- 
bella commanded the liberation of 
Indians held in bondage in her pos- 
sessions, in - - - - 1501 



— but the next i^ear the slaveij of In- 
dians was recognized as lawful ; and 
the practice of selling the natives of 
North America into foreign bondage 
continued for nearly two centuries. 
The excellent Winthrop enumerates 
Indians among his bequests. — Ban- 
croft. 



SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade. 



The first negro slaves in the English 
colonies of North America were 
brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel 
of war - - . - - 1620 

Negroes " who had been fraudulently 
brought from Guinea" to Massachu- 
setts (the first in New England), were 
sent home at the public expense by 
the general court of that colony - 1646 

Gorton and Roger Williams madeade- 
cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 

White slaves were sold in England, to 
be transporied to Virginia : average 
price for 5 years' service, jE5 — while 
a negro was worth j£25. — Bancroft • 1672 

Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 

The Quakers abolished slavery among 
themselves .... 1754 

Resolutions against the slave trade 
passed by the first congress of the 
colonies .... 1774 

Act against the external slave trade 
passed by congress of the United 
Slates 1789 



1794 



[Slavery had been ah'eady prohibited 
in most of the northern States in their 
constitutions.! 
Act of congress against fitting out ves- 
sels for slave trade 
Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- 
ted States from holding property in 
foreign slave vessels. United States 
vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1800 
Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, 
the introduction of slaves into the 
United States .... 1807 
Act declaring the slave trade piracy, 

punishable with death - - 1820 

[Slavery lias, however, been continued 
in thirteen of the States. See Mis- 
souri. ] 
The number of slaves in the United 
States in 1790 was - - - 697,697 

In J 800 896,849 

In 1810 1,191,364 

In 1820 1,538,004 

In 1830 2,010,436 

In 1840 2,487,355 



SLAVES Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted 
slaves and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- 
vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 2O,O0O,000Z. sterling, 
passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act^ 
slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 
slaves became free. 

SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day 
attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- 
tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says he 
slept flfty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so al- 
tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, 



SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 

596 B. c. We have manj , and even very late, instances of persons in 
these countries sleeping- continuously for weeks and months. 

SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the 
small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect 
success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, 
to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. 
Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the aus);)ices of Dr. 
Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- 
sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination. 

SJNIITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a na. 
tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835. and left i;100,000 
" to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution 
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress 
accepting the bequest, and providing for the faltllment of the trust, 1846. 
Corner stone of the building laid. May 1, 1847. 

SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated 
Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The 
French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but 
they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, 
which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, 
the Russian commander-in-chief incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded 
to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. 

SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to 
enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- 
terwards becanjK a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against 
smuggling was enacted in 1736. 

SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures 
made of vast quantities of snufF by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo 
in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice 
soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- 
ably more than 3 000 OOOOZ. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. Avere 
entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263Z. See Tobacco. 

SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express 
mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be 
an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upoD 
in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, washed theirs by 
treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. 
The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it 
was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. 

SOBRAON, Battle of ; India, The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir 
Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- 
my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; 
and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, 
the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British 
loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. 

SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thenars, and 
queen Pomare deposed, Nor. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavoAved by 
the French government. 

SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all 
men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or- 



534 THE world's progress. |_ SOS. 

ganized on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in 
all ages and nations: 'by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among 
the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among the 
Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the 
Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Canipnnella, 
A. D. 1623 ; and by Babeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern 

teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was born at Besangon in 1772 ; 
and who published a varietj^ of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri 
St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of 
England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru- 
mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, 
England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a 
considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made 
by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize 
labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious 
sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and '.he Shaliers, 
adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. 

SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Lse^'us Socinus. 
They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he 
was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct pei'- 
son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ 
died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- 
trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated 
as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. 

SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed 
by fire from heaven. 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. Tlig offence of sodomy 
was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- 
minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive. 
The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry 
VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by 
statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. 

SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- 
tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught 
by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his sj^stem of the universe he 
placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- 
quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most 
accurate calculations,-to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- 
goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican 
system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. 
How truly the poet says— 

" He who through vast immensity can pierce, 
See worlds on worlds compose one universe, 
Observe how system into system runs. 
What other planets circle other suns, 
What varied beings people every star. 
May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope, 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance 
from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated. Friday, October 
80, 1004 B.C., being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Usher. 
Lengleb. 

SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions, 
33 Hem\y VIII. 1511 ; and another statute equally sevtre was passed 5 Eli- 
zabeth. 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing 
with evil spirits wtis made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances 
of the punishment of sorcerers, see Witchcraft. 



SPA j 



DICTIONAHY OF DATES. 535 



SOUDAN OR SOTIJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, 
which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards 
made themseives sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- 
dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him tiiis title in Egypt, 
A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym, 

BOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and v/hen 
the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. 
Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; 
Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, wiiere cannon were 
fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. 
The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles 
on the sea. See Acoustics. 

SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. CEdijms, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. One of them Avas taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, 
where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was 
made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 
mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the 
weight employed amounted to 460 lbs., 1810. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States; first settlement was made 
under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re- 
ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary 
government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- 
ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- 
liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South 
Carolina : received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. 
This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active 
in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by 
the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution 
adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73 ; " nullification ordinance " passed 
Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249.000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830, 
581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. 

SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 
1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which 
ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, 
to the value of 2 014,000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, 
absconded with 100,000'. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000/., and 
returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- 
dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The 
artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of lOOZ., to the 
enormous price of lOOOZ. See Law''s Bubble. 

SCiUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. 

STAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, 
fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively 
plan':ed colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- 
trj^ In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals. 
Aians, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- 
ds tion of the present monarchy. See Tabular Vieivs, p. 65, et seq. 

Alphonsus II. refusing to pay (he Sara- 



The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain 

from the Romans - - a. d. 412 

The Visisoths enter Spain under their 

leader,''Euric - - - - 472 

The Saracens from Arabia invade the 

country - - - 713 et seq. 

Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, procLaimed 

king ofAsturias - • - 718 



cens the annual tribute oflOO virgins, 
war is declared; Alphonsus is victo- 
rious, and obtains the appellation of 
" the chaste" - - a. d. 791 st seq. 

Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. - 8o0 

Ferdinand I., count of Castile, takes the 
title of king - - - - II BO 



536 



THE world's progress. 



{ BPA 



SPAIN, continued. 

Union of Navarre and Castile - A. D. 1031 
The kingdom of Arragon commenced 

under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by 

Henry of Bourbon - - - 1087 

The Saracens, beset on all sides by the 
Christians, call in the aid of the Moors 
from Africa, who seize the dominions 
they came to protect, and subdue the 
Saracens - - - 1091 et seq 

The Moors defeated in several battles 

by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118 

Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one 

great pitched battle - - - 1135 

University of Salamanca founded - 1200 
Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226 

Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- 
ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- 
tile and Leon - - - - 1236 
The kingdom of Granada begun by the 
Moors, their last refuge from the 
i)ower of the Christians - - 1238 
Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252 
The crown of Navarre passes to the 

royal family of France - - 1276 

200,000 Moors invade Spam - - 1327 

They are defeated by Alphonsus XL, 

with great slaughter - - - 1340 

The infant Don Henriquez, son of John 
the First of Castile, first had the title 
of prince of Asturias - - - 1388 

Ferdmand II. of Arragon marries Isa- 
bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole 
Christian dominions of Spain are uni- 
ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 
Granada taken after a two years' siege ; 
and the power of the Moors finally 
extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 
Columbus is sent from Spain to explore 

the western world • - - 1492 

Ferdinand conquers the greater part of 

the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512 

Accessioii of the house of Austria to the 

throne of Spain - - - 1516 

Charles V. o( Spain and Germany re- 
tires from the world . - - 1556 
Philip I. commences his bloody perse- 
cution of the Protestants - -1561 
The Escurial began building - - 1562 
Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580 
The invincible Spanish Armada de- 
stroyed. See Arviada, and Naval 
Battles .... 1588 
Philip 111. banishes the Moors and their 
descendants, to the number of 900,000, 
from Spain - - - - 1610 
Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 
Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704 
Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 
Charles III. , king of the Two Sicilies, 

succeeds to the crown - - 1759 

Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,- 
000 dollars, seized by the English 

Oct. 29, 1804 
Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar., 

Battle of ■ - Oct. 31, 1505 

Sway of ihe prince of Peace - - 1806 

Conspiracy of the pnnce of Asturias 

against his father - July 25, 1807 

Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 



The French take Madrid - a. d. March, 1808 
The prince of Peace dismissed by the 

king of Spain - March 18, 18(\8 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of 

Ferdinand - - March 19, 1803 

And at Bayonne, in favor of his " friend 
and ally,-' Napoleon, when P'erdi- 
nand relinquished the crown. May 1, 1808 
The French are massacred at Madrid, 

May 2, 1808 
Napoleon assembles the notables at 

Bayonne - - May 25, 1808 

Joseph Bonaparte enters Madi-jd, as 

king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 

He retires trom the capital - July 29, 1808 
Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 
Madrid retaken by the French, and Jo- 
seph restored - - Dec. 2, 1808 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned 
in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, 

Dec. 5, 1808 
[Spain now becomes the scene of the 
struggle called the Peninsular War, 
for the events of which see the arti- 
cles severally.] 
Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 
Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 
Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820 
Ferdinand swears to the constitution of 

the Cortes - - March 8, 1820 

Removal of the king to Seville, and 

thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823 

The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 
They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 
Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 
Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- 
solved ; executions - Oct. 1823 
Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 
The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828 
Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 
Salique law abolished - March 25, 183G 
Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- 
ing the king's indisposition, and a 
complete change made in the minis- 
fry - - - Oct. 25, 1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legititnate 
successor to his brother's throne, 
should the king die - April 29, 1833 
Death of Charles IV., and his queen 
assumes the title of governing queen, 
until Isabella II., her infant daughter, 
attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 
The royalist volunteers disarmed, with 

some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 
Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with 

his family - - June 18, 1834 

He suddenly appears among his ad- 
herents in Spain - ~ July 10, 1834 
The peers vote the perpetual exclusion 
of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1834 
[Here commences the desolating civil 
war, in which British auxiliaries take 
the side of the queen.] 
Espariero gains the battle of Bilboa, 

and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1836 

General Evans retires from the com- 
mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- 
rives in Londoij, after having achieved 
various successes in Spain - June 20, VS'il 
iMadrid is declared in a state of siege. 

Aug. 11, 18J7 
[Espartero and other Christino generals 



spa] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



537 



SPj^JN, continued. 

engage with the Carlists, and nume- 
rous conflicts take place with various 
success.] 

Madrid is again declared in a slate of 
siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1S38 

The Spanish Cortes dissolved • June 1, 1839 

The Carlists under Marota desert Don 
Carlos - - - Aug. 25. 1839 

M'irota and Espartero conclude a treaty 
of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 

Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 

Sept. 13, 1839 

Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to 
maintain the war, enters France with 
a body of his troops - July ", 1840 

The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- 
bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 

Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 

The queen regent appoints a new min- 
istry, who are nominated by Espar- 
tero - - - - Oct. 5. 1840 

The abdication of the queen regent of 
Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 

[She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; 
visits Fi-ance ; next settles in Sicily ; j 

but returns to France.] I 

Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the | 

papa! nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 i 

The Spanish cortes declare Espartero j 

regent during the minority of the \ 

young queen - - Apr. 12. 1841 

Insurrection in favor of Christina is j 

commenced at Pampeluna by Gen.' 
O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 

It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of 
the kingdom - - Oct. 1841 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at | 

Madrid, and his followers are repuls- i 

ed, and numbers of them slain by the I 

queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 ! 

Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is i 

sliot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 

Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 

Roilil, the constitutional general, enters 
Vittoria - - - Oct. 2i, 1841 

Espartero decrees the suspension of 
queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 

Es|)artero makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 

An insurrection breaks out at Barce- 
lona ; the national guard joms the 
populace - - Nov 13, 1842 

Battle in the streets between the national 
guard and the troops : the latter lose 
500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 



The troops evacuate the citadel, and 
retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1842 

The regent Espartero arrives before 
Barcelona, and demands its uncoiuli- 
tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 

Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1342 

It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 

The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 

The revolutionary junta is reestabiish- 
ed %y Barcelona - - June U, 1843 

[Corui na, Seville, Burgos, San'.iago, 
and numerous other towns, shortly 
afterwards " pronounce" against the 
regent Espartero.] 

Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, 
which surrenders - ■■ July 13, 1843 

Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 

The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843 

[The revolution is completely succe.ss- 
ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and 
embarks on board her Majesty's ship 
Malabar. ] 

The new government deprive Espartero 
of his titles and rank - Aug. 16, 1843 

Espartero and his suite and friends ar- 
rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 

Reaction against the new government 
breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 

The young queen Isabella II., 13 years 
old, is declared by the cortes to be of 
age - - - Nov. 8, 1843 

The queen- mother. Christina, returns to 
Spain - - - March 23, 1844 

Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- 
linquishes his right to the crown, in 
favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 

Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 
12; they return to power, iMJircli 17 ; 
and again resign • - March 28, 184G 

The queen is publicly aflianced to her 
cousin, don Franci-^co d'Assiz, duke 
of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1S46 

Escape of Don Carlos and others Trom 
France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 

Marriage of the queen; and marriage 
also of the infanta Louisa to the thjke 
de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846 

[The Montpensier marriage occasions 
the displeasure of England, and dis- 
turbs the friendly relations of the 
French and English governments.] 

Amnesty granted by the queen to po- 
litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1S46 

The queen has a son born, who dies the 
same day - - - July 1, 1850 



KINGS OF SPAIN. 



A,t5. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered. 
411. Athalsus: murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Wallia. 

420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 
450. Torrismunn , assassinated by his fa- 
vorite. 
452. Theodoric 11. 
466. Euric. 

484. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
507. Gcsalric; killed in battle. 
511. Auialaric; killed in battle. 
531. Theodat; assassinated by a madman. 

23* 



548. Theodisele ; murdered for female vio- 

lation. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner and i>ut to death. 
554. Athanagild. 

567. From this year to the year 687, sixteen 

kings reigned. 
687. Egica or Egiza. 
697. Vitizza. 
741. Roderick; killed in battk in 714. 

An interregnum till 
718. Pelagius. 
736. Favila ; killed by a boar in hunting. 



538 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[spa 



SPAIN, continued. 

738. Al]ihnnsus I. ; Catholic. 
757. Froila I.; killed by his brother Aure- 

liiis. 
768. Aurelius. 
774. Silo. 
783. Mauregat. 
789. Veremond. 

79;. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 
321. Riimiio I ; he put 70,000 Saracois to 

the sword in one battle. 
SOO. Ordogno I. 
802. Alphonsus III. ; surnamed the great; 

deposed by hia son. 
910. Garcias. 
914. Oi-dogno II. 

923. Froila II. 

924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 
931. Raiiiiro II. , killed in battle. 
950. Ordogno 111. 
955. Ordogno IV. 
95G. Sancho I., the Fat; poisoned with an 

apple 
967. Rarniro III. 
982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty. 
999. Alphonsus V. 

Viscu. 
1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 
1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and 

Castile. 
1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; 

Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and 

Garcias in Galicia. 
1072. Alphon.sus VI., the Valiant; in Castile 

and Leon. 
1109. Alphonsus VII. 
1122. Alphonsus VIII. 

1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, in Castile; 

Ferdinand in Leon. 

1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 

1214. Henry L 

1236. Ferdinand IIL the Holy; in him Cas- 
tile and Leon were reunited, and per- 
petually annexed. 

1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 

1284. Sancho IV., tlie Brave ; Peter III. in 

Arragon. 
1295. Ferdinand IV. 
1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 



killed at the siege of 



1.350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated 
by Edward the Black Prince ol" Eng- 
land; afterwards beheaded by hh 
subjects. 

1368. Henry II., the Gracious; poisoned by 
a monk. 

1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile. 

1390. Henry IIL, the Sickly. 

1406. John II. 

1454. Flenry IV the Impotent. 

1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom, 
by his marriage with Isabella, the 
kingdoms of Castile and Arrar^on 
were united. 

1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queen 
Joan. 

1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 

1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germimy, 
resigned both crowns, and retired to 
a monastery. 

1555. Philip II., married Mary, queenreg- 
nant of England. 

1598. Philip HI., son of the preceding; he 
drove the Moors from Grenada and 
the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV., his son; a reign of nearly 
continuous and unfortunate wars with 
the Dutch and France. 

1665. Charles II. 

1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to 
Louis XIV. of France ; resigned. 

1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few 
months. 

1724. Philip V. ; again. 

1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamed the Wise; he 
distinguished his reign by acts of 
liberality and beneficence. 

17.59. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 

1783. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of his 
son and successor. 

1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of 
of France, also forced to resign. 

1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- 
leon ; deposed. 

1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded 
by his daughter. 

1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29 ; who came to the 
throne when three years of age. 

While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- 
try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- 
able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From 
the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and 
the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, 
and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from 
the kingdom. 

SPANISH ARMADA against Engi,and. See article Armada. 

SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one ol the most considerable republics of 
the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without 
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for 
eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is 
supposed to have been the first king, 1516 b. c. From Lacedasmon the fourth 
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the 
city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history of 
Lacedsemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, 
from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidae, comprising about four hun- 



SPI 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 



dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidse as absol.ite monarchs, till 
Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the 
government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the 
establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors 
by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the 
appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- 
dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- 
jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- 
two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views: Greece, page 7, et 
seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They 
cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their 
laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- 
tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never 
were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They 
hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- 
selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The 
women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall 
of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their 
own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, tney brought 
disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. 

SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- 
known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented 
in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, 
about A. D. 1285.— Ge?t. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own 
illustrious countryman, according' to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly 
given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor Avas Salvi- 
no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- 
tacles. 

SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- 
ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- 
vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed 
by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the 
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to 
the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 

SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the 
goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- 
dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with 
her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to 
her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a 
garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the t^'^- 
ple of Fortune. Augustus Cassar usually wore no garments but such as 
were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- 
vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton 
was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. 
Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine. with cylinders. Arkwright's 




gri 

and. for this ingenious 

worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream 

of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which 

is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P dllips. 

SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it waa 
the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city \\a,s burnt by the 
French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1097- The diet to 



540 THE world's progress. [ STA 

condemn the reformers M^as held at Spires, called there by the emperor 
Charles V., 1529, This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. 

SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- 
rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of 
numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors 
have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support 
of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, 
Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- 
lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, 
on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2 830,263 gallons; brandy, 
1,1C7J56 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 
gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons; mak- 
ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty 
amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns. 

SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it 
Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it 
was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be 
the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from 
the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. 

STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties Avas by 
statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed 
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was 
commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which 
stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable 
statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain 
which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the 
United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- 
menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- 
duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,535Z. ; and in 
1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c. 

STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the 
cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross 
to Constantino, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on 
the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- 
peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. 
Standard of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- 
ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno- 
rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace The 
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- 
ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. 

STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished 
with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and 
part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its 
roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), 
but from the Slarra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- 
chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- 
ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. 
The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of 
the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent 
of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in 
their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- 
temptible. — Goldsmith. U was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were 



STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541 

from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting loice.— « 
Gibbo7i. 

STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b, c 
Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably 
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 p.. c. Job, He- 
siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library 
at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in 
which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- 
covered l)y Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronoimj and Solar System. 

^I'ATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- 
viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- 
sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- 
vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a 
a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming 
the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if 
they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to 
concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National AssemUy. 

STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the 
dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of 
great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was 
not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in 
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 

STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter 
passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among 
the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the 
request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with 
ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden 
statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the 
art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast 
models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among 
the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that 
of Charles I. in 1678. 

STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- 
nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the 
marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as "a way to drive up 
water by fire," a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- 
ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. 



Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 

Captain Savery's engine constructed 
for raising water - - - 1698 

Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal 
Society, about - - - - 1699 

Atmospheric engine by Savery and 
Newcomen .... 171.3 

First idea of steam navigation set forth 
in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 

Watt's invention of performing conden- 
sation in a separate vessel from the 
cylinder .... 1765 

His first patent - ... 1769 

His engines upon a large scale erected 
in manufactories, and his patent re- 
newed by act of parliament - - 1775 

Thomas Paine proposed the application 
of steam in America - - - . 1778 

Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 



Watt's expansion engine - ... 1778 

Double acting engines proposed by Dr. 
Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 

Walt's double engine, and his first pa- 
tent for it granted .... 1781 

The marquess Jouffroy constructed an 
engine on the Saone - - - 1781 

Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- 
tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's 
Am. Curios.) .... 1783-4 

Oliver Evans' experiments in the 
same 1785-6 

Rumsey's experiments in the same in 
Virginia 1787 

W. Symington made a passage on the 
Forth and Clyde canal - - - - 1789 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by 
Henry Jackson • - • - • 1791 

Jouffroy's experiments in France • • 179i* 



wz 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



[ STB 



1802 
1802 

1804 

1804 

1806 



STEAM ENGINE, continued. 

Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer 
on the Hudson 1797 

First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 

The experiment of Mr. Symington re 
peated wiih success .... 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine 

Oliver Evans' experiments in locomo- 
tive engines in Penn. 

Woolfs double cylinder expansion en- 
gine constructed .... 

Manufactories vi'armed by steam 

Fuiton started a steam-boat on the river 
Hudson, built by himself, and named 
"The Norih River;" engine by Boid- 
ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33 
hours : first steam navigation on 
record - ... 1807 

The next three steam-boats in the world 
were the Car of Neptune, - - 1808 

The Paragon 1811 

The Richmond 1812 

all in New York. 

Steam power to convey coals on a rail- 
way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 1811 

Steam vessels first commenced plying 
on the Clyde (.fikst in Europe) - 1812 



Steam applied to printing in the Times 
office. See Presn .... 1814 

There were five steam vessels in Scot- 
land (Pari. Returns) in - . . 1813 

First steam vessel on the Thames 
brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow ISlf 

The first steamer built in England {Pari. 
Returns) 1815 

The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, 
went from New York to Liverpool 
in 26 days .... July 15, 1S13 

First steamer in Ireland . . . 1820 

Captain Johnson obtained ]0,000Z. for 
making the first steam voyage to In- 
dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed 
from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1825 

Locomotive steam carriages on rail- 
ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 

The Railway opened (see Liverpool.) - 1830 

The Great TFes/e77i arrives from Bris- 
tol at New York, and the S/rins from 
Cork, same day, being their first voy- 
age, ill 18 days - - June 17, 1838 

War steamers built in England . . 1838 

First steamer of the Cunard line was 
the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas- 
sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840 

STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States 
g-ave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153 6G0 tons; bnt these 
returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was veiy great : 
probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300 000 
tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, 
which made her first passage to Southampton in June 184:7. The whole 
number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United 
Stales, in 1838, was 3,010. 

STEAM VESSELS of the BRITISH EMPIRE. 

STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ; 



Year. 


England. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 


Dependencies. 


Total. 


1S14 - 





5 





1 


6 


1815 


■ S 


5 





2 


10 


1820 - 


u 


14 


3 


9 


43 


1825 


-112 


36 


3 


17 


168 


1830 - 


- 203 


61 


31 


20 


315 


1835 


-344 


85 


68 


48 


545 


1845 - 


- 694 


139 


79 


89 


1001 



STEEL- YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated ba- 
lance in the Pentateuci The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned in 315 B. c. 

STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac- 
tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the 
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, 
improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The 
Ars Scribendl Choj-acteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- 
tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. 
There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement 
and great simplicity. 

STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking 
the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — 

Anderson. 

STEREOTYPE. See Printing. It is said that stereotyping was known in 
1711 ; but this is doubted. " It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged 



STO J DICT10N.\RY OF DATES. 543 

of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by 
others to Mr. Tillocli, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran- 
cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype 
printing- was iti use in Holland, in the last century; and a quarto Bible and 
Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro- 
duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem. 

STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to hare 
been invented by Cadvvallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of his 
plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan 
to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- 
ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- 
thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that 
which Golden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New 
York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Gatechism. In 
June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. 
J. W. Francis. 

STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1517. In 
1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- 
ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones 
any more. — Howell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; 
for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with 
a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and 
the present was then much taken notice of — Idem. Others relate that Wil- 
liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, 
a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like 
them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind 
made in England, 1564. — Sbowe. 

STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced 
into Florence in 1310. The English funding system may be said to have 
had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 
837,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- 
missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols 
averaged in the year — 



1780 - je63 13 6 


1795 


- je74 8 6 


1810 


- Ml 16 3 


18-25 


■■ je90 8 


1785 - - 68 6 6 


1800 - 


-66 3 3 


1815 - 


- 58 13 9 


1830 - 


- 89 15 7 


1790 71 ,2 6 


1805 


- 58 14 


1820 


. 68 12 


1840 


- 89 17 6 


See Publu Debt. 















STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher ; they obtained the name 
of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch 
or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- 
preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected 
the same stiffiiess, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this 
sect is famous for. — Stanley. 

STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone 
bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge 
exists at Crowland. which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridoes 
The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone 
china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. 
Stone paper was made in 1796. 

STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. 
Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosias' 
in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a. i>' 



544 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[STO 



475. — Geojfrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monument of Am- 
brosius, a. d. 50D. — Pohjdore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in 
which the Druids officiated. — Dr. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- 
ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- 
tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker- baskets. 

SrORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo- 
rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d, 944 
One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming 
from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses 
fell, October 5, 109L One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, 
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against 
the barons, perished, 1215. — HoUnshed. 



It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- 
pests of rain and wind, a.d. 12:33. 

A storm with violent lightnings; one flash 
passed through a chamber where Edward 
I. and his queen were conversing, did them 
n^ damage, but killed two of their attend- 
ants : 1285. — Hoveden. 

A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in 
France, which fell on the army of Edward 
III., then on its march. The hail was so 
large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to 
conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. 

When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe- 
mia, on setting foot on shore an awful 
storm arose, and her ship and a number 
of others were dashed to pieces in the har 
bor, Jan. 1382. — HoUnshed. 

Richard's second queen also brought a storm 
with her to the English coasts, in which 
the king's baggage was lost, and many 
ships cast away, 1389 — Idem. 

A hurricane throughout Europe, which did 
very considerable damage ; more remark- 
ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the 
day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. 

A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 
200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of 
their crews, 1696. 

The storm called the ^^ Great Storm," one of 
the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
land. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbors, and on the 
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives 
was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* 

A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, 
it is said, perished upon the mountains, in 
their march to attack Drontheim, a. d. 
1719. 

One in India, when many hundi-eds of ves- 
sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, 



greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 
S0,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. 

A dreadful hurricane at the Havana; many 
public edifices and 4048 houses weie de- 
stroyed, and lOtX) inhabitants perished, 
Oct. 2-5, 1768. — Annual Register. 

An awful storm in the north of England, in 
which many vessels were destroyed, and 
4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29,1775. 

At Sural, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 
of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages anci 
farms laid waste in France, 1785. 

A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the 
Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 
1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 
104 vessels were lost. 

At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred 
vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 

Awful hurricane on the western coast of 
England, and in Ireland. The storm raged 
through Cheshire, Stafl^ordshire, and War- 
wickshire; '4.0 persons were killed in Li- 
verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 
100 were drowned in the neighborhood; 
the coast and harbors were covered with 
wrecks; the value of two of the vessels 
lost being nearly half a million sterling. In 
Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other 
places, more than 200 houses were blown 
down, and as many more were burnt, the 
wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- 
ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- 
hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jaa. 
6-7, 1839. 

Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 
houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct. 
10-11, 1846. 

Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, «fcc. Aug. 
21. 1848. 



STOVES, The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German 
stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of 



* The loss su,=itained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling. The number of per- 
sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in 
ehips blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Tv^ el vc 
mcn-of-v/ar, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Treea 
were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, 
and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley. and the persons who were with him. The bi- 
shop ol Bith and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multi 
tudes of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 



bug] dictionary of dates. 545 

the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port- 
able braziers. See Chimneys. 

STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, by Louis- 
Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- 
cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of 
the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the 
French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, 
by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France. 

STRATTON-HILL, Battle op, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the 
forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the 
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed 
and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 
1643. 

STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized 
by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglel. 
It was revived by D'Udine about a, d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- 
formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in 
England. 

STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be 
but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c. 
Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See 
Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act 
passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 
1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. 

STYLE. ROYAL, of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and 
Titles. 

SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- 
ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III, on account of the 
war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of 
England for the last time by James L, 1624, but they were contained in a 
bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- 
reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- 
ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable 
of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at 
Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting 
powers should enter into a s^>parate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, 
Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to 
the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. 

SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging 
to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed 
Aug. 9, 1841, Re-enacted in a new form, 184-, 

SUCCESSION, ACT op. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics 
from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the 
crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of 
June 12, 1701. 

SUCCESSION, The WAR op. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by 
the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and 
unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French 
prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. 
Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies 
withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 to 
1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. 
SUGAR, Saccharum officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 



546 THE world's progress. [ SUIi 

ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchiis, admiral of Alexander, 
325 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the 
Juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was 
produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — 
Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 
1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the 
Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's 
History of Charles F.* 

S1JGAR-R]<I FINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- 
ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1659, 
though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years 
sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor- 
timer. See Beet Root. 

SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish 
history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman 
philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from 
the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- 
stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, think- 
ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- 
troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of 
illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church, 
in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration shoxild be 
made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- 
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the 
statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation 
of land and goods. 

A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. 

Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 
Of marsharBerihier - - June 1, 1815 
Of Samuel Wiiitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 
Of sir Samuel llomillv - - Nov. 2, 1818 
Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 
Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 
Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 

There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of 
the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount 
Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw^ himself, in 1820, 
into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the 
furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- 
able passion for sircide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could 
not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree 
being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should 
be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- 
nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being 
previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. 

SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and 
given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the 
Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vatticr. It 

• About the year 1138 the sugai--cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria'to Sicily, thence 
to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date s i^ .^.r 
was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VII!. Mr. 
Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript 
letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eights 
l)encc a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 c wts., 
•jf which nearly four millions were for hoi^e consumption; and the duty amounted to about fiva 
aiillion.'j and a half sterling. 



Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 
Of lord James Beresford - April 27, 1841 
Oftheearl of Munster - March 20. 1842 
Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25! 1845 
Ofcol. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845 
Of Haydon, the eminent painter 

June 22, 1845 



SUP ] DICTIONAPcY OF DATES. 647 

was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth 
century of the Hegira. 

SUMMATRA, Island of. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committee 
piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States 
frigate Potoliac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. 
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more 
than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk ; and that she should 
not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely. 
450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among 
the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the 
dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which 
was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be 
left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ea- 
ward in. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. 

SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve sphereir, about 
629 B.'^c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, 
about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, 
and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200. when it was brought 
into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- 
hleo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculae 
were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed 
by Gassendi. Ey the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened 
the sun's disk irf July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its 
motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- 
cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 
1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length 
taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. 

SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first 
erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided 
into hours, 293 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.— 
Abbe Lenglet. 

SUNDAY, OR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- 
vine . adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the 
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that 
day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the 
sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews 
on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance 
was made by Constantine. a. d. S21. —Eusebius. The council of Orleans 
prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Sunday Sports, au- 
thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- 
lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy 
and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary 
cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by 
the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of pavWanwnt.—Rapiu. 
Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780, 
Act of parliament closing all the post-oflices on Sunday passed May 1850. 

SUl'REMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the 
church as \vell as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made 
head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry Vffl. 
shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Our 
kings have from that time had the title of supreme he.ulof the church con- 
ferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 



548 



THE world's progress. 



f SWE 



the ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous otherSj 
beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made 
a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions 
the ambe, the ancient instrument with Avhich they reduced flislocated bones. 
Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus .^gineta. 
in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century 
sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was 
confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the 
illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England 
surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 
1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 

SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- 
ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was 
enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the 
drawing of teeth." The surgeons olatained another charter in 1745; and 
a new charter in 1800. 

SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d. 
316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying 
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The 
garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; 
and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, 
near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from 
rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- 
sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait 
is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. 

SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from 
one of the wives of "Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his 
death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows 
have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 
700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present 
at many of these sacrifices. On February 4. 1743, he saw a young and 
beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, 
thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every 
witness of the scene. — Holvjeli. The English government in India have dis- 
couraged these s.lf-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference 
with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished hy 
English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though 
rarely, taken place. 

SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d. 528. Introduced in judicial 
proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by 
fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for 
the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See 
Oaths. 

SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- 
tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory 
on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been 
masters of the country. 



Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.C. 

During this reign, Odin, surnaraed the 

Divine, at the head of a swarm o\ 



57 



barbarians, falls upon the Nort* 
Europe, making vasts couquesf^ 



SWE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



549 



SWEDEN, continued. 

Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- 

lingais, reigns - - - B.C. 32 

[Tlie" early history of the kingdom is 
altogether involved in fables and ob- 
scurity.] 

Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- 
duces Christianity among his people, 
about - - - - AD. 1000 

Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike 
people and invasions of other coun- 
tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- 

gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 
Stockholm founded - . - - I'-i^O 

Magnus Lade I us establishes a regular 

form of government - - - 1279 

The crown of Sweden, which had been 
hereditary, is made elective ; and 
Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, 
or the Foolish, king of Norway, is 
elected ----- ^3^8 
Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1301 

The crown made elective - - J320 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - -1365 

Sweden united to the crown of Denmark 

and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 

University of Upsal founded - - 1476 
Christian II., '• the Nero of the North," 
massacres all the Swedish nobility, to 
fix his despotism - - - 1520 

The Swedes delivered from the Danish 

yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523 
He makes the crown hereditary, and 

introduce.^ the reformed religion ■ 1544 
The titles of .ountand baron introduced 

by Eric XIV. - - - - 1561 

The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, 

between 1612 and - - - 1617 

He is slain at Luizen - - - 1633 

Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 
Abdication of Christina - - ■ ^^| 

Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 
Charles XII., " the madman of the 

North," begins his reign - ' - 1699 
He makes himself absolute abolishes ^^^^ 
the senate - - - * ' * 

KINGS OF 

A s 825 Regnard Lobrock. 

* * * Reigns uncertain.] 
966 Eric, the Victor. 
994 Olaf, or OlifSckotkong. 

1026 Edmund Jacobson. 

1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 

1041 Haquin. 

1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 

1060 Inso I. ; assassinated by his brother. 

1064 Halstan. 

1080 Philip. 

1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 

1130 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 

1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 

1144 Suercher II. 

1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels. 

1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- 
nute, who reigns. 

1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 

1192 Suercher III., son of Charles; killed m 
battle. 

1211 Eric XI. 

1220 John I. 



Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is 
defeated by the czar of Russia. See 
Pultowa - - - A.D. 1709 

He escapes to Bender, where after three 
years' protection, he is made prison- 
er by the Turks - - - 1713 

He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, 
and fighting numerous battles, he is 
at length killed at the siege of Frede- 
rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 

Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- 
K government - - - - 1719 

Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- 
terwards called Linnaeus - ■• 1741 

Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, 
who are beheaded - - - 1756 

Despotism re-established • - 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted - -1772 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by ount 
Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he 
expired the 29th - - - 1792 

The regicide was dreadfully scourged 
with whips of iron thongs three suc- 
cessive days; his right hand was cut 
ofr, then his head, and his body im- 
paled - - - May 18, 1792 

Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- 
vernment assumed by his uncle, the 
duke olSudermania - March 13, 1809 

Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of 
Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 

Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte 
Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of 
Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London, 

Nov. 12, 1810 

Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 

Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against 
Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 

Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- 
ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 
Bernadotte ascends the throne ot Swe- 
den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 1818 
Treaty of navigation between Great 
Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 

I 

SWEDEN. 

1223 Eric XII. 

1250 Waldemar. 

1276 Magnus II. 

1290 Birger II. 

1318 MasnusIIL ; dethroned by hissubjecta 

1365 Albert. 

1397 Margaret. 

1411 EricXin. ; abdicated. 

1441 Christopher. 

1448 Charles Vlll. 

1458 Christian L 

1497 John IL 

1520 Christian II. 

1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 

15.56 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 

1569 John III. 

1.592 Sigismond I., king of Poland. 

1606 Charles IX. 

1611 Gustavus Adolphus II. 

1632 Christina; resigned her crown to 

1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke af Dexix 

Ponts. 
1660 Charles XI. 



550 



THE world's progress. 



[3W0 



SWEDEN, amtmued. 

1699 Charles XII,; killed at the siege of 

Frederickshall. 
1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her 

husband was elected. 
1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 
1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 



1771 Gustavus III., Adolphus. 

1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 

1S09 Charles XIII. 

1813 Charles .lohu XIV., Beriiadotte, Feb. 5, 

1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. 



SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mj^stics, so called from the learned but ec- 
centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Nev 
Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to bo es- 
tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of 
the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and 
ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its 
proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. 
His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, 
but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- 
rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. 

SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered 
by Julius Caisar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. 
Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz 
was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in 
Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; 
afcer which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given 
name to the whole confederacy. 



The Helvetian .converted to Christian- 
ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612 
Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 
Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 
Fribourg built by Benhold IV. - - 1179 

Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions 
the memorable revolt under the pa- 
triot William Tell. ■ - 1.305 
Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 
A malignant fever carries off, in the can- 
ton of Basle, 1 1 ,000 souls - - 1314 
Form of government made perpetual - 1315 
Lucerne joins the confederacy - - 1335 
The canton of Zurich joms, and be- 
comes head of the league - - 1350 
Berne, Claris, and Zua; join - - 1351 
The Orisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 
Second league of the Orisons - - 1424 
The third league of the Orisons - 1436 
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay 

of France, under Louis XI. - -1480 

Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 

Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges 

Swiss independence - - - 1499 

SchatThausen joins the union - - 1.501 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged 

by France and other powers " - 1516 
The Retbrmation begins at Basle ; the 

bishop compelled to retire - 1519 

The Orison leagues join the Swiss .on- 

federacy as allies - - - 1.544 

Appenzel joins the other cantons - 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts 
Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, 
and penetrates the town ; but in the 
end is defeated - - - 1602 

[This circumstance gives rise to an an- 
nual fe!5tival connnemorative of their 
escape from tyranny.] 



Independence of Switzerland recognized 
by the treaty of Westphalia (see 
Westphalia, Peace of ) - a. d. 1648 

[From this period until the French Re- 
volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- 
lity, disturbed only by the changes 
arising out of iheir various constitu- 
tions. I 

Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 

Domestic strife in Geneva, between the 
aristocratic and democratic parties ; 
France interferes - - - 1781 

1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum 
in Ireland (see Geneva) • - 1782 

Swiss guards ordei-ed to quit France - 1792 

Helvetic confederation dissolved; its 
subjugation by France - - 1798 

The number of cantons increased to 19 ; 
the I'ederal government restored ; and 
a landamman appointed by France, 

May 12, 1802 

Uri, Schweitz, and Undervvald separate 
from the republic - July 13, 1802 

Switzerland joins France with 6,000 
men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 

The Allies entered Switzerland in the 
spring of 1314. The number of can- 
tons increased to 22, and the indepen- 
dence of Switzerland secured by the 
treaty of Vienna - - - 1315 

Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 

— passes resolves against the Sonder- 
bund, and troops of Uri attack canton 
Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 

Forces of the diet attack Fribur<r, Nov. 
10, rmd take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 

Neufchatel declares independence, 

Feb. 29, 1818 



SWORDS. Thev were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 
1879 B. c. — iluiv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implements 



SYR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



551 



of wai The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- 
sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at 
an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steol 
swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The 
Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter fi'om a celebrated 
artiticer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them tlieir Andrew 
Perraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 
1724. 

SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The 
date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. 
In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary 
queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she 
planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have 
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port 
Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally 
intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of 
the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. 
The town is now becoming considerable in extent and populatiou ; and it 
has a legislative council, which was lirst held July 13, 1829. See Neio South 
Wales; Convicts, d^-c. 

SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had 
synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others 
to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- 
gogues. There are in London six synagogues. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by 
Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his 
legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation 
only. The first of this kind held in England Avas at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the 
last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but 
by royal authority, 25 Henry VIH., 1533. 

SYNOD OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to 
which deputies were sent from England and ail the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, 
and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618, 
~Aitze77ia. 

SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c. — Eusebius. 749 b. c.— Univ. Hist, 
Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was 
slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with 
many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, 
Aug. 6, 1757. 

SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned 
from Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved 
in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires {which 
see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after the battle 
of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidie) founded the celebrated city 
of Antioch. 



Seleucus, suriiamed Nicator, i. e. Con- 
queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 

iEra of the Seleucidoe (ii;//zc/i see) - 312 

Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death 
ofAntigonus - - - - 301 

City of Aniioch founded - - 299 



Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in 
love with his fathe.s' queen, Straton- 
ice, he pmes away nearly to death ; 
but the secret being discovered, she 
is divorced by the father and married 
by the son.' - - - b.o. 



297 



* This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of physic 
Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly with Herophilus), had observed, than when- 



552 



THE world's mOGRESS. 



[SYR 



SYRIA, continued. 

Battle of Cyropsedion • -B.C. 

Seleucus is foully assassinated by Ce 
raunus. — Lenglet. 

Antiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes 
the name of Soter, or Saviour 

Reignof Antiochus II., surnamed by the 
Milesians Theos, or God ! 

Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance 
with S nyrna and Magnesia* - 

Reign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- 
raunus. or Thunder - 

Battle of llaphia, in which Antiochus 
III. is signally defeated 

Antiochus' conquest of Judea - 

War with the Romans begins - 

Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes 
the title of Theos-Upiphanes, or the 
Illustrious God! - - 

He sends Appolonius into Judea; Jeru- 
salem is taken ; the temple pillaged ; 
40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 
40.000 more sold as slaves 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son 
Seleucus with her own hand 

Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, 
whom she attempts to poison ; but he 
compels his mother to swallow the 
deadly draught herself 

Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and 
of Grypus at Antioch 

Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- 
ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus 
Asiatichus, about 



281 

. 280 

275 

261 

243 

226 

217 
20-1 
192 



175 



170 
124 



123 

111 



65 



Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 

[This conquest is made by the Fatimite 

caliphs who rule in Egypt.] 
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 
The emirs of Aleppo revolt - -1068 

The Crusades from Europe commence 

(see article Crusades) - - 1095 

[The Christians ultimately conquer that 

part of Syria called the Holy Land. — 

See Jerusalem.^ 



Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 116i» 
Saladin puts an end to the power of the 

Fatimite dynasty - • - 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 1259 

Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who 

expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1400 

Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 

After the conquest by Selim, Syria con- 
tinued in possession of the Turks till 
the invasion of Egypt by the French, 

July I, 1798 

Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with 
great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798 

He overruns the country, and takes Ga- 
za and Jaffa .... 1798 

Siege of Acre . March 6 to May 27, 1799 

Bonaparte returns to France from E- 
gypt . - - - Aug. 23, 1799 

Egypt is evacuated by the French army 

Sept. 10, 1801 

Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A "re, 
and overruns the whole of Syria, I83i-32 

Ibraham Pacha, his son, defeats the ar- 
my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 

[Numerous battles and conflicts follow 
with various success.] 

Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- 
my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 

The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria 
and places itself at the disposal of 
Mehemet Ali - - -July 14, 1839 

The Five Powers propose to the Porte 
to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 

16, 1839 

Death of the celebrated lady Hester 
Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 

Treaty of London (not signed by offend- 
ed France) - - - July 15, 1840 

Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, IS40 

Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. 10 1840 

Fall of Acre (see Acre) • Nov. 3, 1840 



After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- 
tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pachalic of Egypt 
hereditary 'n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish 
fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at 
London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This 
result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its continu- 
ance among the great powers of Europe. 



ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame, 
his pul.^e quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. 
On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which 
was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished 
under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, " is the object of his lovel" '•'■ My wife.,'^ 
answered the physician. "Then resign her to him," said the king. " But if," said Erasistratus 
" it were \he queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another"?' 
" Yes," replied Seleucus, " I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to sav« 
my son's life." " Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his love is Stra 
tonice!" — Biog. Diet. 

* This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oxford. Is 
iraf oresented to Oxford by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II. 



thr] dictionary of dates. 5S3 



TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. 

TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies under 
sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French 
army, amounting- to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastian! 
July 27 and 28, 1809. ' 

TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality 
of the Jews,— the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The 
one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second 
century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were 
collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged bv Maimon- 
ides in the twelfth century. 

TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of 
Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet. sul- 
tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter 
had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed 
his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403.— C/ia/co/t- 
dila's Hist. Turk. 

TANNING. Was early practised by various uations. The use of tan was in- 
troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising 
orange-trees. It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were tirst 
brouglit into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- 
ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. 

TAPESTRY". An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence 
its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. 
— Guicciardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in-- 
vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William 
Sheldon ; and the tirst manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir 
Francis Crane, 17 James I., W\%.— Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of 
tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestnj. Very early 
instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also 
in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeitx Tapestry. 

TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum supported 
against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is 
greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. c. 
281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had oflered to their 
ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- 
soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. 

TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar 
race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians, 
It Avas during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- 
manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and 
the first of these ravagers whose teiTor and fame reached the frontier of 
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The 
first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis 
Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it 
was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered 
Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and 
founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, 
till the close of the eighteenth century. 

TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names, 

24 



-.554 THE world's progress. [tea 

in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. 
" In the raigne of king Edward the Third only three taverns were allowed 
in London: one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- 
street." — Sir Henry Spclman. The Boards Head, in Eastcheap, existed in 
the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his 
dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. 
Quickly, and the scene of sir John Ealstaflf's merriment. — Shakspeare^ 
Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- 
lished in 1480 : this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by 
an act of Edward VI.. 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 
in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln. 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in 
Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in 
Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 
3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- 
lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, 
about 55L English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects 
styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D' Eon's, His- 
toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by 
William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as 
in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till 
the accession of Richard II., 1377- — Camden. First taxation of the British 
colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act 
repealed, 1766 : re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- 
ment, &c. 

TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, 
beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee, God. It 
is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, 
about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp 
and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a 
great victory or for a bounteous harvest. 

TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. 
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from 
Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from 
thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India 
Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715. 
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- 
struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, 
and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. 

TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IH THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

lbs. 24,1.33,000 | 1825. - Jbs. 27.803,668 



1726. 


lbs. 700,000 


1805. 


1766. - 


7,000,000 


1810. 


1792. 


- 13,185,000 


1815. 


1800. - 


23,723,000 


1820. 



1830. . - 30,544.404 

1835. - - 44,360,550 

1840. - - 38,068,555 



25,414,000 
26,368,000 
25,662,474 

In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,000?. annually. 
Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every 
year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons, 
1818. The consumption of the whole civihzed world, exclusively of Eng- 
land, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30.000,000. — Evidence in the House of Commons., 1830. The first 
tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East 
India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United 
States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4,278,463 ; while that of coffee 
was $9,102,872. " 



TEM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 555 

TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, about 1768. 
The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the 
first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor. 
thumberland at Sion. 

TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- 
struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsue, 
because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the 
moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when 
the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a 
telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. 
M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about 
this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrnment was applied to useful 
purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. 
Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was 
erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- 
concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying#ie 
combinations of two revolving crosses ; and also to spell any particular 
words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegraph. 

TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571- 
Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes ex- 
actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, 
of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- 
cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated 
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of 
which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's 
moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and 
were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by 
Martin. Hall, Dolland. and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by 
More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- 
tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000/. in 1802 ; but the Herschel telescope, 
made 1789—1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- 
meter, 3J inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See 
Herschel Telescope. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that 
the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this 
coimtry. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the 
most prominent of thti first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt 
of Connecticut, who v/as worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The 
exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total 
abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general 
habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various 
names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from 
various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with 
spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent 
in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the 
Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has 
administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his 
countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger- 
many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. 

TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in 
A. D. 1118 by Baldwin 11. , king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous 
in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- 
pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon 
other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, 
and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 



656 THE world's progress. [IteW 

in tlie reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times Suppressed 
in England, and finally in 1340. 

TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house 
of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased 
by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They are 
called the Inner and Middle Temple. 

TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusebnis. 
The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. 
The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUo7tius. For tem- 
I)le of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 
B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by 
Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d. 
70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built 
of stone by Trophorius. about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidfe, 548 b.c. 
1^ new temple raised by the family of the AlcniEeonidse, about 513 b. c. — 
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 
B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it, 
employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a.d. 260. — The Temple of 
Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w. ch 
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
from all aliments. — Val. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, 
is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — ^The heathen 
temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the 
Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. 

TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- 
ter of North Carolina by Charles IL in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga 
river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the 
Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent 
contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North 
Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
1796. Population in 1790, 35 691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 
1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. 

TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II. . directing all officers, civil and mili- 
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of 
the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
i&c, was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. 

TEUTONL OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri 
made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They 
were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made 
prisoners, 101 b. c. See Cimbri. 

TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy 
Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in 
the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian 
army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The 
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Ceelestine III., a. d. 1191. See 
Prussia, &c. 

TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and h(;r son, 
were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, 
as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- 
wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French king, 
Lewis XL. for 50 000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Rose.'^. 



the] DiCTiONARY OF DATES. 557 

TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- 
cisco in 1690; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction 
with the adjacent State of Coahnila. on the formation of tlie Mexican re- 
public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis- 
agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant 
from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indeper 
dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican 
president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the 
independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), 
after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 
1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- 
nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] 

THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication 
between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most 
extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was 
begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption 
took place. May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet; its width 
is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, 
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the 
bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot 
passengers, March 25, 1843. 

THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a 
nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and son^etimes a magistrate; but most 
properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called 
thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- 
quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland 
by king Malcolm HI., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the 
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres 
were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Ital3^ There 
was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were 
assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- 
vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by 
Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England 
was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of 
Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before 
that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- 
mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room. Is. 
— Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frc:. a 
Drury-lane; it runs thus: " By his Majestic, his company of Comedians a,t 
the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Hum.ov- 
rovs Lievte/iant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The 
play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened 
in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States 
was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- 
tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company 
acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in 
New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia 
soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New 
York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. 

ITIEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- 
tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to 
Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, 
and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 



t558 THE world's progress. [ TIIR 

gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cam. 
byses, king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. 
— Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called 
Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Boeotia. See Bceotia. Thebes was 
called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- 
brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by 
the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Tlmcydides. 

THEFT. This otfence Avas punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death 
at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- 
ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could 
redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry T. this power of redemp- 
tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very 
severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's 
acts, 9 and 10 George IV. 

THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660, and 
they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- 
ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that 
their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was 
given by God to the Hebrews. 

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- 
ver, founded 1808. 

THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several 
scientific person all about the same time. Invented bj^ Drebbel of Alcmaer, 
A. D. 1609. — Boerhaavc. Invented by Paulo Sarpi. 1609. — Fnlgentio. Invent- 
ed \)j Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented 
about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of 
construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years 
subsequently. 

THERMOPYL^:. Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the 
defile of Thermopylas, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three 
days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- 
cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, 
thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their 
country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 
heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- 
sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and 
insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with 
their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the 
hands of the Spartan.s. Aug. 7, 480 b. c. — Vossius de Grcec. Hist. 

THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being 
the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king 
of whom we haA^e any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
whom his subjects were flailed Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all 
Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their 
origin, as the Achseans, the ^tolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The 
two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the 
deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. 
See them severally. 

THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and 
Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 835 b. c. ; and it 
so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 b. c. By- 
zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Constantinople 
was built. The, Turks took the country under Mahomet H., a. d 1453- - 
Priestley. 



TIM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



539 



THE ASHING -MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument former]}^ in use. 
The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stonea 
or iron drawn over the corn-s4ieaves by horses. The first machine attempted 
in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 
1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. 

THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car- 
thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b c. No 
less than 15 000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10 000 taken 
prisoners; or, according to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es- 
cape, all covered with wounds.— Livy ; Polybius. 

THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England 
also The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the 
privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly 
resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given hun as a 
present by the council King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it 
on. bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, 
" Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing." 

THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero 
worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly 
by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over 
the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is 
said to have been the most vahant of the Sons of Odin. This day, which 
was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and 
Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, 
has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 

TtDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- 
donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 
about 79 B. c. ; and Csesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic 
War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
A D 1598 : but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved 
for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove 
universal gravitation, about 1683. 

TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- 
sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- 
tories and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- 
vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones ' 
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 
19 following. 

TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the 
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, 
and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry 
IV about A. D. liQO.—Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the 
suppression of the^ladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in 
France in 1560.— Fo/tezVe's Ge7i. Hist. 

TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60 000 
loads or 40 000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand 
on an acre ; ' in peace. 32.000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship 
consumes 3000 loads,' or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres 
in a century Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per. 
annum —Allnut. England imports about 800,000 loads of timber annually, 
exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, «fcc., together with about 8,000,- 
000 of deals and deal-ends.— P«rZ. i2e^. 



THE world's progress. - [ TO» 

TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. .;. Early au- 
thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each 
twelve inches long; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- 
vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being r 
great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, 
sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, 
Watches^ &c. 

TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 
years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them 
commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- 
mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- 
mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- 
ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- 
ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the 
stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. 
Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall 
into a dukedom, with w^hich he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ci own of England, if eldest 
sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, 
which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in 
Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; 
in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons 
of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 
400,000^. 

TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 
B. c. — JosepJms. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were 
given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. "I will not put the 
title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right 
certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- 
ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, 
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. 
Ofia, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to 
expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had 
caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Burn^s Eccles. Lato. Tithes were 
first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, 
a.d. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by 
Charlemagne, about 800. — Henmdt. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran 
councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. 

TITLES, ROYAL The following is the succession in which the royal titles 
swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and " My liege" 
conferred upon him. 1399. The title of " Excellent Grace" was conferred 
upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of "Most High and Mighty 
Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. 
had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last 
were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. 
©f France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field 
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
"Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred " 
or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emj/erors of 
Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XL of France, 
about 1463. 

TOBACCO, Mco^ia7«a Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, 
a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, 
one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was 
first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- 



top] dictionary of dates. 561 

iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 
1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drako 
are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured 
only for exportation for some years. — Stowe's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- 
tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast 
against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65.l0^^ 
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles 11. 
An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation 
was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the 
excise, Vj^'d.— Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to 
tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- 
land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased 
in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England 
m 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
millions of liOxmA^.—Chan. of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached 
to forty millions of pounds.— ParZ. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is 
grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'ae 
southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,651,122. 
Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United 
States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for 
smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad 
taste of this weed. 

rOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. . 642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- 
taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was 
ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse 
in 1781. and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 
14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was 
once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. 

TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the 
first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The 
dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- 
tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of 
queen Anne's reign. 

TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d. 
1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for 
every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes 
were used in 1663. 

TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, 
commenced in England about 21 Edward III.. 1346. The first granted to 
the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV,, 1465. Cuningham's Hist. 
Taxes. 

TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so 
called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on 
foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by 
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653.— Fo/- 
taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 
lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- 
holders, his share produced him 3000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,115,- 
244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, Yi^^.— Haydn. 

TOPLITZ. Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Anstrians 
and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated. 1762. Battle of Toplitz, 
August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a 
considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a triple 

24* 



662 THE world's progress. [Tor 

alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty of 
Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same j^ear. 
TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. 
It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in 
England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558; and in Scotland until 1690. 
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order 
of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time 
before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gusta^is III., 1786. It 
yet continues in other countries. 

TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be 
derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- 
lector of tithes and tiixe».—E?i,cijdop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- 
heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, 
into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated 
the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; 
while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe. 
The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- 
paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (whic/t 
see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- 
ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; 
and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — PhitUps. In our 
revolutionary Avar the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, 
at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, 
while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs. 

TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by 
land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of 
ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise 
the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord 
Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of 
Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- 
tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated 
by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised 
towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. 

TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- 
tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- 
ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- 
nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to 
the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. 
'OULOUSE, Battle of. The final battle between the British Peninsular army 
under lord Wellington and the French^-one of the most bloody that had 
been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of 
the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult, 
whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- 
ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British 
forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the 
allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that 
of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte 
had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was 
aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. 

t'OURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, 
such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- 
tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show 



TOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563^ 

their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner^ 
" to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agihty, 
both of horse and man, was necessary. They were mucli practised a. d. 
890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 
919. Tlie Lateran council published an article against their continuance: 
in 1136. One was held in Sniithfield so late as the 12th century, when the 
taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the 
count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused 
the kirg's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from 
this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is 
fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took 
place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many 
of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour 
being the ' Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- 
tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. 

TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French imder ge- 
neral Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians 
and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, 
May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, 
when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- 
pieces. May G, 1794. 

TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that 
which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, 
and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammier. We 
are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as 
well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, 
A. D. 732. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of 
Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Towner of the Winds at 
Athens, built 650 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- 
ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be 
reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- 
tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, 
except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing 
towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above 
the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these 
productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet 
high. 

TOWER OF LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more 
than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first 
marked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and 
completed by his son William Rufus, Avho, in 1098, surroimded it with walls, 
and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, 
and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re-^ 
built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly; 
repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are 
the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, 
and many murders See England. 

rOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and 
bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between 
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 



S64 THE world's PROGHESS. [ TBA 

of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects 
fell.. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower ; 
his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. 

TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng* 
land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against 
the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneiive 
and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and 
fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships. 
After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- 
mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. 
But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral 
Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and 
his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every 
man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. 

TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first 
tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the 
first gained by ^schylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- 
cles, 470 B. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by 
Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres. 

TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor 
Trajan, and executed by ApoUodorus. This column, which still exists at 
Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum RomoMum ; it is 
140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the 
emperor. 

TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth 
century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went 
farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- 
longing life, A. D. 1488. — Henault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion 
upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five 
persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited 
the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English 
physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. 
Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- 
tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. 

TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were 
ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment 
for lighter ofiences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England 
is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- 
tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- 
portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More 
recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was 
transported for forging a frank, (lOr/. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first 
transportation of felons to Botanj^ Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the 
settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished 
with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable 

, by transportation for life, 

TR ANSUBSTANTI ATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about 
A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It 
was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the 
doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- 
tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" 
was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent 
times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the 
council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 



the] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



565 



TRAPPTSTS, OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart- 
ment of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- 
ciphne, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with 
rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were 
shipped by the French government at Painboeuf. Nov. 19, and were landed 
from the Hebe French fris-ate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have estabhshed 
themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not mamtam 
there the extreme rigor of their order. 

TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage 
lUnglish subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money 
there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license 
for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., l%Zh.—Rapin. 

TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raisp 
water for the irrigation of the fields. The .'read-mill lately introduced into 
the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is 
the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton 
jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. 

TREASON. See Hi2;h Treason. It was punished in England only by banish- 
ment till after Henry \.— Bakers Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward 
III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict. 1695. 
The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment 
was dreadful— hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. 
Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason, 
which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three 
ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; 
and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior— so 
declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. 

TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any 
foreign nation v,^as entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was 
with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
\m'^.— Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of 
Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following 
forms an index to them. See Convenlioiis ; Coalitions; Leagues, &c. 



Abo, peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle 
Aix-la-Chapelie, peace of 
Akermann, peace of 
Alt Radstadt 
America, peace with 
Amiens, peace of 
Armed Neutrality- 
Arras, treaty of 
Arras, ditto - 
Augsburgh, league of 
Bacien, peace of 
Barrier treaty 
Basle, peace of 
Bassein, India - 
Bayonne, treaty of 
Belgium, treaty of London 
Belgrade, peace of 
Berlin, peace of 
Berlin decree 
Berlin convention 
Breda, peace of 
Bretigny, peace of 
Bucharest, treaty of 
Cambray, league of - 
Cambray, peace of 
Campo-Formio, treaty of 
Carlowitz, peace of 



-1743 

- 1668 

- 1748 

- 1826 
-1706 
-1783 

- 1802 
-1800 
- 143.5 

- 1482 
-1686 
-1714 
-1715 

- 1795 
-1802 

- 1808 

- 1839 

- 1739 
-1742 
-1806 

- 1808 

- 1667 
-1360 

- 1812 
^1508 
■ 1529 

- 1797 
• 1699 



Carlsbad, congress of - 
Cateau-Cambresis, peace of 
Chaumont, treaty of 
Chunar, India 
Cintra, convention of - 
Closterseven, convention of 
Coalition, first, against Fa-a; 
Coalition, second, ditto 
Coalition, third, ditto - 
Coalition, fourth, ditto 
Coalition, fifth, ditto 
Coalition, sixth, ditto 
Concordat 
Conflans, treaty of 
Constantinople, peace of 
Constantinople, treaty of 
Copenhagen, peace of 
Cressy 
Dresden 

Family compact 
Fontainebleau, peace of 
Fontainebleau, treaty of 
Fontainebleau, concordat a 
Friedwald, treaty of 
Fuessen, peace of 
Ghent, pacification of 
Ghent, peace o*" America) 
Golden Bull 



.18H 

- 1.55S 

- 1814 

- 1781 
-1808 

- 1757 

- 1795 

- 1799 

- 1805 

- 1806 

- 1802 

- 1813 

- 1801 

- 1463 
. 1712 

- 1833 
-1660 
•1544 

- 1745 
-1761 

- 1679 

- 1785 
-1813 

- 1551 

- 1745 

- 1576 
-1814 

- 1356 



566 



THE world's progress 



[TAB 



TREATIES, continued. 

Grand Alliance 
Greece, treaty of London 
Hague, trea,ty of the 
-r Hague, treaty of the 

Halle, treaty of 
Hamburgh, peace of 
Hanover treaty - 
Holland, peace with 
Holy Alliance 
Hubortsberg, peace of 
Interim 
Kiel, treaty of 
Laybach, congress of • 
I,eague 

Leif3sic, alliance of 
Leoben, peace of 
Lisbon, peace of 
I,ondon, treaty of (Greece) 
London, convention of (Turkey) 
Lubeck, peace of 
Luneville, peace of 
Madrid, treaty of 
Methuen treaty - 
Milan decree 
Mu lister, peace of 
Nantes, edict of 
Naumberg, treaty of 
Nice, treaty of 
Nimeguen, peace of 
Noyon, treaty of 
Nuremberg, treaty of 
Olivia, peace of 
Paris, peace of (see Paris) 
Paris, treaty of 
Paris, peace of (Swreden) 
. Paris, capitulation of 
Paris, treaty of - 
Paris, peace of 
Paris, treaty of - 
Partition, first treaty 
Partition, second treaty 
Passarowitz, peace of 
Passau, treaty of 
Petersburgh, peace of 
Petersburgh, treaty of 
Petersburgh, treaty of 
Petersburgh, treaty of - 
Peterswalden, convention of 
Piinitz, convention ^f - 
Poland, partition of - 
Pragmatic 'Sanction 
Pragmatic Sanction 
Prague, peace of 
Presburg, peace of - 
Public good, league for the 



TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES. 

Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 

Treaty of Paris (independence secured) 

Sept. 3, 1783 
Treaty of commerce with Prussia -. 1785 
Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain 

(Jay's) ..... 1794 
Treaty with the Six Nations and other 

Indian tribes .... 1794 
Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and 

Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 

Treaty with Tunis; with Prussia (by 

J. Q. Adams) .... 1799 
Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- 
trick Henry, &c. • Sept. 30, 1800 



- 1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the - . - 1659 

- 1829 Quadruple Alliance - - - 1718 

- 16.59 Radstadt, peace of • - • - 1714 

- 1669 Radstadt, congress of - - - 1797 

- 1610 Ratisbon, peace of - - • - 1630 

- 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of • • - 1806 
■ 1725 Religion, peace of • - - - 1655 

- 1784 Rhine, Confederation of the • - 1806 

- 1815 Rysvvick, peace of - • - - 1697 

- 1763 St. Germain's, peace of - - 1570 

- 1548 St. Germain-en-Laye - - - 1679 
• 1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with 

- 1721 France 1795 

- 1576 Seville, peace of - - • - 1792 
. 1631 Slorod, peace of - - • • 1613 

- 1797 Smalcald, league of- - - - 1529 

- 1668 Spain, pacification of (London) • 1834 

- 1829 Stettin, peace of - ... 1570 

- 1840 Stockholm - - - - 16.30 

- 1629 Stockholm, peace of - • - 1719 

- 1801 Stockholm, treaty of - - - 1724 

- 1526 Stockholm, treaty of - - - 1813 
. 1703 Temeswar, truce of • - 1664 

- 1807 Teschen, peace of - ■ - 1779 

- 1648 Teusin, peace of • - 1.595 

- 1598 Tilsit, peace of - . - - 1807 

- 1554 Tolentino, treaty of - - . - 1793 

- 1518 Toplitz, treaty of - - - - 1813 

- 1678 Triple Alliance .... 1717 

- 1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague - - 1668 

- 15.32 Troppau, congress of - - - 1820 

- 1660 Troyes, treaty of - • - - 1420 
-1763 Turkmauchay, peace of - -1828 

- 1796 Ulra. peace of - - - - 1620 

- 1810 Utretht, union of - - - 1579 

- 1814 Utrecht, peace of - - - - 1713 
-1814 Valencay, treaty of - • -1813 

- 1815 Verona, congress of - - - 1822 

- 1817 I Versailles, peace of - - - 1783 

- 1698 Vienna, treaty of - - - - 1725 
-1700 j Vienna, treaty of alliance - .1731 

- 1718 I Vienna, definitive peace - • . 1737 

- 1552 I Vienna, peace of - - . 1809 

- 1762 I Vienna, treaty of, March 23 - - 1815 

- 1772 I Vienna^ treaty of, May 31 " - - 1815 

- 1805 I Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - • - 1815 

- 1810 Vossem, peace of - - • -1673 

- 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - - - - 1768 

- 1791 I Warsaw, alliance of - - - 1683 

- 1795 ! Westminster, peace of - - - 1674 

- 1439 I Westminster (with Holland) - - 1716 

- 1713 I Westphalia, peace of - - -1648 

- 1653 ' Wilna, treaty of - - • -1561 
1805 '' Worms, edict of - • • - 1521 

- 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of - - - 1610 

Some of the most important : 

Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe 
and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame- 
rican government - - - 1806 
Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, 
signed by J. Q,. Adams, Gallatin, and 
H. Clay, for the , ■ jted States, clos- 
ing the " war of 1812," Lut leaving 
the original dispute much as before - 1314 
Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 1S15 
Treaty with the Choctaws and CherC'- 

kees ..... 1816 
Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 1925 
Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - J32S 
Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- 
ing American citizens for spoliations 



TRI J 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



567 



TREATIES, continued. 

during the war with Napoleon 

Nov. 13, 1826 

Treaty with Brazil • March 18, 1829 

Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 

Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 

Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 

Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 

Treaty with Russia (commercial) 

Dec. 18, 1832 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- 
ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. 
Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 
to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1&42 

Treaty with China, negotiated by C. 

TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American AI 
manac for 1838, p. 102, are, 

The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, 

700 years. 
(Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 

years.) 
Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene- 

seo, New York, 500 years. 
Yeio trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, 

1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 

2,500 years. 



Cushing ; ratified* by the senate 

Jan. 16, 1845 

Treaty cf peace with Mexico, sisned at 
Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2," 1848 ; 
ratified by the senate (with modifica- 
tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- 
rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- 
ford, and Mexican minister Rosas 

May 30, 1843 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between 
North and South America; signed 
at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer 
and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 



Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. 

Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. 

Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 
800 years. 

Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. 

Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. 

[For proofs and details see the article re- 
ferred to. ] 



TRENT, Council of. This celebrated coimcil is reckoned in the Catholic 
church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- 
citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. 
The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but Avith interrup- 
tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last 
council was held. 

TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there 
is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at 
Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a 
list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of 
one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name 
and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — PMllips. 

TRIBUNES OF THK PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first 
chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the 
time the people, after a quarrel Avith the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- 
cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus; but their number was 
soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. 
Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the 
ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. 

TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken 
from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it 
from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the 
line, and a militar}^ force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom 
the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three 
Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession w^as confirmed to Eng- 
land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colojiies. 

TRINITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by 
all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {lohich see). Theophilus, 
bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used 
the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. Hia 
Defence of Ckristmnity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Waikins. 



568 THE world's progress. [ TRO 

An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix 
de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, Avas insti- 
tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- 
ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 
1813. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between 
tlie States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the 
Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known 
as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. 

TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after 
they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two 
sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled 
the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, 
accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state 
with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their dilferent 
pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, 
B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the 
expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- 
rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through 
whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his 
colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in 
Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See 
Rome. 

TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, 
. and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by 
several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout 
Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in 
their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the timies. To the 
troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. 

TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and 
more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came 
hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the 
daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus 
built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in 
succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy; and Ilus, his succes- 
sor, converted it into Ilium. 

Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 

nor. — Blair - - b.c. 1546 Reign of Priam or Podarces - - 1224 

Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, 

Dardanus succeeds Teucer. and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the 

the city of Dardania - - 1480 sacking of Troy.— Ho ineT's Iliad, 

Reign of Ericthonius • - - 1449 book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. ■ 1204 

Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- Commehcement of the invasion of the 

pfe are called Trojans - - 1374 " Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193 



The I'ape of Ganymede - - 1341 Troy taken and burned in the night of 

Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - -1314 i the 11th of .Tune, i. e. 23d of the 

Reign of Laomedon - - - 1260 , month Thargelion. — Parian Mar- 
Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ;He- 

sione delivered from the sea-monster. 

—Blair, Usher - - - 1225 



bles. 408 years before the first 
Olympiad. — Apollodorus - - 1164 

^neas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1133 



Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about 
thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, 
and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe- 



.'EUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 569 

dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was 

nearly ni xmns.— Priestley. 

'^^^^yf'^lGWT. The Romans left their oimce, now our avoirdupois ounce in 
^vit-^m.—ArbufJmot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from 
Grand Cairo mto Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095 It 
was farst adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name : and is used 
+ 1 r^'l^if "i-' ^il^er and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- 
tabhshed by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. 

TllOYES Treaty OF, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it 
was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles 
VL, be appomted regent of France, and after the death of Charles should 
inherit the crown. May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by 
the a bed armies, Feb. 7; it Avas retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23: and was 
Anally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. ^ ' ' ^ "'^is 

TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum. 
pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the 

IfM FS"^^""' ^''^''^^ f^. ^^'^ ^^"'^ ^^ ^^® Trojan war. First torches, then 
D .. "^ n?,^ '' so^"^^ed like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wkrs - 
i.,: ™ speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
^r^J^f- ^- 5- , Jr^^^ipets were first sounded before the kine- in the time 
of Offli, king of Mercia, a d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were hnproved by 
Mordand"l671 ^^^^ ^^ ^alland, 1654. Philosophically explained by 

TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tu- 
uco, or Fiw a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day 

SeTw^^'^i'f'''^'^^^''''^'^''''^^^^'^^^^^ *^^® *^'""^ day among the Jews! 
lUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by 
Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Phihbert de Lorme, a. d 1564 • con- 
tinued by Henry IV ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the 
those of 1789 andTsIs "°^ *^' ^^'''' memorable revolutions, particularly 

TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always 
been among our most esteemed flowers. Thev became an obiect of com- 
merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of 
^ SJfnoo'fl Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the off-sets, sold 
for 90,000 florins; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, 
sold for 4203 guilders! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant 
and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Lirwdendron tulipiferaSysiS 
carried to England from America, about 1663. -^ 

TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by 
Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage 
of consumption and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its 
waters, a. d. 1606. 

TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built The 
territories of both fornied part of the celebrated Carthaginian state and 
were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war 148 b c 
Besieged by Louis IX. of France. 1270. It remained under African kino-.s 
till taken by Barbarossa, imder Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was 
expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks under 
inTS^ni. ^'!:- ' T^^^ ^'^'"''^ slaughter, by the emperor Charles V.', when 
10,000 Christian slaves vvere set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was 
first appointed m 15/0. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, oc the bey 
refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. ^ 



57(: 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[tub 



TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw4 
parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The 
sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen. 
These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king 
of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the lirst who assumed the red color, 
to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. 

TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated 
their army, and compelled them to raise tlie siege. In 1798, the French 
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and 
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French w^ere driven out by the Austrians 
and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered 
to the French. .In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- 
ed it to the king of Sardinia. 

TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by 
reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they 
became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of 
many races of men. 



Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca 

(see Mecca) - - -ad. .')71 

His imposture commenced (see Maho- 

metanism} .... 604 
The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 

Flight to Medina (see Medina) • 622 

.^ra of the Hegira (see Hegira) • 622 

Death of Mahomet - - - 631 

Holy wars begni (see Crusades) - 1095 

The Turkish empire first formed under 

Othman at Bythinia - - - 1298 

The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and 

take Adrianople - - - 1360 

Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a 
guard composed of Christian slaves 
bred Mahometans - - - 1362 

Bajazetl. overruns the provinces of the 

Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. 

He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is 
at length taken by Tamerlane (see 
Tarnerlaiie) .... 1403 
The Turks invading Hungary, are re- 
pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 
Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
der Mahomet XL, which ends the 
Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 
Greece made subject to the Mahome- 
tans (see Greece) - - - 1458 
The Turks penetrate into Italy, and 
take Otranto, which diffuses terror 
throughout Europe - - - 1480 
Selim I. raised to the throne by the .Ja- 
nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- 
thers, and their sons - - - 1512 
He takes the islands of the Archipelago 

from the Christians - - - 1514 

He overruns Syria - - - 1515 

Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 

Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 

Rhodes taken from the knights of St. 

John, who go to Malta - - 1522 

Solyman II., with 250,000 men, is repuls- • 

ed before Vienna - - - 1529 

Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an 
end to the fears of Europe from Turk- 
ish power (see Lepanto) - - 1571 
Amurath 11. ascends the throne ; stran- 
gles his five brothers - ' - . 1574 



[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians 

during this reign] 
The Tm-ks driven out of Persia by the 

famous Schah Abbas - - a. d. 1585 

Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - -1595 

Great'fire in Constantinople - - 1606 

Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles 

his father and four brothers - - 1624 

The Turks defeat the Persians, and take 

the city ol Bagdad - - - 1639 

The island of Candia, or Crete, taken 

after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but 

relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 

Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 
Peace of Carlovitz - - - 1699 

Mustapha HI. deposed - - > 1703 

The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 
Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Rus- 
sia relinquislies Azoff - - 1739 
Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; 
the English and Russian fleets defeat 
tlie Turkish - - - -1770 
The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 
[This ends the disastrous war with Rus- 
sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the 
Turks having lost more than 200,000 
men. — Ashe.] 
War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 
Passage and repassage of the Darda- 
nelles effected by the British fleet, but 
witli great loss (see Dardanelles) 

Feb. 19, 1807 
The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- 
dered, and Mustapha IV. called to 
the throne - - May 29, 1807 

Treaty of Bucharest {which see) May 

28, 812 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- 
turning from Mecca, destroyed by a 
pestilential wind in the deserts of 
Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 
Subjection of the Wachabees - - 181£ 

Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares 

himself independent - - - 182C 

Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia 

March 6, 1821 
The Greek Patriarch put to death at 
Constantinople • - April 23, 1821 



ruRj 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



571 



rURKEr, continue i. 

Horrible massa rre at Scio ; the most 
dreadful in modern liistory (see note 
to Greece) - ■ - April 23, 1822 

Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 

New Mahometan army announced to br 
organized - - - May 29, 1826 

Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- 
stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 

Firman of the s jtdan abolishing the Ja- 
nizaries .... 1826 

Fire at Constf* icniople ; 6000 houses re- 
duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 

Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet 
destroyed by the fleets of England, 
France, and Russia (see Navarbio) 

Oct. 20. 1827 

Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, 
and 85 Russian settlers, from the 
Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 

War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 

The emperor Nicholas takes the field 
against the Turks - May 20, 1828 

The Russian emperor arrives before 
Varna - - - - Aug. 5, 1828 

Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 

Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 

The sultan leaves his capital for the 
camp, bearing with him the sacred 
standard - - - Sept. 26, 1828 

Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. I, 1828 

Suirender of Varna - - Oct.- 15, 1828 



Russians retreat from before Schumla, 
October 16, 

Surrender of the castle of the Morea to 
the French - - - Oct. .30, 

Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians 
Nov. 10, 

Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa 
near Schumla - - June 11, 

Adrianople is entered by the Russian 
troops - - - Aug. 20, 

Armistice between the Russian and 
Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 

Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 

Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 

St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- 
cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 

He defeats the army of ti.e sultan in Sy- 
ria, with great loss - -Ji'lySO. 

A series of successes brings the ar ny of 
Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leiigues 
of Constantinople, and the -sultan has 
recourse to the aid of Ru3>ia - Jan. 

A Russian force enters the Turkish ca- 
pital ... - April 3, 

Treaty with Russia, offensive ''.nd de- 
fensive - - - July S 

Office of grand vizier abolished by the 
sultan - - - March 30, 

Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 

Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 



1S28 

1828 

1828 

1829 

1829 

1849 
1829 
1830 

1832 

1832 

1833 

1833 

1833 

1838 
l»18 
1849 



TURKISH EMPERORS. 



1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 
1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 
1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. 
1383 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. 
1397 Isa Belis; killed by his brother. 
1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 
1410 Musa; strangled by his brother. 
1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 
1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 
1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his 

tw<^ sons. 
1481 Co 'tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by 

his father. 
1481 Xemin ; obliged to abdicate in favor of 

his brother. 
1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 
1521^ Solyman, the Magnificent. 
1-566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 
1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 
1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 
1.595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 
1604 Achmet; succeeded by his brother. 
1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew, 
1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, 



and his uncle restored. 

1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- 

ceeded by his grandson. 

1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 
1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, 

succeeded by his son. 

1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by 
his brother. 

1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bio 
ther. 

1691 Achmet 11. ; succeeded by his nephew. 

1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet 
IV., deposed and succeeded by his 
brother. 

1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 

1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother. 

1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 

1757 Mustapha HI. ; succeeded by his bro- 
ther. 

1774 Abelha'met, or Achmet IV, 

1789 Selim III. 

1807 Mustapha IV. 

1808 Mah. Khan II. 

1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. 



rURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a. d. 1524, and 
to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- 
1}^, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- 
ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives 
neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond 
controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met 
with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- 
ing larger do not differ from ours.— Smytk. 

TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom 
articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious \ase8j 



57?^ THE world's PE ogress, [ TYR 

enriched with figures in half rehef, which at this day adorn the cabinets of 
the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for 
turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and 
in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war 
are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi 
oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. 

TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- 
Avise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663. — 
Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. 

nrSCANY, This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came 
into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 
1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his 
dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tie title of king 
of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- 
wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; 
but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grana- luse Leopold II. 
(cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. 



Disturbances and revolutions of 1S47-8 
began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 

Grand-duke grants a national militia. 

The grand-duke granted a liberal con- 
stitution - " - - - Feb. 1848 

Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 

The grand-duke flees from Florence 



The chambers meet. 

Provisional government proclaimed, 

Feb. 9, 1849 

Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- 
can troops - - - May 10, 1849 

The grand-duke re-enters Florence and 
resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 



TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation 
of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king 
and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on 
the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece 
of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as 
king. 

TYLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to 
the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of 
one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- 
cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the oflTence), 
the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 
men. The king, Richard 11. , invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where 
the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and 
again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the 
mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of 
the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader 
awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- 
persed, 1381. 

TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from 
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken b}^ Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 572 B. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed 
to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island 
to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c. 
— Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes 
were the i.iege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by 
Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the 
flames. — Phillips. 

IIRE, Era of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- 
perberetaeus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian vear. To reduce this era to ours, sub- 



fml 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 5^S 



tivact 124 ; and ir' the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

U. 

UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- 
many and other countries, and who behoved the natural body of Christ to 
be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540. 

UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia ar»i 
Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- 
ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the 
treaty of Partition in 1795. 

ULM. Peace of, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from 
it previously). July 3, 1620. Ulni was taken by the French in 1776. Great 
battle betvveen the French and Austrians. in which the latter, under gen- 
eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- 
tory was consummated by the surrender of Uhn, and 36 000 men, the flower 
of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the 
confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. 

UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to 
carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- 
las are very ancient: it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- 
las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who 
visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince 
of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds of 
soldiers and that he and each of the princes of his numero\is family caused 
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- 
tries and" cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said 
that the first [jerson who used an umbrella in the streets of London was 
the benevolent Jonas Han way, who died in 1786.* 

UNCTION. EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their 
feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole 
body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high 
priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed tlie vessels 
of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were 
anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme 
unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received 
auction from the pope, 590.—Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as 
extreme unction. See Anointing. 
UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- 



* For a lonff while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- 
minacy At fir.st, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house lor extraonlinary 
occasions— lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the wa]kei;s. 
The Ffimale 7'aH/er advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, m 
fear of rain, borrowed the nmbrdlafrom Wilks's Coffee-house, sliall the next time be welcome to 
the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one .lohn Macdonald, a Jootman, who wrote his own hie, 
informs us. that he had "a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spam; but he could not 
with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman! why dont you get a 
coach t"" The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, 
vrere clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther 
information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and 
o-entlemen's Louses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady il it rained, 
between the door and her carriage.'^ This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day 
from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted 
for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then 
the English. Now it is become a great trade in London,"— A'eu? Monthly Magazine. 



674 THE world's PPcOGRESS. [ JNl 

ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards 
adopted. For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Uniforms. 

UNIFORMITY, Act of. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But 
the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and '14 Charles 
IT., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all 
clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of 
worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 
2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their 
lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their 
numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. 

UNION OP THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united 
by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 
24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, 
but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In 
the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- 
cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- 
standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union 
was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- 
terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- 
ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law. May 1, same year, 

UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propr^s- 
ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British 
parliament, July 2, 1800. 

UNITARIATSFS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and 
worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the 
Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned 
man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- 
tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that-he printed a 
tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to 
arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract 
*his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbei'ed among those ana- 
tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation 
of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, 
especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- 
fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and 
eloquent writer. Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. 

UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British 
realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new 
imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- 
lin. See Union. 

l.^NITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- 
ish yoke. A. D. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, 
at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- 
cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- 
therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 
1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of 
Orange as their stadtholder : and formed the alliance ever since known as 
the ''Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by 
the appellation of the '■ Seven United Provinces." Their independence was 
aclaiowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte wa3 
crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated. 



UNl] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



575 



July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed 
Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- 
Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Bdgvitm. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA. See America; and the separate States, 
Maine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con- 
sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 
1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of 
Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775. 
See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4, 
1776. The title of " United States " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776, 
Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, 
Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great 
Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at 
Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. ' Treaty 
of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also 
Naval Battles ; also Admitiistratious, Exports. NoMonal Debt, Treaties, Po- 
pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States 
are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this 
vol., page 122, et. seq.^ 

UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects 
of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and 
celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted 
the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, 
he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon 
which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity 
of hell torments, involved this doctrine, 

UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from 
the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- 
versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and 
Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- 
lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- 
lowing are the principal universities in Europe : 

1591 

15b2 
1390 
1438 
1506 
1460 
1365 
1450 
1734 
1537 
1547 
1614 
1694 
1346 
1573 
1543 
1663 
1829 
1544 
1409 
1575 
1614 
1391 
1826 
1427 
830 
1440 
1482 
1195 
1754 



Aberdeen founded 


- 1494 


Dublin - 


. 


Abo, Finland 


- 1640 


Edinburgh, founded by .lames VI. 


Aix, 1409; re-established 


- 1603 


Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged 


Alba .lulia, Transylvania - 


. 1629 


Florence, Italy"; enlarged 




Altorf, Franconia 


-1581 


Frankfort-on-the-Oder 




Andrew's, St., Scotland 


- 1411 


Fribourg, Germany 




Angers, chiefly law 


-1398 


Geneva 




Anjou, 1349; enlarged 


- 1364 


Glasgow - 




Avignon, France 


- 1388 


Gottingen 




Bamberg .... 


-1585 


Granada, Spain - 




Baale, Switzerland 


-1458 


Gripswald - 




Berlin .... 


-1812 


Groningen, Friesland - 




Besancon, Burgundy - 


- 1540 


Halle, Saxony 




Bologna. Italy 


- 423 


Heidelberg 




Bruges, French Flanders 


- 1665 


Ingoldstadt, Bavaria 




Caen, Normandy 


-1417 


Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 




Cambridge, began, 626 — according 


to 


Kiel, Holstein 




others, 900. See Cambridge. 




King's College, London 




Cambridge, New England, projected 


-1630 


Konigsberg, Prussia 




Cologne, in Germany, re-founded 


-1389 


Leipslc, Saxony - 




Composteila, Spain 


-1517 


Leyden, Holland 




Coimbra, Portugal 


-1301 


Lima, in Peru - 




Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged 


-1539 


Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbra 


Cordova, Spain - 


- 968 


London University 


- 


Cracow, Poland, 700 ; enlarged - 


-1402 


Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; 


enlarged 


Dijon, France 


-1722 


Lyons, France - 


■ 


DiUingin, Swabia - 


-1565 


Mechlin, Flanders - 


. 


Dole, Burgundy - 


■ 1426 


Mentz 


- 


Douay, French Flanders • 
Dresden, Saxony 


• 1562 


Montpelier • 


. 


- 1694 


Moscow - 


- 



576 



THE world's progress. 



Ixrm 



UNIVERSITIES, continued. 

Munster 

Naples .... 

Orleans, France - 

Oxford (see Oxford) 

Paderborn 

Padua, Italy 



- 1491 

- - 1216 

- 1312 

- - 886 

- 1592 

- -n79 

Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 
Paris, 792; renovated - - - - 1100 

Parma 1599 

Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 

Perpignan 1349 

Perugia, Italy 1307 

Petersburg}! 1747 

Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged .... 1552 

Poictiers 1430 

Prague 1348 

Rheims, 1146; enlarged - - - -1560 

Rome Sapienza 1303 

Rostock, Meckleriburgh - - - - 1419 

Salamanca 1240 

Salerno - 1233 



Saltzburg ...*.. 1623 

Saragossa, Arragon 1474 

Seville 1531 

Sienna - • 1387 

Siguenza, Spain 1517 

Sorbonne, Paris - - • ■ • 1253 

Strasburg 1538 

Toledo, Spain .--.-.. 1518 
Treves, Germany .... 1473 

Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - • • 1477 

Turin 1405 

ITpsal, Sweden 1477 

Utrecht, Holland ..... 1636 
Valence, Dauphine - - . . ^ 1475 
Valencia in the thirteenth century. 

Valladolid 1346 

Venice • 1592 

Vienna -.-.-.. 12.36 
Wirtember£ - - ... 1502 

Wittenberg ... . . l'502 

Wurtzburg • - - . 1403 



UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. 

UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev, Mr. Irvings chapel, m 
London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, 
by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue.''^ She 
was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and 
commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the 
same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the 
whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females 
screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to 
the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831, From this period, 
much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- 
sody, Avas played off"; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but 
as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- 
fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics, — 
Ann. Register. 

URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by 
whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III, 
The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious 
discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is 
asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the 
planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. 

USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given 
for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 6s. 8^. per 
annum for lOOZ., which Avas restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. 
Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest 
of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, offen banished 
and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest 
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- 
beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in- 
terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 
1714. See Interest. 

I'^n.^RECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began 
here (see United Provinces), a. d. 1579. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, 
which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of 
Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- 
ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were 
the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the 



V"AL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



577 



French and Spanish cro;\Tis, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement 
ot the Jintish colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction 
for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the 
Prussians, May 9, 1787 j and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18 1795 



VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr Jenner He 
made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pzis from 
the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the" cows to 
a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result 
to the world and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- 
duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of 
vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10 000/ for the dis- 
covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the 
promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded 
Jan 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously 
to 1816. 

VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return 

\nir&a^ '^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^™' ^^ ^^^ ^^^* ^^^'^^^ ^0^* three years, 22 Henry 
VllL, 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of 
the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VHI., 1535 ; and a third time convicted 
death By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a 
slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, borine 
the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571 Tlie milder 
statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George HI. The laws 
against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequallv as 
respects the character of the offender. ^ J 

VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century and 
was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborouih in 
1/05, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the 
t rench, under Sachet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men and im- 
mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. ' 

VALENCIENNES, Siege of. This city was besieged from May 23 to Julv 14 
i^Sfo" T ^^^"^^ garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York' 
1/93. It was retaken, together with Condd, by the French, on capitulation' 
the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores viz' 
--dOO pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions 
ot florms in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast 
quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. 

VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII 
of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom on 
agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed be- 
cember 8, 1813, ^ 

VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it is 
called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of 
the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient 
date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- 
dom under Claudius IL at Rome, a. d. 271. It is said that on this day 
the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom oif" 
young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of 
valentine. 



VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions 
ot one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishoprio, 

25 



578 THE world's progress. [ VE« 

forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and 
goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called .^ones, or Ages. He 
taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms : to 
these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- 
ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and othera 
practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- 
tiousness. 
VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman 
under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North 
Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command 
it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an 
account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and 
died in 1798. 

VANDALS. The Vandal nations began tViuir ravages in Germ any and Gaul, 
A. D 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded 
and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took 
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the 
Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread 
devastation wherever they appeared. 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. Tnis country was discovered by Tasm.an in 1633. 
It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was 
deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- 
ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der* 
went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. 

VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced 
by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- 
man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold 
with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day 
the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where 
the vassal boors are divided into classes ; as boors belonging to the sover- 
eign ; mining boors, who are sold Avith the property ; and private boors, who 
belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In Ei.gland, 
a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c.. held of him in fee. 
Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 
1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. 

VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, 
said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, 
is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- 
tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," 
was first used by Voltaire, 1748. 

VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some 
huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
above the stagnated water that covered the plain; and this induced them to 
give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a 
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- 
arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 
1830. See Colombia. 

VENI, VIDI, VICI. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- 
tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he 
vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela, 
Battle of. 

VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made 
a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 b. g, Marcellus con- 



VBa i 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



579 



q«sered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 b. c. The 
isiands on which the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- 
i&Yxs, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- 
ous nations. Avhen they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the 
morass by Entinopus, by whom tbe people of Padua were assisted in build- 
ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was 
first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was 
not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The 
ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by 
pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the 
discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave 
it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- 
ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the 
rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 
1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the 
whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned 
under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 
1830. 

Venice declares herself an independent Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- 

republic - - Aug. 18, 184S tiilates to Marshal Radetzky, and is 

Provisional government decrees an as- again in the power of Austria, 

senibly with full powers to be elected Aug. 22, 1849 

by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 

inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 

VENTRILOQUISM. Persons-vvho had , this art Avere by the Latins called Ven- 
triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of 
their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- 
nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various 
ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the 
last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose 
experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 
1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever 
appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. 

VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 
1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or 
rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- 
vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 
1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, 
to obser^'e a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. 
The diur rial rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This 
planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. 

VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- 
setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 
1764 : claimed also by New- York, and granted to that colony by parliament 
in 1664 Owing to tliese conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into 
the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in 
that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. 
Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of ^30,000, in 1790. The state 
admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85^589 ; in 1810, 
217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948. 

VERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIIL, Versailles was only a 
small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a 
hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which was finished in 1708. and was the usual residence of tiie kings 
of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it 
to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 



680 THE world's progress. [ve8 

to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated d tons les 
gloires de France ; and freely opened to the public. 

VlilRSAILLES, Peace of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive 
treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
Sept. 3, 1783." In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and 
Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. 
Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. 

VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for 
grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey 
translated part of Virgil's jEneld into blank verse, whicii is the first coniposi- 
tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the 
other measure \yas but little atfected till the reign of Charles II. The verse 
previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the 
cttava rhna. as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italjan 
language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into 
Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French 
chansons. — Metropolitan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of 
blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- 
men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like %star of the sixth magnitude. — 
Annual Register. 

VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual 
fire consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother 
of Romulus was one of the vestals. A^Ineas is supposed to have first chosen 
the Vestals. Nuraa. in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- 
quin added two. They were always chosen by the raonarchs ; but after the 
expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care 
of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from 
the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that 
presented themselves as candidates for" the office, twenty virgins were 
selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. 
The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. 
The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- 
tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Blbliotheque Uni- 
verseUe. 

VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it 
emitted such a quantity of fiame and smoke that the air was darkened, and 
the cities of Pompeii and Hercnkmeum were overwhelmed by the burning 
lava, A. D. 79. More than 259,000 persons perished by the destruction of 
those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout 
Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not 
only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were 
suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished 
in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it: this 
erujition proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered 
in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that 
time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by 
fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and 
loss of lives In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and 
a great part of the surrounding countr}^ were destroyed. One of the most 
dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly. Nov. 24, 1759. The 
violent burst in 1767 was the thirtv-fourth from the the time of Titus, when 



VIEJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581 

Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed 
over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town or 
Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, 
and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been 
several eruptions since. 

VETOES OF THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The poAver of can- 
celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by 
Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, five 
times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the 
navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds 
of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, February 
20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846. 
French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. 

VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- 
pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an im])erial city 
in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. 
of England, 40,000/., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the 
Magnilicent, with an army of 300.000 men : but he was forced to raise the 
siege with the loss of 70 000 of his best troops, 1529, Again besieged in 
1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, Idng of Poland, who 
totall}^ defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the 
city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by 
the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, 
following. They again captured it. May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once 
more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same 
year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 
1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary. 
See next articles. 

VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the 
emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to 
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively 
possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force 
to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing 
the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- 
matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. 

VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king 
of Great Britain, and Holland, by Avhich the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- 
ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain 
acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. 

VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the 
emperor of Germany and king of France, b}^ which the latter power agreed 
to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; 
signed Nov. 18, 1738. 

VIENNA, Peace of, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) 
I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, 
and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere 
to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, 
October 14, 1809. 

VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on Avhich thev had acted by 
the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. The 
treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one pai't, 
and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 



582 THE world's progress. f VIN 

the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the 
house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes 
Swedish Pomerania and Rngen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg-, 
June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, 
June 8, 1815. 
VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor 
being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to 
the vill or loi'dship ; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat- 
tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this 
kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties 
to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Stotce's Chron. 

VIMEIRA, Battle of,, between the British, under sir Arthtr Wellesley, and 
the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal 
Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21. 
1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under 
his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- 
milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- 
ant career. 

VINCENT'S, St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763. 
the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward 
side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this 
was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island 
by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French 
landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which 
was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scoufirier 
mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 

VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, 
in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the Soiith Gauls in tillage, 
vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are 
aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- 
neously on the Mediterranean shares of Italy, France, and Spain. The 
vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The 
vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in 
England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and 
celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Eui'ope. See Grapes^ 
and Wi/ie.* 

VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds 
of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- 
tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- 
tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they 
might dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their 
repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of 
this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and lta]y. 
It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our 
Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. 



* The following is a tradition in relation to the vine : — When Adam planted the first vine, and 
left it, Siitan approached it, and said, "Lovely plant ! I will cherish thee;" and thereupon takivig 
three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed tliem at the root of the tree, and theii blood has 
been imbibed by (he fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, yon are cheered by its 
influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; "if you lake t\vo goblets, you become furious, and 
rave and bellow like the lion; and if you drink of I'iie third goblet, your reason sinks, and, like tha 
hog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe. 



virJ dictionary of dates. 583 

There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was nol proper for 
drinking- till diluted. 

VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, 
so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The 
viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very 
much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- 
duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin 
was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lenglet. The 
fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of 
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. 

VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according 
to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45. The Preseniation of the Virgin, is a 
feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the 
Greeks in the eleventh century ; its institution in the West is ascribed to 
Gregory XL, 1372. A distinguished writer says : " The Indian incarnate 
god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the roj^al race, 
and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It 
appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and 
was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising 
from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. 
The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William 
Jones. 

VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the 
decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the 
place where she resided. She Avas claimed by one of his favorites as the 
daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of 
judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from 
the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- 
quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plungeel it into Virginia's breast, 
exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter ! I can give thee, to preserve thee 
from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius 
ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- 
tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they 
immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- 
self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, 
another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed 
himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to 
death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. 

VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," 
having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first 
white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen 
Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- 
ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his 
attainder and execution. The countr}^ granted by James I. to two compa- 
nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and 
named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the 
Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- 
tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established 
the Church of England by law. 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in 
the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- 
"(vallis, at Yorktown. October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States 
adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- 
dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 



584 THE world's progress. [ kO 

Harrison, and Taylor ; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and : ,dny 
distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,o22; 
in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. 

VISIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed 
in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately 
under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- 
tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into 
his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in 
his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. 

VITTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the 
annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- ■ 
manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar- 
shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his 
baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of 
France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington totk Jourdan's 
only remaining gun ! 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 
volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of 
Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b. o. by authentic historians. See 
Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. 
The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- 
count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see Iceland. In Mexico, 
a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height 
by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro 
broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red 
water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared 
in one of the Azore islands. May 1, 1808. 

VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of 
the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794, Besides their large 
army, and 85 000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans, 
raised the militia to lOO.OOO men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. 
Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, 
it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- 
teers were, according to official accounts, 341.600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the 
United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war, Congress authorized 
the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, 
but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. 

VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order 
of Necho, pharoah of Eg>pt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from 
Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good 
Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along 
the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the 
world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is- 
land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovc-y was 
the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumntivigators, and Noti-\- yVe.^ 
Passage. 

W. 

WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first 
fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one 
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylera, and other coverers of 
houses, had not more than 3(^. per day (about 9.'/. of our money) ; and their 



WAL ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



585 



servants l^d. — Viner^s Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 1441, the wages 
of a bailift' of husbandry was 23s. 4(1. per annum, and clothing of the price 
of 55. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd. 20s., clotliihg 
4s. ; common servant of husbandry. 15s., clothing 40fZ. ; woman-servant, 10s.', 
clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, 
onl}^ with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, 
rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, 
was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a day, without meat and 
drink ; or with meat and drink 4^. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The 
following were the 

WAGES OP HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 



Year. 




s. d. 


Year. 




s. d. 


Year. 




s. d. 


In 1350 


per diem. 


1 


In 1683 


per diem. 


8 


la 178S 


per diem. 


1 4 


In 1460 


ditto 


2 


In 1716 


ditto 


9 


In 1794 


ditto 


1 6 


In 1568 


ditto 


4 


In 1740 


ditto 


10 


In 1800 


ditto 


2 


In 1632 


ditto 


6 


In 1760 


ditto 


1 


In 1840 


ditto 


3 



VVAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in whi<.h the 
latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Ayistrians were taken . y the 
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This 
battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty 
of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the 
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- 
peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia 
to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
Spain. 

WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry 
VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists 
fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, 
seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but the earl of Warwick es- 
poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and 
the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. 
This battle was fought December 81, 1460. 

^VAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- 
ticular saint ; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and 
was continued among the Saxons. — Wliitaker. Women were hired among 
the ancient Romans to weep at funerals: they were called CarincE. The 
Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their 
frie-\ds. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might 
lie inactive. 

WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth 
century led to the establishment of the Holy Ofhce or Inquisition. Pope 
Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies 
of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the Catholic bishops 
were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and 
the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. 
One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf having been as- 
sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to 
ma -ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at 
the disposal of Simon de Mdntfort. commander of this crusade, and the 
whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued 
with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was sjjared; the coun- 
try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Sucli was 
the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman was constituted first inqui- 
eitor-general, 1208, 

25* 



586 THE world's progress [ WAN 

WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vorti^ern was 
elected king of South Britain, and lie invited over the Saxons to defend his 
country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for 
reinforcements, consisting of Saxons. Danes, and Angles, by which they 
made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons 
retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- 
cessible mountains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
quered till Henry II. suibdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. 
entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to itsjndependency by 
the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not 
entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought 
to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him 
prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has 
borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England 
by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain. 

WALES, PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of 
Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April. 128i. Im- 
mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief- 
tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his 
arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dtjii" literally in English, 
"This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king." 
These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians 
assert, to '■'■ Icli Dien," which is the motto attached to the arras of the prince 
of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this 
prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 
1307. — Myvyrian Archceology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different 
account oif the origin of the motto " Ich Dien" see the article under that 
head. 

WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persec^^tion of the 
cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of 
Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries 
revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were 
well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by 
queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in 
this part of England. — Pardon. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, 
and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, 
on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill 
on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on 
the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 
1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors 
for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. 

WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- 
sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When 
they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck 
him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- 
ger 1" Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in- 
deed going; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, 
and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every 
hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he 
returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, 
being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity 
of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the 
ieath and resurrection of Christ. — Cat/net's Hist, of the Bible. 



WAR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



587 



WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- 
ters date the first war as having- been begun by the impious son of Cain 
3663 B. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed 
into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed 
by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded 
in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 118i b. c. The longest 
siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of tlie 
Platseans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning 
of the world to the present time, no less than 6;860, 000,000 of men have 
perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- 
man species as now inhabit our whole earth. 

WARS, Civil, op Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great 
Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons 
against Henry HI,, 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of the 
White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. 
The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against 
Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 
1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty- 
rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebeUion, 
1798. 

WARS, Foreign, op Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England 
was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy 
being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of 
France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English 
province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with 
France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, 
Poictiers. and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the 
reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It 
was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests 
of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years 
of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. 

FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. 

Peace. 1546 

" 1550 

" 1550 

" 1559 

•' 1.560 

'■ 1.564 

" 1604 

" 1629 

" 1629 

" 16.54 

" 1660 

" 1668 

" 1668 

" 1668 

" 1671 

" 1674 

" 1697 

The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, France, 
and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of 
Ryswick, Sept. 20,^^1697. It concluded this last war. 

THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN. 



War with Scotland, 


1008 


Peace 


1092 


War w 


ih Scotland, 


1.542 




France, 


1116 




1118 




Scotland, 


1.547 




Scotland, 


1138 




1139 




France, 


1.549 




France, 


1161 




1186 




France, 


15.57 




France, 


1194 




1195 




Scotland, 


1557 




France, 


1201 




1216 




France, 


J 562 




France, 


1224 




1234 




Spain, 


1588 




France, 


1294 




1299 




Spain, 


1624 




Scotland, 


1296 




1323 




France, 


1627 




Sc(n.!and, 


1327 




1328 




Holland, 


1651 




France, 


1339 




1360 




Spain, 


3655 




France, 


1368 




1420 




France, 


1666 




France, 


1422 




1471 




Denmark 


,1666 




France, 


1492 


" same year 




Holland, 


1666 




France, 


1512 




1514 




Algiers, 


1669 


«i 


France, 


1522 




1527 




Holland, 


1672 


(1 


Scotland, 


1522 




1542 




France, 


1689 



War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 
1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 

War with Sfiain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- 
cluded 1721. 

War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739. 
Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, April 30, 1748. 



War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed 

also on April 30, 1748. 
Wnr; the Seven ypars' icar, .June 9, 1756. 

Peace of Pari.s, Feb. 10, 1763. 
War with Spain, Jan. 4, 17G2. GcneraJ 

peace of Feb. 10, 1763. 



588 



THE world's PE,0GRESS. 



[ WAJl 



WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain — continued. 

War with the United States, July 14, 1774. War of the Hevolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peaca 

Peace of Paris, Nov. 30. 1782. of Amiens, March 27, 1802. 

War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- 

Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. ' ' " 

War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed 

same time, Jan 20, 1783. 
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace 

signed Sept. 2, 1783. 



nally closed, June 18, 1815. 
War with the United States, June 18, 1812. 

Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 
For the wars with India and China, see th;«e 

countries respectively. 



In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes 
with, and sometimes against Great Britain, England spent 65 years in war, 
and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 
1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in tlie war of the 
Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish %var, 54 millions ; in the 
Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the 
war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the war against Bona- 
parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years 
(from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 
millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained 
by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six 
hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their 
allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin- 
sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the 
inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. 
The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted 
to one million two hundred thousand. 

WAR. Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com- 
menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended 
by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193,700. 

WAR, The, of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain : 



First difficulty respecting the search of 

American vessels - - - 1806 

Chesapeake United States frigate fired 

on 1807 

Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809 

United States frigate President, entjag- 

ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt 

May 16, 1811 
President Madison's war message to 

congress • - - June 1, 1812 



War declared • - - June 19, 1812 

Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman- 
der-in-chief 
[See Battles and Naval Battles.] 
The war oppo.?ed in New England, and 
levies of troops refused by Mass., 
Conn., and R. I. 
Treaty of peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815 



WAR against Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States, 
1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels 
and " conquered a peace," July 4, 

WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of 
Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate 
of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] 



American army of occupation, (3500) 
under Gen. Taylor took post on the 
Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, 

March 28, 1846 

First collision — a reconnoitring party 
of 70 from American army under Col. 
Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- 
soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 

Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at 
Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 
wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and 
355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846 

Bill passed both houses of Congress U. 
S., declaring that war with Mexico 



already existed, by act of that power, 
and authorizing 50,000 volunteers 

May 12, 1846 

Monterey taken by Com. Sloat, July 6, 1847 
Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney 

Aug. 18, 1846 

Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaJed 
by Com. Stockton - - Aug. 19, 1846 

Battle of Monten-ey, 4700 Americans 
under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under 
Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A- 
merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, 
Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1846 



WAR ] 



DICTIONAilV OF DATES. 



589 



WAR WITH MEXICO, continued. 

Stevenson's California regiment sailed 

fromNev/-York - " - Sept. 26, 1846 
Tobasco bombarded by com. Perry, 

Oct. 25, 1846 
Tampico occupied by com. Connor, 

Nov. 14, 1846 
Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- 

teors defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari- 

to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 

wounded. American loss6 woimded. 
Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted" 

. Californians, at San Gabriel, &c. 

Jan. 8, 1847 
Majoi Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major 

Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners 

by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, 

Jan. 2-3, 1847 
Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- 
ico, American governor Bent and fis'e 

others murdered - - J^m 14, 1847 

1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans 

defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847 
Battle of Buena Vista: Americans 4759 

mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor 

and gen. Wool ; and Mexicans 22,000 

under Santa Anna; latter defeated and 

loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri- 
can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded, 

Feb. 22-23, 1847 
Battle of Sacramento ; American col. 

Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 

Mexicans under Herridea, latter loss 

300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri- 
soners ; American loss, 1 killed and 8 

wounded - - - Feb. 28, 1847 

Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott 

and com. Perry ; American loss 65 

killed and wounded - March 29, 1847 
Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, 

April 2, 1847 
Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500 

under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- 
icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals 

and 3000 men, taken prisoners by 

Scott: American loss 250, Mexican 

350. 
Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847 

WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this 
city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. 
It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning- of 1794, the 
empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles 
to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex- 
pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 
pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in 
July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year. 
It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See 7iext artide. 
Wgirsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony 
in August, 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813, 
and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice- 
roy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See 
Poland. 

WARSAW. B.iTTLEs OF. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle -with 
the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow, the Russian general, after 
the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all 
ages and condilions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the 



Battles of Contreras and Churubutcc, 
American gen. Smith dn ves the Mexi- 
cans from these fortified posts towards 
Mexico, losing 1086 killed and wound- 
ed; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 1847 

Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the 
Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced 

Sept. 7, 1847 

Battle of Molino del Rey ; American 
gen. Worth carried the fortifications 
defended by 14,000 Mexicans under 
Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil- 
led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000, 

Sept. 8, 1847 

Battle of Chepultepec, a height near 
Mexico, carried by American gene- 
rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow, 
(under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862 

Sept. 12-13, 1847 

This was followed by the surrender of 
the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847 

Col. Childs with 400 men and 1800 
sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at 
Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans 
to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847 

Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex- 
ico for protecting pubMc property in 
the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 

City of Huamantla captured by Ame- 
rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa 
Anna. American loss, 24 killed and 
wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 

Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap- 
tured by American frigate Congress, 
and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847 

A tax levied upon the states of Mexico, 
and duties &c. laid to the amount of 
about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 

Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, 

Feb. 18, 1848 

Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, 
by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. 
Clifibrd, for the United States, and 
the foreign Mexican minister, Signor 
De la Rosa - - - May 3t), 1848 

American troops finally withdrawn 
from the city of Mexico, - June 12, 1848 



590 THE world's PROGPcESS. [ WAT 

surrender was very bloody ; of 26.000 men, more tlian 10,000 were killed, 
nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the 
merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb. 
20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard flg-hting', the city 
capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of 
the Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was 
fouirht Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. 

W.AI\SAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria 
and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted 
in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed 
March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 
24, 1768. 

WASHINGTON. The capitci. of the United States, founded in 1791, and first 
made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was 
opened for the first time, May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late 
war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the 
President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the t'roops not 
sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon 
afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow- 
ing. See United States. 

WASHINGTON. GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad- 
dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the 
American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti- 
tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789; again in 1793; 
died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid. Oct. 19, 
1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848 ; 
oration by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner- 
stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. 

WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a, d. 
1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch 
about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by 
Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first 
who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small 
table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in 
1577. — Hume. Spring pocket- watches (watches properly so called) have 
had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy- 
gens by the Dutc^\ Dr. Derhara, in his Artificial Clockviaker, says that Dr. 
Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have produced what 
is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658; 
as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the 
double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., " Rob. Hooke in- 
ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches wore invented 
by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved 
1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him 
the reward of 20,OOOZ., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches 
and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See 
Clocks. 

WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water 
(as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the 
original pruiciple of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — Stanley. It is the 
universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with 
much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine 
in summer. — Madame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed 



WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 

Avith the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenglet. " Honest water is too weak 
to be a sinner : it never left a man in the mire." — Skakspeare. 

WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time, 
independently of the sunshine, were depsydrcs or water-clocks. These were 
most probabl}' vessels of water, with a small hole tlirough the bottom ; 
through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour ; 
after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in- 
vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi- 
cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the 
year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used ; and 
Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning 
of a taper as a measure of time. 

WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general 
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients 
parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in- 
vented," which were turned by men and beasts with great labor; and jQt 
Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 

WATER TOFANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisonhig. The poisoiiso 
freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofana, from 
the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. 
She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on 
being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. 
Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of therii vvere publicly 
executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared 
to have been chiefl\^ used by married women who were tired of their hus- 
bands. Four or six drops were a fiital dose ; but the effect was not sudden, 
and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists 
have not agreed about its real composition, A proclamation of the pope de- 
scribed it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a 
solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed 
to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two 
brothers ; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt 
alive. — Phillips. 

WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and 
the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the 
French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the 
British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon 
attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num- 
bers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about 
nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. 
The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu- 
cher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. 
On both sides the carnage was immense ; but that of the French was double 

' the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army, 
and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three 
great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication 
followed. See Bonaparte and France. 

t ITER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, 
the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl- 
winds over the land. — Dr. Franklin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatz 
mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and 
many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and 
many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk, near Kil- 



692 THE world's progress. [ wed 

larney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, and destroyed 
his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves- 
tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4, 
1831. 
WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century; and 
wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, 
candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Cmidleberry. 
"Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu- 
lar species of myrtle, which jnekls excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing- 
wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree, 
Ligusirum lucidu7)i, was brought from China before 1794. 

WE. The common language of kings is we, which plural style was begun with 
king John, a. d. 1199. — Coke's Instit. Before this time sovereigns used the 
shigular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French 
kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henault. It is now the style royal 
of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu- 
ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens. 

WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only, a certain amount of 
property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the 
poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the 
countrj^ while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances 
of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mighti- 
est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches 
amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed. 
— AthencBus. Ceecilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 
oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 
8 B. c. — Uidv. Hist. 

WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from 
the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in 
Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally 
spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient 
nations, to different women as women's arts. The Eg3''ptians ascribed it to 
Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca- 
pac. In most easteri countries, the employment of weaving is still per- 
formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd- 
ridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious 
women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke 
viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in CalmeVs 
Dictionary, under the word Vestments. 

WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where 
they manufactured v/oollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of 
great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, clwth-drapers, 
linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches- 
ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse- 
cution, 1567. 

WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by 
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this 
ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the 
superi( r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. 

WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call- 
ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given 
to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards 
corrupted to Wednesday. See next article. 



WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 593 

"WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, 
who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks, 
the first the common one of seven days, the second of j^ears, which was 
seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was 
the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: — 



Latin. 


English. 


Dies Saturni, 


Saturday, 


Dies Solis, 


Sunday, 


Dies Lunse, 


Monday, 


Dies Martis, 


Tuesday, 


Dies Mercurii, 


Wednesday, 


Dies .lovis, 


Thursday, 


Dies Veneris, 


Friday, 



Saxon. 


Presided over by 


Saterne's day, 


Saturn. 


Sun's day, 


The sun. 


Moon's day. 


The moon. 


Tiw's day, 


Mars. 


Woden's day. 


Mercuiy. 


Thor's day, 


Jupiiei-. 


Friga's day. 


Venus. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver 
money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et seq. — Arundc- 
lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the 
lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was 
originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, s d. 972. Stand- 
ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng- 
land by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighing- 
machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed 
by the city-ofllicer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between 
buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward XL, 1309. — Slowe. The first statute, 
directing the use of avordupois Aveight, is that of 2-1 Henry VIIL, 1532. — 
Pkilosopliical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of 
3.28081, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa- 
tor, as the standard of measure ; and the kilogramme, equal to 2,255 pounds 
avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. 

WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was 
founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his 
brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an 
association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed 
upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley 
went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. 
On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered 
many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious 
meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he 
was united with Mr. Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the 
doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated 
according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his 
labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, 
Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his 
influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. 

WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th 
and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively . 

WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western 
portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the 
Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed 
Augustulus, and as.sumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended 
the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. Sea 
Eastern Empire. 

WESTJMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the miracn 
lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que* 



594 THE world's progress. [wm 

tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was emploj^ed to survey the present 
edifice, and who. upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance 
the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His- 
torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the 
sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church 
becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be- 
tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope 
Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of 
the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent 
and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., 
and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo- 
nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles 
were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the j^ears 1340 and 1483. The 
west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard 
III. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the 
magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was 
laid Jan, 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ; 
and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. 

WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar- 
chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and 
here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit- 
suntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when 
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Stowe. 
The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idem. Westmin- 
ster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
by x)illars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a 
general repair in 1802. 

WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax- 
ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; 
and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of 
Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of 
conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed 
king, Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned 
in f813. 

WESTPHALIA, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between 
France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against 
France, By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was 
first recognised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some 
other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala- 
tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and 
the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc- 
tober 24, 1648. 

WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 
650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons, — cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by 
17:500 oflScers and seamen. " Commercial history furnishes no parallel to 
this whaling fleet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — 
Speech of Mr. Grinnell. 

WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 
1790 to 1838, was 10,283,471 bushels.— average, 209.666 bushels per annum. 
In 1845 the amount exported was valued at $5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350 644. 
This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased 
by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. 

WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took 



WIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595 

their name from Mount Carmel, Ij'mg southwest of Mount Tabor, in tha 
Holy Land. Thej'- pretended that Elijali and Elisha were the founders of 
their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of 
it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was 
moderated, and about the year 15i0 divided into two sorts, one following 
and restoring tlie ancient severities, and the other tlie milder regimen. 
They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in 
London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Wliitefriars to 
this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. 

WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, 
before the middle of the 13th,century. It afterwards devolved to the arch- 
bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the 
court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, 
Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
written: — 

" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
More clung about the barge ; fish under water 
Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
She had come by ivater, liad she come by land." 

In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet- 
ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., 
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall 
Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a 
chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 
and 1833. 

WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to 
commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghopt upon the apostles :' in the pri- 
mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear 
white garments on Whi Sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls 
in May and sometimes m June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after 
Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday ; it is said to 
have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called 
Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- 
paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing 
on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and 
other evils. 

WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffe, a professor of divinity 
in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the 
English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho- 
rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of 
the church, in 1377. Wickliffe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's 
son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res- 
cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, Dec. 
31, 1384, in his 60th jea.r.— Mortimer. 

WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it 
feu Gre.cquois, because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was 
first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Helio- 
polis. — Noiov. Diet. See article Greek t'\re. 



596 THE world's progress. [ WIN 

WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper 
styled the NoTth Briton^ pubhshed by John Wilkes, an alderman of London. 
Ho commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis- 
tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a 
use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the 
earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower. 
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; 
but he obtained .£1,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure 
of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's 
Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene 
poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out- 
lawed ; he was. however, elected a fifth* time for Middlesex in October 
1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor ; but was over- 
looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. 

WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See 
Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There are 
many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this 
power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in 
three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person 
who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath- 
ing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to En- 
glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry 
Vni., 1541. — Blackstone's Commeniaries. The first will of a sovereign on 
record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard 11., 1399, Edward the 
Confessor made a will, 1066. 

WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to 
be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to 
the Saracens. They ai-e said to have been originally introduced into Europe 
by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in 
the crusades. — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and 
Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch- 
man, in 1633. when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WIND<^WS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evi- 
dent from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
so early as the third centur}^, if not before, though the fashion was not in- 
troduced until it Avas done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were 
used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In 
England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ; 
about 275.000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win- 
dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to 
defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William 
III., 1695. 

WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally 
built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henrj^ I. The monarchs 
who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born 
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the 
west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di- 
rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. 
Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed 
every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen- 
ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to 
this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV. 

WINES. The inventipn of wine is given to Noah. — Abbe Lenglet. The art of 



WIT ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597 



making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching 
Noung, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. Tlie art of making wine was brought 
from India by Bacchus, as other autliorities have it. Hosea speaks of the 
wine of Lebanon as btnng very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour 
changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — John ii. 3. 10. 

" The conscious waters saw their God. and blush'd." — Addison. 

No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet. 
Spirits of wine were known to the alcliymists. — Idem. Concerning the ac- 
quaintance which our i3rogenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured 
that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; 
but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered 
by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in 
A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention 
of ' wine for the king" so early as 1249; and we are even sent to a much 
earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price 
was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes con- 
demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels 
of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427. 
— Stoiae^s Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on 
June 17. 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed 
April 25. 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons of all kinds of 
wine. In 1815. the United Kingdom imported 4 306 528 gallons. In 1830 
Avere imported 6.879 558 gallons ; and in the year endino- Jan. 5, 1840, were 
imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7. 000, 486 were for home consumption, 
—Pari. Ret. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, 
A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. 
The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Murlivier. 
The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of 
gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces 
of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually 
drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 
yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of 
gold covers the whole 98 yards; and the thousandth part of a grain is above 
one-eighth of an inch long. — Hallcy. Eight grains of gold covering a cy- 
linder of silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13 000 feet long ; yet so 
perfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover 
any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle. 

WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu- 
lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reign- 
ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed 
by hostik- armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau 
made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg mar- 
ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. 
This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The 
elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, 
1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus- 
sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king 
granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848. 

WISCONSIN. One of the v/estern United States was organized out of the 
North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30,945 : 
chiefly emigrants from the northern and middle states. 

WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced bv the 



598 THE world's progress. t WIT 

churcli of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected 
to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of tiiousands of 
cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were 
drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did 
not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re- 
served for burning- at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene- 
va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of 
Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one 
sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in 
Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt 
at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and 
ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.<ition 
of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostl)^ by the flames, in Germany. 
Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be- 
witched a whole. convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor womeiv 
were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges 
of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions .raged dreadfully 
in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched, 
and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — ^1?^?^. Reg. Five women were condemned to death by 
the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem. 

WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked 
laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which 
death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the 
public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted 
declaring ail witchcraft and sorcerv to be felonv without benefit of clergy, 
33 Henry VIII., 1541. Again. 5 Elizabeth, 1562. and 1 James. 1603. Bar- 
rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years 
at 30 000. The Enghsh condemned, and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan 
of Arc. the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress a. d. 1431. See J:iaii of Arc. 
Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for v/itchcrafc in 1664. Three thousand 
were executed in England under the long parliament. Northamptonshire 
and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any 
other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 
1705, while ■'he Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five 
others seveu years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged 
nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were 
burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per- 
sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. 
even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub- 
lished his Dialogues of Dcemonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in 
London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws 



* All persons at court who sought the favor of Jamei?, praised his Dcamonologie ; and parlia- 
ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death 'ii?as 
inflicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any 
evil or wicked spirit — shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up 
any dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor 
cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed, 
pined, or lamed." This being the law of tho land, no person presumed to dotitat (lift existence ol 
■witchf-raft ; hence Shakspeare gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions 
a place where, he said, there were more witches than houses'. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evr] 
spirits, and abjuring witches became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employment to tlie 
clergy of all denominations. Witch-finders existed, too. as public officers ; and. besides the public 
executions, which disgraced every assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular re- 
BQaimeni.— Phillips. 



woo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 

against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person, 
attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Snr- 
rey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George IL, 1736. — 
Vmer^s Abridgment. 

VVITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was 
the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- 
nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A 
witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means 
to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman 
conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. 

WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were 
demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 
A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward L 
issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- 
land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many centuries after 
their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found 
there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wo-lves was 
made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 
834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they 
follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first 
in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure 
was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of 
twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that 
is. the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche. 

WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been 
considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and 
were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the 
northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- 
pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought 
with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards 
females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the 
polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of 
chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ; 
and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's 
first sight of Eve : 

" He laid him down and slept — and from his side 
A woman in her magic beauty rose ; 
Dazzled a.id charmed, he called that woman ' bride.' 
And his first sleep became his last repose." — Besser, t~am.lated by Bowring. 

The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that 
state: Arist*tle. Socrates, Pittacus. Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 
Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, 
Molifere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman; as she is, and 
as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- 
lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : 

'' Die when you will, you need not wear, 
At heaven's court, a form more fair 

Than beauty at your birth has given ; 
Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, 
The voice we hear, and you will be 

An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. 

WOOD-CUTS, OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. 
The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to 
Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the 
article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 



600 



THE world's progress. 



[ WOR 



to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and 
more recently by Cruiksbank, and others. 
WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com- 
mittee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that 
from the earliest times down to the reign of qneen Elizabeth, the wool of 
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the 
finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- 
facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the 
emperors. In later times, wool Avas manufactured in England, and is men- 
tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of 
it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This 
was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331. — 
Rymers Fmdera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of 
English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 
1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in 
all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. 
Woollen cloths were made an ai'ticle of commerce in the time of Julius Cse- 
sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- 
fore A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward 
III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See 
preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — 
Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 
1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. 
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth 
begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. 
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged 
to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
feit 5Z., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved 
in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 
11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- 
cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged 
by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, 
than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers. 

q,UANT TY AND DECLARED- VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL- 
LOWING YEARS : — 



Quantity. 
Pieces - 
Yards - - 
Declared value 


1800. 
1,022,838 
4,213.677 
£3,914,661 


1825. 
1,741,983 
7,798.610 
je6, 194,926 


1830. 
1,747,036 
5,561,877 
£4,608,592 


1840. 
2,143,796 
8,170,642 
£5,921,116 



WORCESTER, Battle op, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army 
and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A 
large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate 
Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city 
were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed 
or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his 
crovming mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- 
soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 
3, 1651. 

WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was 
created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention the 
year 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 
19tii of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was 
created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- 
tus, about 640 B. c. The first geographical table and map of the world was 



WOR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 



made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras 
and his system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- 
culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated, 
A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth 
is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started 
by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. 
WORMS, Diet of. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin laither 
was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Imther 
was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a 
league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, 
that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- 
ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, 
six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- 
lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, 
April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, 
and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him 
to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and 
his triumph was afterwards complete. 

WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been 
the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the 
Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the 
Latins, and the Teidcdes of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious 
worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the 
causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and 
evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by 
dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, 
and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, 
and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations, 
whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant 
states. — Sherlock. 

WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the 
period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- 
dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and 
there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- 
ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after 
Saxon divinities— the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. 
Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their 
great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy; and they be- 
lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was 
afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly 
superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our 
present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence 
of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- 
markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood. 
Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places 
of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : — 

and so coinmittis yoio to the protection of 
God. From Edinburgh., the xii of August 
lotiO. 

" Fail! not, bot ze tak guid heyd that net 
ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be ony 

ways hurt or bi'oken either glassin wark 

or iron wark. 

" Ar. Ergyli., 
"James Stewart 



" To our traistfriendis, the Lairds of Am- 
tilly and Kinvaid. 
" Traist friends, after Tnaist harty com- 
mendacion, we pray you faill not to pass 
incontinent to the kyrk of Dunkeld, and tak 
doun the hailL images thereof and bring 
furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- 
pinly. A7id siclyk cast doicn the altaris, 
and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- 



ments ofidolatrye. And this ye faill not to 
do, as ze will do us singular empleseur ; 

26 



" RUTHVEN.' 



6G2 THE world's progress. [ WRi 

WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its 
name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in 
which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- 
sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking 

- knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. 

WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a 
few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the LizarcL 
When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- 
bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, 
utterly regardless of the sufferers. — PliiUips. The loss of merchant and 
other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the ojaen sea, 
was estimated at Lloj^d's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a 
year. In 1880, it appeared b}^ Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were 
totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss 
varies ; but it is always many hundreds. 

SOMK OF THE MOST KEMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. 

Of the Tlwnderer, 7^ gwns; Stirling days afterwards, and has never since 

Castle,6i; PhcRnis, a ; La Blanche, . been heard uf - March 13, 1841 

42; Laurel, 28; Andrumeda, 28; j Of the PeacocA-, one of the United States 

Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; j exploring expediiion, at llie mouth 

Barbadoes, ii; Cameieon,\A; En- I of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- 

deavour,lA; and Victor, 10 guns; j day and smootli water - July 18, 1841 

British vessels of war, all lost m the | Of the /ki'/.5i(o;/r/ United States sieam- 

same storm, in the West Indies, in frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 

October, 1780 Of the United States schooner Shark, 

Of ihe Royal George, capsized in Vons- i wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846 

■ mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 ; Of the Crrea.' iJ/v7a/:';i iron steam-ship, 

persons perished - June 28, 1782 j This stupendous vessel grounded m 

Of the steamer ifome, from New York I Dundrum bay, on the east coast of 

to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 i Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846 

Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull | Of the Thiited States sloop of war Bos- 
to Duntlee ; 38 persons drowaed. I toil, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 
Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- j Of the United States brig Soviers, cap- 
ling and her father, io persons were j sized in a stjuall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 
saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 \ drowned - ■ Dec. 8, 1846 

Of the Pennsi/lvania, Oxford, and St. \ Of the West India mail packet 7'^cei?c? ; 

vl7Z(Z?-eii', packet ships, ma great gale j about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, lS-47 

off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 Of the ship Ocea?iilfo'/iarcA, of Boston, 

Of the Poland from New York to burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, 

Havre, struck by lightning. May 16, 1840 Aug. 24, 1848 

Of the President steamer, from New Of the barque Charles Barllett, run 

York to Liverpool, with fitly pas- down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 

sengers on board ; sailed on March i lives lost - ■ June 27, 1849 

11, encountered a terrific storm two I. See Fii'es, and Steam Vessels. 

It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- 
ally lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience 
serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary 
wear and tear. 

WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The 
most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- 
ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- 
phics, 2112 B. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins 
by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — Thucydldcs. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters 
into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on two tables of 
stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, 
and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- 
rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who 
slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding 



XER J DICXrONARY OF DATES. 603 

them that Mr. Fox was disting-uished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. 
professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by 
the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed."— Dk. 
Parr. 

X. 

XANTHTJS. Siege of, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, 
and tlio endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able 
to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the 
loss of their liberty, set tire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- 
dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror 
wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they 
brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, 
much against their will ; 42 b. c.—Plutarrk 

XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the 
memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in 
ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after 
whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa. they were obliged to retreat; 
but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia 
into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous 
nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, 
and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over 
toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- 
ducted exploit on record ; 401 b. c. — Fos.sw.s 

XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring 
of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of 
servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some 
historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have 
co.:;sisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the 
mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at 
Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- 
ished that such" a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some 
of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence; but for three succes- 
sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the 
courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base 
Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the 
mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band.' The battle of Ther- 
mopylae {^whlch see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 
480 B. c. T\\Q more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. 
His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis. and he hastened back to 
Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an anny of 
300 000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and 
pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. 

XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, 
the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. ItAvus 
formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of 
fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side 
towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were 
placed tiansversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on thei^ cables, in 
the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great 
strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid Jast- 
bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter 
was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 



604 THE world's PEOGRESS. I YEA 

beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore 
to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 
B. c. 

Y. 

YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the 
year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c. ; and it was 
corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Caesar, 45 b. c. See Calen- 
dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours, 
48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return 
of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- 
erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and still 
partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The .Jews 
dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- 
nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- 
tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians 
and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the 
Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. 
of France, in 1654, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the 
year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written 
on and from January 1. See New Slyle, &.c. 

YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar 
months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- 
deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added 
another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. 
But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first 
month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; 
and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews 
afcer wards followed the Roman manner of computation. 

TEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was 
Charles III., emperor of Germany: he added "In the year of our Lord " to 
his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by 
the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the 
Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. 

YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the 
Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end 
whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they 
set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. 
Some afiirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The 
ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the 
world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies 
and go through a second course of being. 

YEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this 
year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and 
have rest, Ever}^ seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year Avas 
called the Jubilef, Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven, 
and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families 
all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. 

YEAR. Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia 
and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent 
traveller : — 

June 23, Snow melts. I .Inly 25, Plants in flower. 

July 1, Snow gone. j Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. 

July 9, FielJ quite green. 1 Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed, 

July 17, Plants at full growth j Aug. 18, Snow. 



^OR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



605 



The snow the i continues upon the ground for about ten months, fi-ora Au- 
gus^t^lSth of one year, to June 23clof the year following-, being 309 days out 
of obo; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, an^l autumn, are 
together only hfty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' 
duration m these countries. 

iTEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes 
anct hxes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner 
does not claim It within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the 
iNorman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land if unclaim- 
ed .or a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a 
. legal space of time. 

FELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741 174-> 
1791, 1795. 1798, 1799, 1800. 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. Th\ ^atlL bv thai 

f-T''%9J^''%ll^'''\''^JV V?.'''J^^^' 2086 in 1798 (population, 55:000) : 
6/0 m 1803 ; 280 m 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805 37 000 of the 
inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804 
40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia 
AA^^neariy desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 
IjJS, and 1/,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- 
hty was great., and oO 000, out of 70 000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand 
diecl, and the greatest number of deaths in one dav was 117. Baltimore 
suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- 
vana have It annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732 
l/o9, and l/4o. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fevei 



vas 



very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 1815 • at 
Antigua m Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz 
and tlie Isle ot «t. Leon„ m Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less 
eveiy year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of 
the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it 
proved fatal to many thousands. 

YOKE The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised 
by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards 
inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies.— Abbe Le)i<rlet 

Diijresnoy. ^ ' 

YORK. The Eboracuvi of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of 
England.^ Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207; and here also 
Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born in 
2<4._ iork was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069 York 
received its charter trom Richard II., and the city is the only one in the 
British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix 
of lord has been granted. 

rORK. Archbishopric of, the most ancient metropolitan see in England beinp- 
It IS said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity 
was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment 
was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former 
were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should be 
restored to York and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see. about a. n. 
blZ. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of En^-Iand for 
a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at CarlTsle and 
Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the meti'opohtan see of the Scot- 
tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil. 1464 they withdrew 
their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose 
between the two English metropolitans about precedency as by pope Gre- 
gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that whicli ever of them was 



606 THE world's PROGRiESS. [ ZAN 

first confirmed, should be superior; appeal avus made to the court of Rome 
by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but i'ork 
was allowc'd to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles 
liimsei/ primate of alL England. York l);ts yielded to the church of Rome 
eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve 
Jord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord j)residents of the north. 
It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 15:6, at 1609^. 195. 2d. pei 
annum. — Bcatson. 

YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at different 
periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again 
been destroyed by tire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- 
pears to. have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king 
of North umbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 
1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch- 
bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands, 
and with tlie contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were 
promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was 
comi)leted, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, 
and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829; 
the damage estimated at 60,000/., was repaired in 1832. 

YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS of thk HOUSES op. The first battle be- 
tween these houses was that of St. Albans, ibught May 22. 1455. The last 
was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, 
or While Ucsej, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red 
jRosss. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty 
gre.'it battles were fought with different success, and half the country was 
depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See 
Boses. 

YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri- 
tish army \.:nder lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans 
and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans, 

YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- 
dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. 



ZAMA, Battl^: of, between the tAvo greatest commanders in the world at the 
time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- 
sive of the fate of Carthage; it led to an ignominious peace which was 
granted the year after, and closed the second Punic Avar. The Romans lost 
but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed 
and prisoners, more than 40.000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; 
B. c. 202. 

ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- 
public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the Avhole 
group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see), 
October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet and 
were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, 
in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding 
year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with 
Ragusa. August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army. October 3, 
1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were 
put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified at 



zin] dictionary of dates. 607 

. Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5, 
1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 
22, 1817. 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught 
tliat water by baptism was of no ethcacy, and that it was necessary to be 
baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at 
one time very numerous. — Ashe. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in 
Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of 
queen Mary, up to Avhich period many books in the Scottish language weru 
printed in Edinburgh with these words, a, d. 1543. 

ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- 
versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the 
natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time 
of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was 
seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supi)osed to 
make part of a southern continent, till 1770, when it was circumnavigated 
by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by 
the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many 
lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, 
imder every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of 
the foe whom' they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted 
several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 
1777, he, found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. 

ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Ci^esar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
son of Mithridates. Csesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous 
dispatch to the senate of Rcnne, in three words: '' Vent, vidi, vici"—''! 
came. I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. 
This battle concluded the war : Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where 
he was slain by his lieutenant^ Asander ; and Pontus was made a pr - ^ince 
of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c— 
Sue. Cces. 

ZELICHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the 
most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle 
for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by 
general Diebitch. were defeated, losing 12 000 men in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his 
flying army, April 6,, 1831. 

ZENO, Sfct o • founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from 
a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- 
rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way 
of eminence, Sro«, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school 
of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended 
the schools of various masters, and among otheis he offered himself as a 
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, '• 1 am 
no strane-er, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is 
to creep^slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 
312 B. c. 

ZINC. The discovery of this meta.1, so far as the fact is known, is due to the 
moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- 
ticed by European vmters as early as a. d. 1231; thougli the method of 
extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years 
after. A°mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate. Craven, 
Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 



60S THE world's progress. [ zim 

the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Li-. 

thography. 

ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, 
and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaxhnander, about 
560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos^ 
to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones, 
The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- 
imander. — Pliny. 

ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- 
stantino IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the 
throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- 
phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, 
and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the 
name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, 
the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname 
of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole era- 
presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty 
years of age, took for her third husband Constantino X., who succeeded to 
the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. 

ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnseus into six classes, 
viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves^ 
or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or 
insects; Verjnes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of 
zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom 
was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832. The Zoological 
Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was charterec 
March 27, 1829. 

ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, 
while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the chiirch of Rome and 
its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the 
papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem- 
blies to be called ; hy the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the 
second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished. 1519. Zuin- 
glius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a 
skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. 
The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name 
and also Sacramentarians. 

ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which 
this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This 
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, 
in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk 
sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger 
of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French 
were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were 
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 
Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. 

[Prom the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.] 

The following Chronological List of Authors is in exte.ision of the Catalogue 
furnished in the Companion of 1831, differing from it by adding to the name 
of each author the title of his most important production, or some word 
expressive of the nature of his works. 

In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is 
divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn 
chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists ; the second those who 
treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- 
sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, 
his name will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- 
ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated 
on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend lo them. 

The dates of bh'th and death are appended to each name, where they could 
be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly fJie 
time when each author has flourished. 



HEBREW. 

[The words in italics oetween pafentheses are the familiar appellation? of the preceding persons ; 
they are formed fi'om the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, the 
Jews call Maim£>nides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben 
Maimon. J ^n Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar 
Abraham,] 



B. C. 


B. c. 


1500 Moses, 1.572—1452. 


100 


Phinehas, supposed author of the book of 




Joshua. 




1100 David, 1085—10815. 




1000 Solomon, 1033-975, 




POO Jonah, d. 761. 


A. D 


Amos. 





Hosea, 




Joel. 


100 


Obadiah. 




Micah. 




Isaiah, d. 681. 




Nahum. 




700 Habakkuk, 




Zephaniah. 




Jeremiah. 




600 Baruch. 




Ezekiel, 




Daniel. 




Zechariah. 




Haggai. 




600 Ezra. 




Nehemiah, d. 430. 




Malachi. 




300 Jesus, son of Sirach. 





Nechoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab- 
bahir,' the illustrious book. Tiie most 
ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. 

Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase 
of the Bible" 

Onkelos, 'Targum.' 

Joseph us, b. 35. 

Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in- 
correctly attributed to him. 

Shimeon ben ,]oc]vdi (Rashhi). The 'Zohar,' 
a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary 
on the Pentateuch is usually attiibuted 
to him, but was composed by his dis- 
ciples. 

Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the 
World.' 

Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- 
ings of" the fathers. Ethics. 

Eliez.or, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of 
Eliezer, a History of the World. 

Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna,' the oral tradi- 
tions of the Jews, which, with the 
f3em;ira or Commentary, constitutes the 
Babylonian Talmud. 



26* 



610 



THE world's progress 



Raf, piipposed aiithnr of the 'Siphra,' a 
i-omniciiuiry on Leviticus, and ol' the 
'Sipliie," a cunmieuiaiy on Is'umbeis 
ami DfUtevononiy. 
200 I'shaya, • l$eie;5liiili Rabba,' a Commentary 
on the Mishna. 

Author ol" tlie 'Mechilta,' a Commentary 
on K.xodus. 

Joclianan, •'ralmud ofJeriisalcra.' 
30t1 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Common- j 

larics on the Bible. 
40C Rabasha, began the 'Gemara,' a Commen- 
tary on the Mishna. 

Marteniar, coniinueil the 'Gemara.' 
500 Abina. coni|>leied ilie 'Gemara.' 
800 Simeon Hejara. "Great decisions,' jurid. 

•ludah bar ISachman (liiboft), Compendium 
ol'the preceihng. 
9S0 Saadia Gaon, ' I'hilosoplier's Sione,' ' Book 
of Faith,' 'Grammar,' &c. 

Sherira, *Thc Book ol" Answers,' history. 
000 Samuel Haccolien, </. 1034. 

Josepli Ching, Granmiarian. 

Judah Barzeiioni, 'Rights ol" Women,' ju- 
riilic. 

Joseph ben Gorion (Hiliag), ' Compendium 
of Hebrew History.' 

Moses Aben Ezra. d. lOSO. Grammarian. 

Isaac of Cofilova, d. 109-1. ' Chest ol' Spices.' 
100 Alphes, d. llOo. 'Compendium of the 
Tahnud.' 

Nathan, d. HOG. 'Talmudic and Chaldee 
Lexicon.' 

Solomon Jarchi (Haslii). Grammarian, d. 
1105. 'Tongue of the Learned.'" 

Joseph ben Meir {liibam), d. 11-11. ' Com- 
mentary on Talmud.' 

Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- 
phical. 

Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 
mentaries on the Bible. 

Tam. d. 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book 
of Righteousness. 

Samuel ben Meir (liashbam), d. 1171. 
' Commentary on the Talmud.' 

Benjamin of Tiidela, d. 1173. 'Travels.' 

Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- 
logy. 

Isaac'bar Abba. Grammarian. 

Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. 

David Kimhi (Eadak), Grammarian. 

Abraham bar Dior {Babad), d. 1 199. Cab- 
balist. 

Abraham ben David (Rabad). Jurist. 

Moses ben Maimon {lxa?nbam), 1131-1205. 

'Yad Hazaka.' the o.ong hand, a very 
celebrated Commeniary on the Talmud, 
Arc. (This author is "better known by 
his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 
1200 Abraliam bar Chasdai, Ethics. 

Eliakiin. Ceremonies. 

Baruch IMiggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. 

Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. 

Asher, Coiiijiendia of Talmud. 

Perez Haccohen (Harapb), Cabbalist 

Moses ben Nachman (Hamban), d. 1260. 
' Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 
Ceremo lies, &c. 



Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of PiucepiS,' 
'Compendium of Talmuti.' 

Isaac ben Solomon, d. 12G3. ' Proverbs antf 
Fables.' 

Nissim, d. 12(')S. 'Bonk of Homilies.' 

l.^aac ben Joseph,*/. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.' 

Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- 
matical and" Philosophical works from 
the Greek and Arabic. 

Solomon ben Adras (Jiiis/tbo). Theology. 

Meir, Meditations, on 'Maimonides.' 

Menachem llekanat. d. 1290. ' Reason for 
the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' 

Bechai, 'Commentary on Peniaiench.' 
1.^00 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' 

Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the World,' 
History. 

Judah, son of Benjainin, Rrual. 

Moidechai, 'Compendium of Talmud.' 

Isaac Dura, 'On Forbidden and Permittefl 
Food.' 

Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' 

Jernch-.m, 'Book of Rectitude.' 

Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a 
Ritual of much authority. 

David Abudraham, astronomy. 

Levi ben Gerson (lialbag), d. 1370. ' Com- 
mentary on ilie Law.' 

MenachenAben Serach, (/. lo?-^. Ritual. 

Isaac ben Sheshat {Bihas/i), 'Questions 
and Answers on Various Subjects.' 

Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.' 

Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work 
against Christianity. 

Jom Tof bar Abraham (^Ritba), Commen- 
tary oit Maimoniiles.' 

Chasdai, d. 1391.;. 'Light of the Lord.' 
Ethics antl Theology. 

Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 
1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1-127. A Ritual. 

Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,— 
' Foundation of Faith.' 

Israel Germanus. 'Questions and Answers 
on the Law.' 

Joshua Levita, 'Introd. to the Talmud.' 

David Vital, 'Golden Verses.' 

Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. 

Isaac ben Arama, 'Com. on the Law.' 

Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. 

Abarbinel. 'Coinmentary on the Bible.' 

Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 
1500 Abraham Seba, • Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- 
mentary. 

Isaac iTarro, ' Explanations of the Bible.' 

Elias Levi, Grammar. 

Solomon ben Virga. 'History of the Jews.' 

Benjamin Zeef, 'Questions "and Answers.' 

Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juc.hasin,' Sacred and 
Jewish History. 

Moses Iserle, Astrology. 

Joseph Karro, 'Comr"on Maimonides.' 

Azarias Edomajus, History and Philology. 

Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and 
Chronology. 

Leo, d. 1592." ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. 

David Gans, History. 
IGOO JNIoses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 
1700 Moses Meiidelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy 



AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. 

. D. 

St'. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. 
St. Paul, St. Peter. St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. 



I 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GREEK. 



611 



GREEK. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SClENTIFia 


B.C. 

900 Homer, ' Iliad,' ' Odyssey,' 
«fec. 
Ilesiod, ' Works and Days,' 
&c. 


B. C. 

900 


B. C. 

900 


700 Tyrtaeus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 
. Arcliilochus, Satires^ Ele- 
gies (fragments). 


700 


700 


600 Aicajus, Lyncs (fragments). 

Sappho, Lyrics (iVagments). 

Solon, cZ. .558. 

Epimenides. 

Stes-iciiorus, 633-55-3 Lyrics 
(fragments). 

Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- 
ments.) 

Anacreon, Lyrics. 


600 


600 

Pythagoras, Philosophy. 


500 Simonides, 556-467. Lyrics, 
^schylus, 525-456, Trage- 
dies. 
Pindar, 518-439, Odes, 
Baccliylides, Lyrics. 

Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- 
dies. 

Euripides, 480^86, Trage- 
dies. 

Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- 
dies. 


500 

Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) 

Hecatseus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) 
Herodotus, d. 484, History. 
Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- 
ry of Peiiiponnesian War. 
Antiphon, Orations. 
Aridorides, Orations. 
Lysias, 458-378. Orations. 


500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. 
Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso. 

phy- 

Anaxagoras, 500^28, Philo- 
sophy. 

Socrates, 408-399, Philoso- 
phy. 


400 

Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) 
Menander, 242-291, Come- 
dies (fragments.) 


400 Ctesias, History (frasrm'ts.) 
Xenophon, 444-359, History, 

Philoso[)hy, <kc. 
Isffius, Orations. 

Isocrate-s, 536-338, Orations. 
Dinarchus, Orations. 
Lycurgus, Orations. 
Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- 
tions, 
^schines, 389-314, Orations. 


400 

Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- 
cine. 

Democritus, 450-357, Philo- 
sophy. 

Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. 

Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- 
phy, Critici.'.m. 

Theophrastus.ri. 283, Ethics, 

Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- 

piiy- 


300 Bion, Idyls. 

Moschus, Idyls. 

Lycnphron, ' Cassandra.' 

Callimachiis, Hymns and 
Epigrams. 

Theocritus, Idyls. 

Aratus, Poem on Astrono- 
my. 

Cleanthes, Hymns. 

Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- 
nautics.' 

■ 1 


300 

Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 


300 Euclid, Geometry. 

Zenio of Citium, d. 263, Phi- 
losophy, 

Apollonius, Conic Sec'.ioras. 

Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphera 

and Cylinder." &c. 
Erdio.sthenes, Philosophy. 



61^ 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECITLATIVB AND SCIBNTIPia 


200 Nicander, Theriaca. 


200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal 
History. 
ApoUodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' 
Mythology. 


200 


100 Meleager, Epigrams. 


100 Conon, Mythology. 

Scyranus, Poetical Geogr. 

Dionysius Halicarnassus, 
'Roman Antiquities.' 

Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- 
ography 1 

Diodorus Siculus, General 
History. 


100 





Strabo, Geography. 

Pausanias, Description of 

Greece. 
Plutarch, Biography, Morals 

&c. 
Dion Chrysostom, Orations. 




Dioscorides, Botany and Me- 
dicine. 

Epictetus, ' Enchiridion,' 
Philosophy. 


A. D. 

100 

lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- 
nonides, a novel. 

Lucian, Dialogues. 
Oppian, Poems on Hunting 

and Fishing. 
Athenaeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- 

eophistaj, anecdotes. 


A. D. 

100 Julian, d. 140. Varieties. 
Appian, History. 
Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. 

Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- 
ander.' 


A. D. 

100 

Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- 

losy. 
Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. 
Galen, 103-193, Medicine. 

Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the 
Resurrection.' 

Phavorinus, Lexicon. 

Hermogenes, d. 161, Rh«j- 
toric. 

Polyaenus, Strategy. 

M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- 
losophy. 

Nephaestion, ' On Metres.' 

Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. 

Julius Pollux, 'Onomasti. 
con,' Rhetoric. 


200 


200 Diogenes Laertius, d. '^22, 
' Lives of Philosophers.' 

Philostratus, d. 244, Life of 
Apollonius. 

Dion Cassius, History of 
Rome. 

Herodian, History of Rome. 

Porphyrins, 233-304, Life of 
Pythagoras, Philosophy. 


200 

Ammonius, Philosophy. 
Origen, d. 254, Theology 
Hesychius, Lexicon, 
lamblichus. Philosophy. 
Longinus, d. 273, 'On the 
Sublime.' 


300 

Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon 
and Leucippe,' novel. 

Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab- 
rocome,' novel. 


300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Liabanius, Orations and 
Epistles. 


300 

Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. 
Athanasius, 298--371, Theo- 

logy. 
Greg. Nazianzen, 318-388^ 

Theology. 



1 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.— GREEK. 



613 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SClfiNTXPIC. 


300 


300 

Eunapius, 'Lives of Philo- 
sophers.' 


Gregory Nyssaeus, d. 39C 

Theolosry. 
Cyril, 315^-386, Theology. 
Diophantus, Mathematics. 


30i; Aristcenetus, 'Erotic Let- 
ters.' 

Heliodorus, ' Theagenes & 
Chariclsea,' novel. 

Chariton, ' Chaereus and 
Calirrhoe,' novel. 


300 


300 

Chrysostom, 354-407, The 
ology. 


400 Longus, 'Daphnis and 
Chloe,' novel. 

Nonniis, ' Conquest of India 
by Bacchus.' 

Stobseus, ' Literary Collec- 
tions.' 

Quintus Smyrnaeus (com- 
monly called") Calabar, 
' Contin. of Homer.' 

Musaeus, Poem of Hero and 
Leander ] 

Eumathius, 'Ismerifeus & 
Ismenaea,' novel. 

Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape 

of Helen.' 
Tryphindorus, Poem on 

' Destruction of Troy.' 


400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- 
tles. 

Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman 
Emperors.' 

Socrates, 389^46, Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- 
astical History. 


400 Nemesius, ' Nature of 
Man,' Philose/phy. 

Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. 
Proclus, d. 445, Theology. 

Proclus, d. 500, Platonist. 


600 


500 Stephanus, Geography. 

Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign 
of Justinian.' 

Olympiodorus, ' Hist, of 
Honorius.' 

Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- 
graphy. 

Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist 

Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 


500 Simplicius, ' Commenta oo 
Aristotle.' 
Tribonianus, Jurist. 


600 


600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 
Theophanes, Byzant.Hisc. 

Theophylactus Simocatta, 
Byzantine History. 


600 

Philoponus, Grammarian, 


700 


700 


700 Damascenus, d. 750, The- 
ology. 


800 


800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 
Syncellus, History. 

John Malalas, History. 


800 Theodorus Studites, 759- 
826, Sermons. 
Photius, d. 891, 'Biblio- 
theca.' 


900 


900 

Leontms, History. 
Genesius, History. 


900 Leo VI., d. 911, « On Chris 
tian Faith.' 



614 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



900 



1000 



1100 



C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- 
danthe and Dosicles,' 
novel. 



900 Const. Porphyvogenneta, 
905-959, I-Iist. Selections. 
Sim. Metaplirastes, Lives 
of Saints. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTIMa 



900 



1000 George Cedrenus, History. 1000 
John Xipliilimis, d. 1080, 
Abridg. of Dion Cassius.l Theophylactus, Theology. 

j Michael Psellus, Matheraa 

John Scylitza, History. tics. 



1100 



1200 



Nicephorus Bryennius, d. 

1137, Byzant. Affairs. 
Anna Comnena, Reign of 

her father Alexius. 



Const. Manasses, History. ; 
Zonaras, History of Ro- 
mans, History of Jews. 

Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, 

History. 
John Tzetzes, History in 

Verse. I 

Cinnamus, History. ! 



1100 Euthymius Zygabenua, 
Theology. 



Suidas, Lexicon. 
Eustathias, CommentarioB 
on Homer. 



Isaac Tzetzes, Commentary 
on Lycophron. 



1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, 
Poems. 



Maximus Planudes, Anth- 
ology. 
Leo Pilatus, Literature. 



1400 



1200 Joel, History. 

Michael Glycas, History. 
George Acropolita, Hist. 
Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. 
George Pachymer, Hist. 



1200 



Nicephorus 
Theology. 



Blemmidas, 



1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 
History. \ 

Callisius Xantopulus, Ec- 
clesiastical History. | 

Niceph. Gregoras, History.! 



John Cantacuzenus, Hist. 
George Codinus, Hist. 
Michael Ducas, History. 



1400 



Demet. Pamperes, Tales. 
MaruUus Tarchoniota d. 
1500, Poems. 



1800 



Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. 

Origin of Turks. 
Laonicus Chalcondyles, 

History of Turks. 
George Phranza, History. 



1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 

1415, Grammar. 
Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, 

d. 1450, Philosophy. 
Eman. Moscopulus, Notea 

on Hesiod. 
Bessarion, 1395-1472. The- 

ology. 
Geo. of Trebizond, 1396- 

1463, Aristotelian. 



John Argyrophilus, Anslo« 
telian. 



1500 



1 



1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 
1453-1513, Philology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AllD ITALIAN. 



615 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1600 


1600 


1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- 
ology. 


ir-OO KaHinikus, Poems. 

Nicholas Caradza, Trans- 
lation of Voltaire. 


1700 

Alexander Maurocordato, 

Histoi-y of the Jews, 
Meletius, Geography. 


1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. 

Marcus Tharboures, Me- 
chanics. 


170^} 

Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat- 
ural Philoscphy. 


1700 

Ducas, Translation of Thu- 
cydides. 


1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. 


ISOO N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 

Chrislopulus, Anacreon- 
tics, Opera. 

Calvos. Lyrics. 

Ilarion, Translation of So- 
phocles. 


1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 
Hist, of Wallachia, «&c. 

Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. 

Perrevos, History of Suli 
and Parga. 

Gr. Demetrius, Geography. 


ISOO Psalidas, Metaphysics. 

Coray, Commentaries, Lex- 
icon. 
Cumas, Dictionary. 
Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. 



LATIN AND ITALIAN. 

[The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal 
use throughout Europe as tlie language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the 
modern languages began to appear. 

As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged 
all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head; but about the sixth century they will be 
found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which 
they wrote.] 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


B. C. 


B. C. 


B. C. 


200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 


200 


200 


Q.. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). 






P. Terentius, Comedies. 




M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 


100 


100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 


100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti- 




33, Letters. 


ca Lingua Latina. 
Vitruvius, Architecture. 
Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fasti 

Capitolini. 


T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- 


M. 1 Cicero, 107-43, Orator 




rum Natura. 


and Philosopher. 




Catullus, 86-40, L) rics. 


Julius Cassar, 98-46, Com- 
mentaries. 

Hirtius Pansa, Gallic War. 

C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur- 
thine War. 

Corn. Nepos, Biography. 




P. Vir^ilius, 70-19, Eneid. 






Q. Horatius,65-8, Odes, Sat- 






ires. 






Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. 


T. Livius, 59 b. c— 19 A. d., 




A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17 


History of Rome. 




A. D.. Elegies. 






. Ovid, 43 B. c— 17 A. D., Me- 






tamorph. Fasti, &c. 






Ilyginus, Poeticon Astro- 






nomicon. 







616 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFI* 


A.. D. 


A. D. 


A. D. 





Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 
A. D., Hist, of Rome. 

Pomp. Mela, Geography. 

Valerius Maximus, Anec- 
dotes of Great Men. 





Phffldrus, Fables. 




C. Celsus, D6 Medicina. 




Quintus Curtius, History of 


Columella, Agriculture. 




Alexander. 




Persius. 34-62, Satires. 




L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philo* 


Lucan, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.' 




opher, Tragic Poet. 


Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- 




Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat. 


tyricon. 




ral History. 


Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- 




Quintilian Criticism. 


tics. 






Silius Italicus, ' Punic 






War.' 






Sulpicia, Satires, «fec. 






Statius, d. 99, 'Thebais,' 






' Achilleis.' 






Martial, 29-104, Epigrams. 






Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. 






Pliny the Younger, 61-113, 






Epistles. 






100 


100 Tacitus, Histoiy. 


100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. 




Suetonius, Biography. 


Frontinus, Strategy. 




Florus, History of Rome. 


Terentianus Maurus, De Ar- 




Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- 


te Metrica. 


L. Apuleuis, Golden Ass. 


ticae. 
C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. 






Justin, History. 


Pompei. Festus, Grammar. 


200 


200 


200 Uipian, d. 228, Law. 

Tertullian,d. 220, 'Apology 

for Christianity.' 
Minutius Felix, Dialogue in 

favor of Christianity. 
Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- 

digiis.' 
Censorinus, 'De Die Na. 

tali.' 
Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. 


Nemesianus, Cynegetica. 






Jul. Calpurnius, Eclogues. 






300 


300 El Spartianus, History. 


300 Arnobius, » Adversus gen- 




Jul. Capitolinus, History. 


tes.' 




M\. Lampridus, History. 


Lactantius, d. 325, Defence 




Vul. Gallicanus, History. 


of Christianity.' 




Trebellius, Pollio, History. 




Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel 


F. Vopiscus, History. 


M\. Donatus, Grammar. 


m Verse. 


Aurehus Victor, History. 


F. Maternus, Astronomy 
Theology. 


M. Victorinus, Hymns, 


F. Eutropius, History of 


Ambrosius, Theology. 


Festus Avienus, Geographi- 


Rome. 




cal Poem. 


Amm. Marcellinus, History 


Jerom. 329—420, Version of 


D. M. Ausonius, Idyla. 


of Rome. 


Bible. 

Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti- 
cal History. 

T. Vegetius Renatus, De He 

Militari. 


A. T. Macrobius, Satur- 




Augustin, 354—430, Theol- 


nalia. 




ogy- 


Symmachus, Epistlea. 


, 





LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 



617 



IMAGINATION, 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO 


300 C. Claiulianus, Poems. 


300 


300 


A. Prudentius Clemens, 






Chiistiaa Poems. 






400 


400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 
Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, 
Sacred History. 


400 


Sedulius, Poetical Life of 


Orosius, Hist, of World. 




Christ. 






Martianus Capella, De Nup- 






tius Phil, et Merc. 






BRiulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on 






Martin of Tours. 






Sidonius Apoilinaris, rf. 488, 






Poems. 


Victorius, History of Church 
in Africa. 




Ennodius, d. 521, Christian 


Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 




Poems. 






500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 


500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 


500 Priscianus, Grammar, 


sopher. 


tory. 


Fulgenlius, 468-533, The- 

ology. 
Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, 

Christian Era. 




• 


Non. Marcellus, Grammar. 


Arator, 490-556, Acts of 






Apostles in Verse. 


Jornandes, Hist, of Goths. 
Evagrius, Eccl. History. 




600 


600 Secundus, d. 615, History 
of Lombards. 


600 


700 


700 


700 Cresconius, Collection 




Paul Warnefrid. History 


Canons, Verses. 




of Lombards. 




800 


800 Erchempert, Histoiy of 
Lombards. 


800 




Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 




900 


900 Luitprand, History of his 
Times. 


900 


1000 


1000 


1000 Papias, Grammar. 

Lanfranc, d. 1089, I'heol. 


1100 Donizo, Latin Poc'.ry. 


1100 


1100 




Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 


Gratian, Canonist. 
Campanus, Mathematics. 


Ciullod' Alcamo, Sicilian 






Poetry. 






1200 


1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, 


1200 Accursius, 1 182-1260, Law 


Guido of (l!olonna. Poetry, 


History. 


Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 


History. 




1274, Theoloey. 


Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, 




Bonaventura. Scholastic. 


'IlTesora.' 






Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, 






Poems. 


Marco Polo, Travels. 




John XXII., Poem on Me- 






dicine. 




G. Durand, Law. 




G. de Voragine, d. 1298, 


Pietro d'AIbano, 1250-i:> ^ 




Legends of Saints. 


Astrology, Physics. 
Torregiano Rustechelh, 
Commentarfes. 



618 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGIIfATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1300 Dante, 12G5-1321, La Di- 




1300"Dino Compagni, 1265-1323, 


1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. 


vina Com media, Vita 


Cliroiiicles. 


Arn. Villanovan, d. 1313, 


Nova, Convito, &c. 


Giovanni and M. Villani, 


Alchemy. 


F. Barberino, 1264-1318, 


Chronicles. 


Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, 


Poems. 




Astronomy. 


Petrarca, 1304-1374, Son- 




G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca- 


nets, Epic, Literature. 




nons. 


Boccacio, 1313-1375, '11- 




Bartolus, Law. 


Decamerone,' Poems and 




Domenico Cavalca, Ascetic 


various works in Latin 


Ferreti, 1356-1429, History 


and Translat. of Lives 


and Italian. 


of liis Times. 


of Saints. 


1400 


1400 Leonardo Bruni, History 


1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. 




of Florence, 


Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. 


A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471, 






' Hermapliroditus.' 


Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans- 




Poggio, 1380-1459, Litera- 


lation of Plutarch. 




ture. 




Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, 


Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, 




Medicine. 


Literature. 


B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- 


Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460. 


D. Burchiello, Sonnets. 


tory of Holy War. 


Baraterius, Law. 




Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463, 


Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396- 




History of Venice, &c. 


1479, Orientalist. 




.^n. Sylvius, 1400-1464, 


Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, 




History, Poetry, &c. 


Astronomy. 




Beccat, Panormita, 1393- 






1471, Biogi-aphy. 




Pnlci, 1432-1487, 'Mor- 


Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, 




gante Maggiore.' 


Lives of Popes. 




Franc. Pliilelphus, 1398- 


F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, 




1481, Poetry and Ethics. 


Biography. 


..f. 


Loren. de Medici, d. 1492, 


Pomp. Laetus, 1425-1495, 




Poetry, Literature. 


Lives of CiBsars, &c. 




Angelo Poliziano, 1454- 


Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- 




1494, Poetry, Drama. 


graphy. 


Pico de Mirandola, 1463- 


Marsilius Ficinus, 1433- 


G. Pontano, 1426-1563, 


1494, Metaphysics. 


1499, Translat. Plato. 


Wars of Ferdinand I. 
Bonfinius, d. 1502, History 


Luca di Burgo, Mathem. 




of Hungary. 




1500 


1500 E. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 


1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, 




tory. 


Anatomy. 
L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, 


G. Euccellai, 1475-1526, 




'Treatise on Painting,' 


'LeApi.' - 


Giarabullari, 1495 - 1555, 


&c. 


Alexander ab Alexandro, 


History of Europe. 


G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 


1461-1523, Dies Geni- 




A. Acchillini, 1472-1612, 


tales. 




Medicine. 


M. Boiardo, 'Orlando In- 




B. Castiglione, 1478-1529, 


namorato.' 




'The Courtier.' 


Sanazaro, 1458-1530, Ar- 






cadia. 






Berni, d. 1530, Satires, 






Burlesque, and Orlando 






Innamorato. 


Machiavelll, 1482-1528, His- 




Ariosto. 1474-1533, 'Or- 


tory of Florence, &c. 




lando Furioso,' Satires, 






Comedies. 






F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po- 


Guicciardini, 1482 - 1540, 


G. Fracastoro, 1483-1533, 


ems. 


History of Italj''. 


Medicine and Latin 




Bembo, 1470-1547, History 


Poems. 


Trissino, 1478-1550, ♦ Italy 


of Venice. 


And. Alciato, 1492-1550, 


Delivered,' Epic, Trage- 


L. Alberti, d. 1552, History 


Law. 


dy- 


of Bologna. 


Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 



619 



IMAGINATION. 



1500 Hier. Yida, d. 1566, Latin 
Poetry. 

Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d, 
1564, Poems. 

Giovanni della Casa, 1503- 
1556, II Galateo, &c. 

G-. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tra- 
gedy. 

L. Dolce, 1508-1568, Trage- 
dy, Epic, History. 

Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, 
'Amadis,' Sonnets, and 
iiCttc-rs 

Greg. GJraldi, 1504-1573, 
Tragedy. 



A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, 
Comedies. 

Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, 
' Gerusalemme Liberata,' 
Sonnets, Drama, &c. 

G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- 
gedy. 

Guarini, 1538-1613, 'II 
Pastor Tido.' 



Ottavio Kinnccini, Opera. 

F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605, 
'La Croce Eacquistata.' 

Oraz. Vecclii, Comic Opera 

G. B. Marini, 1569-1625, 
Poems. 

C. Achillini, 1577-1640, 

Poems. 
A. Tassoni, 1561-1635, 

'Seclicliia Kapita.' 



1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 
Poems, Epic, Lyric, &c. 



Zappi, 1667-1719, Poems, 



1500 



B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto 

biography. 
B. Varchi, 1503-1566, His. 

tory of his Times. 
Segne, 1499-1559, History 

of Homer. 



G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives 
of Painters, &c. 

Sperone Speroni,1500-1588, 
Orations. 

S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, 
History of Florence. 

G. Adriani. 1511-1579, His- 
tory of his Times. 

B. Davanzati, 1529-1606, 
Hist. Eng. Eeformation. 

C. Baronius, 153S-1607, Ec- 
clesiastical Annals. 

P. Paruta, 1540-1598, His- 
tory of Venice. 

Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 
scription of Muscovy, 
&c. 

P. E. Sarpi, 1552-1633, His- 
tory of Coun. of Trent. 



E. C. Davila, 1576-1631, 
Hist Civil Wars France. 



Laur. Lippi, 1606-1664, Co- 
mic Poems. 

Salvator Eosa, 1615-1673, 
Satires. 

C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, 
Poems. 

Francisco de Lemene, 1639 
-1704, Poems. 

A. Guidi, 1650-:1712, Lyric 
Poems. 



1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 
History Civil "Wars of 
Flanders, and Letters. 



D. Bartoli, History of the 
Jesuits in the East In- 
dies, &c., 1608-1685. 



SPECU-LATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1500 F. Commandido,1509-1575, 
Mathematics. 
Angelo Caninio, d. 1567, 
Orientalist. 



And. Vesalio, 1514-1561, 
Anatomy. 

Falopius, 1523-1563,Medi- 
cine. 

Eustachi, d. 1576. Do. 

P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574, 
Commentaries. 

Cardano, 1501-1576, Ma- 
thematics. 

P. Lancelloti, 1511-1591, 
LaAV. 



Andrea Caesalpino, 1519- 

1603, Botany. 
U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605, 

Natural History. 
Orazio Torseliino, 1545- 

1609, Grammar. 



P. della Valle, 1586-1652, 
Travels, 

F. Str;ida, 1571-1649, Hist, 
of Wars of Flanders. 

G. B. Nani, 1615-1671, His- 
tory of Venice. 

Oderic Eainaldi, Ecclesias- 
tical Annals. 



1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, 
Comparative Anatomy. 

Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po- 
lemics. 

Galileo,1564-1612, Astron. 

T. A. Campanella, 1563- 
1693, Philosophv. 

L. Vanini, 1535-1619, The- 
ology. 

B. Castelli, d. 1644, Ma- 
thematics. 

B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do. 

Fabio Colo'nna, 1567-1647, 
Botany, &c. 



Forricelli, 1608-1647. 



F. Eedi, 1626-1697, Nat 
ural Hist. & Literature. 

M. Malpighi, 1623-1694, 
Anatomy. 



620 



THE WORLD S PROORESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECTTLATITE AND SCIENTIFIQ 


1600 Ben. Menzini, 164&-1704, 


1600 Sforza Pallevicino, 1607- 


1600 V. Yiviani,1621-1703,Ma- 


Art of Poetry, Satires. 


1667, History of Coun- 


thcniatics. 


V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po- 


cil of Trent, &c. 


A.MagIiabecchi,1633-1714, 


ems. 




Literature. 
P. Segner, 1624-1694, As- 
cetic and Sermons. 


A. Marchetti, 1633-1714, 




G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, 


Poems, Philosophy. 




Mathematics, Astron. 
D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, 
Mathematics. 


1700 N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, 


1700 


1700 G. Baglivi, 166^1706, Me- 


Eicciardetto. 




dicine, 


G. M. Crescembini, 1663- 




G. V. Gravina, 1664-1718, 


1728, Poetry. 




Law. 


Apostolo Zcno, 1669-1750, 




G. B. Yico, 1670-1744, 


Operas. 


L. Muratori, 1672-1750, 


Philosophy of History. 


S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- 


Annals of Itality. 




gedy, Comedy, and An- 


B. Giannone, 1630-1748, 




tiquities. 


History of Naples. 


G. Cassini, 1677-1756, As- 
tronomy. 

G. Morgagni, 1681-1771, 
Anatomy. 


M. Metastasio, 1693-1782, 


F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, 


Dramas, Operas. . 


History of the ValteUne. 


A. Genove^^i, 1712-1769, 

Metaphysics. 
F. AlgarottT, 1712-1764, 

'Newtonianism.' 


G. Baretti, 1716-1789, Mis- 


B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, 


G.Pv.Boscowicli,1711-1787, 


cellaneous. 


History, 


Mathematics, PiiiloJosy. 


0. Gozizi, Dramas, &c. 


A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- 


F. M. Zanotti, 169^1777, 

Philosophy. 
C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, 

'Crimes & Punishments.' 


C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- 


graphy. 
G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, 




medies. 


L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799, 


C. I. Frugoni, 1692-1768, 


Hist, of Italian Litera- 


Natural Hiator-y. 


Poems. 


ture. 




G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- 






tires, Odes, but chiefly 




L. Galvani, 1737-1798, 


prose — L'Odservatore, 
Venito, &c. 


Denina, History of Italian 


Galvanism. 


Ilevolutions, and many 


Yolta, 1745-1827, Do. 


V. Allien, 1749-1803, Tra- 


other works, chiefly his- 


G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, 


gedies, &c. 


orical. 


Legislation. 


1800 Pindemonte, Poems. 


1800 


1800 


Monti, Poems. 






Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- 






ems. 


Botta, History of Italy,&c. 


Scarpa, Anatomy. 


I. da Ponto,Poems, Operas. 




M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli- 


Manzoni, Tragedies, Po- 




tical Economy. 


ems, and one novel — I 




Komagnosi,Polit. Science. 


Promissi Sposi. 




Galluppi, Metaphysics. 


Silvio PeUico, Tragedies, 


Colletta, History of Na- 


Eosmini, Do. 


&c. 


ples. 


Costa, Metaphysics, his- 


6. B. Niccolo, Tragedies, 


Oonti, Universal Histoiy, 


torical and critical. 


Ac. 


&c. 


Cesari, Philology. 



I 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 



621 



BRITISH, &c. 



IMAGINATION. 



A. D 

500 



A. D. 

500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 



600 Cffidmon, Saxon Poems. 

Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po 
rms. 



700 



000 Nennius, Origin of Britons. 



700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo- 
ry of England, 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



A. D. 

500 



600 



700 



900 Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po 
ems, Translations, &c. | 



SOO 



900 



1000 



1100 



Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, 
History of England. 



900 Ethelwerd, History of Great 
Britain. 



1000 Ingulphus, 1030—1109, His 
tury of Croyland. 
Eadmer, Chronicle. 



Layamon. Saxon Poetry. 
Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- 

rum. 
Waller Mapes, Satires, 

So..rs. 
Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War. 

War of Antioch, Epics. 



1200 



IlOO Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, 
History of Englanil. 

Floience of Worcester, d. 
1113, Chron. of En^^land. 

Geolfry of Monmouth, His- 
tory of Britain. 

William of Malinsbury, d. 
1143, Hist, of Britain. 

Henry of Huntingiion, 
Chronicles of England. 

Simeon of Durham, Chron 
icles of England. 

John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 
'Life of Becket,' &c. 



G. Cambrensis, Conq. of 
Ireland, Itin. of Wales. 

Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, 
Chron. of England. 



Alcuin, d. 804, Theology, 
History, Poetry. 



800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 883, ' 0( 
the Nature ot Tilings.' 



900 



1000 



1100 



1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of 
England. 
Gervase of Canterbury, 
History of England. 

Roger of Wendover, Hist. 
of England. 



Matthew Paris, d. 1259, 
History of England. 



Robert Pulleyn, d. 1150, 
Theology. 



Richard of St. Victor, d. 
1173, Theology. 



Ralph Glanville, Collectioa 
of Laws. 



1200 



Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, 
Theology. 



Robert Grosteste, Natural 

Philosophy. 
Alexander Hales, d.. 1245, 

Aristotelian. 
John Peckham, Theology. 
John Holiwood, d. 1258, 

Astron., Mathematics. 



62^ 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATIOM. 



Robert of Glocester, Chron- 
icle in verse. 

T. Lerinont, the Rhymer, 
Sir Tristem, Romance. 



1300 



Ailam Davie, Metr. Ro- 
mance, Life of Alex. 



Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, 
Historical Toems. 



John Barbour. 1326-1.396, 
' The Bruce.' 

R. Langlande, ' Pierce 
Blownian-,' a Satire. 

Gec.f. Chaucer. 1328-1400. 
' Canterbury Talcs,' &c. 

John Gn\ver,"(Z. 1402, Ele- 
gies, Romances. &c. 



'400 



John Lydgate, 13S0-M40, 
Poems. 



James I. of Scotland, 1395- 
1437, 'King's Quhair,' 
&c. 

Harry the Minstrel, ' Sir 
W. Wallace.' 



Stephen Hawes, ' Passe- 
tvrne of Pleasure.' 

John Skelton, d. 1.529, 
Satires, Odes. 

loOO Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 

'Thistle and Rose.' 
Gawin Douglas. 1475-1522, 

Trans. Virgil. 
Thomas More, 1480-1535, 

' Utopia.' 
Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, 

S'lnnets. 
Jolm Heywood, d. 1.505, 

Drama. 
Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, 

Poems. 
Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577. 

Drama. 



FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


William Rishanger, His- 


Roger Bacon, 1214—1292 


tory of England. 


Chemistry, Op:ics, &c. 




Rich. MidJleton, Theology. 


1309 


1.300 Albricus. Theology. 




Duns Scot us, d. 1308, Phil- 




osophy. 




Walter Burleigh, Philoso- 




phy. 




Gilb. Anglicus, Meilicme. 


Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328, 


R. Aungervile, 1281—1345. 


Hist. Physic, Theology. 


Philobiblion. 


Richard of Chichester, 




Chron. of England. 


J. Wicliffe, 1324—1384, 


Ralph Hig.len, d. 1360, 


Theology, Translation of 


Chron. of England. 


Bible. 


Henry Knighton, d. 1370, 




Chron. of England. 




Matthew of Westminster, 




' Flowers of History.' 




John Maundeville, d. 1372, 


H. de Bracton, Law. 


Travels. 




John Fonlun, Chron. of 




Scotland. 




1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 


1400 


Chron. of Scotland. 




T. Walsingham, d. 1440, 




History of Normandy. 






John Fortescue, Laws of 




England. 


John Hardyng, Chron. of 


Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, 


England. 


Law. 


Lord Berners, Trans, of 




Froissart. 




W. Caxton, Translations. 




Douglas of Glastonbury, 




Chron. of England. 
1.500 R. Fabyan. d. 1512, Chron. 




1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524, 


of England and France. 


Philology, Medicine. 




Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- 




bandry. 


T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of 




Houses of York and Lan- 


Thomas Elyot. Philology. 


caster. 


H. Latimer, 1475 — 1555, 


John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- 


Sermons. 


lish Antiquities. 




W. Cavendish, 1505—1557, 




' Life of Woisey.' 




J. Ball. 1495—1563, 'Lives 


Roger Ascham, 1515—156? 


of British Writers.' 


' The Schoolmaster.' 


Ralph Hollingshed,d. 1581, 


Thomas Wilson, d. 15SI 


Chronicles. 


Loffic and Rhetoric. 


Geo. Buchanan. 1.506-1.582, 


Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, 


History of Scotland. 


Husbandry. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 



523 



IMAGINATION. 



Philip Sidney, 1554—1586, 

'Arcadia.' 
Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, 

Drama. 
Edm. Spenser, 15.53—1598, 

' Faery Queen." 
W. Shakspeare, 1564 — 

1616, Drama. 
John Lylie, 1550—1600, 

•Euphues.' 



John Fletcher, 1576—1625, 

Drama. 
F. Beaumont, 1586—1615, 

Drama. 



1600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 
Epigrams. 
Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639, 
Poet. 



J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. 
Ben Jonson, 1574 — 1637, 

Drama. 
P. Massenger, 158.5—1639, 

Drama. 
J. Harrington, 1561—1612, 

Trans. Ariosto. 
E. Fairfax, d. 1632. Trans. 

Tasso. 
M. Drayton, 1563—1631, 

Poems. 
G. Sandys, 1577—1643, 

Translations, Poems. 
J. Daniel, 1562-1619, 

Poems. 
W. Drummond, 158.5-1649, 

Poeins. 
John Donne, 1573 — 1662, 

Satires, Essays. 
Geo. Wither, 1588—1667, 

Satires. 
James Shirley, 1594 — 1666, 

Drama. 
Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1641, 

Poems. 
John Denham, 1615—1668, 

Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. 
Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, 

Hudibras. 
John Milton, 1608—1674, 

' Paradise Lost.' 
Edm. Waller, 1605—1687, 

Poems. 
A. Cowley, 1618—1667, 

Poems. 
A. Maxwell 1620—1678. 

Poems. 



J. Fox, 1517—1587, Book 
of Martyrs. 



N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612, 

Biosraphy. 
John Stowe, 1527—1605, 

Chronicles, Topography. 
Sir T. North, Ti'anslations 

of Plutarch. 



1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. 

of Kings, Bishops, &c. 
Richard Knolles, d. 1610, 

History of the Turks. 
Wm. Camden, 1551—1623, 

Antiquities. 
R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, 

Naval Histories. 
W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, 

History of the World. 
Samuel Daniel, 1567—1619, 

History of England. 
John Hay ward, (?. 1627, 

English History. 
J. Speed, 1.555—1629, Hist. 

of Great Britain. 
Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, 

Antiquities. 
R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, 

Antiquities. 
S. Purchas, 1577—1628, 

Collection of Voyages. 



Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, 

Travels in the East. 
E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581— 

1648, History of Henry 

VIII. 
R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. 

of England. 



Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, 
History, Biography. 

Clarendon. 1608 - 1673, His- 
tory of Rebellion. 

Thomas May, d. 1650, His- 
tory of Parliament. 

Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, 
Biosraphy. 

B. Whitlocke, 1605—1676, 
History. 

Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- 
phy. 

W. Prynne, 1660—1667, 
History, Politics. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIEyTIFIO. 



J. Jewel, 1522—1570, Di- 
vinity. 

R. Hooker, 1553—1600, E> 
clesiastical Polity. 

W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, 
' On the Loadstone.' 

L. Andrews, 1565 — 1626, 
Sermons. 



1600 Edward Coke, . 550—1634, 
Law. 
John Napier, 1550—1617, 
Logarithms. 



Robert Buncr, 1576— "i€39, 
' Anat. of Melancholy.' 

Francis Bacon, 1560—1626, 
Philosophy, History. 

Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, 
Circulation of Blood. 



John Selden, 1584—1654, 

Antiquities, Lav^', Hist. 
J. Harrington, 1611—1677, 

' Oceana.' 
James Usher, 1580 — 1666, 

Divinity, Sermons, Hist. 
Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679, 

Metaphysics 
W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, 

Antiquities, History. 
W. Chillingworth, 1602— 

1644, Theology. 
Isaac Barrow, 1630-1677, 

Divinity, Mathematics. 
J. Pearson, 1612—1686, 

Divinity. 
Brian Walton, 1600—1661, 

Polyglot Bible 
Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, 

Divinity. 
Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, 

• Discourse on Govern- 
ment.' 
Thos. Browne, 1605—1682 

' On Vulgar Err irs.' 
Edmund Castell, d. 1683. 

Lexicon Heptae-lotton, 
R. Cudworth, 1617— 16:Sk 
Metaphysics.' 



624 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO. 


1600 * 


1600 


1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, 
'Sylva.' 
H. More, 1614—1687, The- 
ology. 


Rochester, 1648—1680, 


Wm. Temple, 1629—1710, 


T. Sydenham, 1624—1689^ 


Satires. 


Memoirs, &c. 


Medicine. 


Roscommon, 1633—1684, 




W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Di- 


Poems. 




vinity. 


N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. 




J. Tillotson, 1630—1694, 


John Bunyan, 1623—1683, 




Sermons. 


'Pilgrim's Progress.' 




Archbishop Leighton, 


John Dryden, 1631—1701, 




1613—1681, Divinity. 


Trasedy, Satire, 'Virgil.' 




R. Baxter, 1615—1691, 


Thos."Oivvay, 1651— 168'5, 




'Saint's Everlasting 


Tragedy. 


R. Brady, d. 1700, History 


Rest.' 




of England. 


R. Boyle, 1627—1691, 
Theology, Chemis-try. 


»700 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 


1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 


1700 


'The Choice.' 


Foedera. 


John Ray, 162b— 1705, Bot- 
any, Natural History. 

John Locke, 1632-1704, 
Metaphysics. 

R. South, 1633—1716, Di- 
vinity. 


John Philips, 1676-1-08, 






'Splendid ShilUng.' 






Thos. Parnell, 1679—1718, 


S. Ockley, 1678—1720, 




'The Hermit.' 


Oriental History. 


Isaac Newton. 1642—1719, 


Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, 


Thos. Hearne, 1678—1735, 


'Principia.' 


Comedies. 


History and Antiquities. 


J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, 




John Strype, 1643—1737, 


Astronomy. 




Eccl. History, Biog. 


R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Phil- 




Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, 


osophy. 




'History of his Times.' 


B. de Mandeville, 1670— 


Matthew Prior, 1664—1721, 


L. Echard, 1671—1730, 


1733, ' Fab. of the Bees.' 


Poems. 


History of England. 


Edm. Hal ley, 1656—1742, 


R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, 


Thos. Carte, 168B— 1754, 


Astronomy. 


Essays. Politics. 


History of England. 


Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, 


Daniel Defoe, 1660-17.31, 


John Potter, 1674—1747, 


Natural History. 


' Robinson Crusoe.' ^c. 


Antiquities, 




Jos. Addison, 1672—1719, 


SirW. Petty, 1623-1682, 




'Spectator,' 'Cato.' &c. 


Statistics. 




Nich. Rowe, 1673-1718, 






Tragedy. 






J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- 






«dv. 




A. Clark, 1696—1742, Di- 


W. Congreve, 1672—1728, 




vinity, Philosophy. 


Comedy. 




D. Waterland, 1683—1740, 


lohn Gay, 1688—1733, 




Divinity. 


' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. 


Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, 


R. Bentley, 1661—1740, 


M. W. Montague, 1690— 


History of Rome. 


Divinity, Philology. 


1762, Letters. 


C. Middleton, 1683—1750, 


A. Baxter, 1637—1750, Met- 


Robert Blair, 1699—1746, 


Life of Cicero, &c. 


aphysics. 


' The Grave.' 




Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— 


S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 




1751, Politics. Literature, 


' Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. 




G. Berkeley, 1684—1753. 




, 


Metaphysics, Ethics. 
P. Doddridge, 1701-1751. 

Divinity. 
Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762, 

Astronomy. 
F. Hutcheson, 1694-1747, 

Moral Philosophy. 


D. Garrick, 1716-1779, 




T. Sherlock, 1678—1761, 


Drama. 




Divinity. 


3. Foote, 1720—1771, 




C. Maclaurin, 1696— 174S, 


Drama. 




Mathematics. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BlUTISH. 



625 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIWO. 


1700 R. Rodsley, 1703-1764, 


1700 John Swinton, 170.3—1767, 


1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694— 


Drama. 


History, Antiquity. 


1773, Letters. 


Jona. Swift, 1667-1745, 




Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, 


Satires, Tales, &c.. 




Cyclopaedia. 


1. Watts, 1674—1748, 




B. Hoadley, 1676—1761, 


Hymns. 




Polemics. 


Edw. Young, 1681—1765, 




Bishop Butler, 1692—1752, 


' Night Thoughts.' 




Divinity. 


Alex. Pope, 16S8— 1744, 






Poetry. 






W. Somerville, 1692—1743, 






' The Chase.' 






Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758, 






' The Ger.tle Shepherd.' 






Rich'd Savage, 1698—1743, 






Poems. 






Jas. Thomson, 1700—1748, 




J. W esley, .703-1791, Di- 


'Seasons.' 


Lord Lyttleton, 1709—1778, 


vinity. 


John Dyer, 1700—1758, 


History, Poems, Divin- 


D. Hartley, 1704—1757, 


Poems. 


ity. 


' Observations on Man.' 


H. Fielding, 1707—1754, 


James Granger, d. 1776, 


Soame Jenyns, 1704 — 1787, 


'Tom Jones,' «fcc. 


Biog. Hist, of England. 


Theology. 


James Hammond, 1710 — 




W. Waiburlon, 1709—1779, 


1742, Elegies. 




Theology, Criticism. 


Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768, 




J. Jortin, 1698—1770, Di- 


' Tristram Shandy.' 




vinity, Criticism. 


W. Shenstone, 1714—1763, 


Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784, 


LordKaimes., 3696-1782, 


Pastorals, &c. 


Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. 


Elements of Criticism. 


W. Collins, 1720—1756, 


Jonas Hanway, 1712—1786, 


R. Lowth. 1710—1787, Di- 


Odes. 


Travels in the East. 


vinitv. Philology. 


H. Brooke, 1706—1783, 


John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- 


W. Blackstone, 1'723— 1780, 


' Fool of Quality.' 


nolosv. 


Laws of England. 


M. Akenside, 1721—1770, 


David Hume, 1711—1776, 


"Junius." 


'Pleasures of Imagina- 


History of England, 




tion.' 


Essays, &c. 




Thos. Gray, 1716-1771, 






Odes, Elegies. 


W. Robertson, 1721—1793, 


Adam Smith, 17-23—1790, 


T. Smollet, 1720-1771, 


Hist, of Charles V.. «&c. 


'Wealth of Nations.' 


Novels. 


Thomas Warton, 1728— 


J. Harris, 1709—1780, Phi- 


R. Glover, 1712—1789, ' Le- 


1790, History of England, 


lology. 


onidds.'. 


Poetry, Poems. 


John Hunter, 1728—1793, 


O. Goldsmith, 1731—1774, 




Medicine. 


' Traveller,' ' Vicar of 




F. Balguy, 1716—1795, Di- 


Wakefield.' 




vinity. 


W. Mason, 1725—1797, Po- 






ems, Biography. 


H. Walpole, d. 1797, ' His- 




T. Chatterton, 1752—1770, 


toric Doubts,' ' Royal 




Poems. 


and Noble Authors.' 




Ar. Murphy, 1727—1805, 


J. Moore, 1730—1802, 


T. Reid, 1710—1796, Meta- 


Drama. 


'Views of Society and 


physics. 


Wm. Cowper, 1731—1800, 


Manners.' 


Sir J. Reynolds, 1723-1792, 


Poems. 


James Bruce, 1730—1794, 


Art. 


R.Cumberland, 1732—1811, 


Travels. 


S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo- 


Drama. 


W. Gilpin, 1724—1804, Bio- 


logy. 


Eras. Darwin, 1732—1802, 


graphy, Divinity. 


Jos. Priestley, 1733—1804, 


' Botanic Garden.' 


E. Gibbon, 1737—1794, 


Metaphysics, Chemistry. 


James Beattie, 1735—1803, 


Decline and Fall of Ro- 


Hugh Biair, 1719—1800, 


Poems. 


man Empire. 


Sermons. 


R. Ferguson, 1750-1774, 


J. Whitaker, 1735—1808, 


J. Home Tooke, 1736-1812 


Poems. 


Hist, of Manchester, &c. 


Philology. 


Geo. Colman, 1733—1794, 


Edmd. Burke, 1730—1797, 


Wm. Jones, 1747—1794, 


Comedies. 


Oratory. 


Orientalist. 


J. Wolcot CPeter Pindar), 


J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio- 


R. Price, 1723—1791, Meta- 


1738— 1S19, Com. Po- 


graphy. 


physics, Divinity. 


ems. 


J. Milner 1744-1797, 


Wm. Paley, 1743—1805, 


Jas. Macpherson, 1738 — 


Church History. 


Theology. 


1796, ' Ossian's Poems.' 


Joseph Strutt, 174S— 1802, 


Ricd. Porson, 1759-1808, 


Robert Burns, 1759—1796, 


Chronology, Antiquities. 


Philology. 


Poems. 




Ths. Beddoes, 1760-1808^ 


J. Home, d. 1808, Drama. 




Medicine. 



27 



626 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1700 



Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751— 
18;.6, Drama. 

Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823, 

Novels. 



1700 



Charles Burney, d. 1841, 
'History of Music. 



laOU Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 
' Farmer's Boy.' 
Mrs. Barbauld,, Poems, 
Tales. 



Lord Byron, 1788—1824, 

Poems. 
John Keats, Poems. 
P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, 

Poems. 
R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, 

Drama. 
Miss Austin, Novels. 
Wm. Godwin, 1755-1836, 

Novels, Metaphysics. 
Walter Scott, 1771—1832, 

Novels, Poems. 



Robt. Pollok, 1798—1827, 

'Course of Time.' 
Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, ' The 

Borough,' &c. 
Fanny Burney, — 1840, 

Novels. 
Wm. Beckford, 1760—1844, 

Novels. 
Thos. Haines Baily, 1797— 

1839. Lyrics. 
Thos. ■ Hamilton, 1789— 

1842, Novels, Travels. 
Felicia Hemans, 1794— 

1835, Poems. 
Barbara Hofland, Novels. 
Jas. Hogg, —1835, Po- 
ems and Tales, 
rhec. E. Hook, 1788—1841, 

Novels. 
Thos. Hood, Poems, No- 

V6ls &C. 

Hannah More, 1744—1833, 

Poems, Tales. 
Jane Porter, — 1849, 

Novels. 
S. T. Coleridge, —1834, 

Poems. 
Wm. Wordsworth, — 

1850, Poems. 
Robt. Southey, —1843, 

Poems. 
Marg. Blessington, — 

1849, Novels. 
Chas. Lamb, 1775—1834, 

Poems, Essays. 
Thos. H. Lister, 1801—1842, 

Novels. 



1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808, 
Biography. 



E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, 

1 ravels. 
C. J. Fox, d. 1806, History. 



W. Mitford, History nf 
Greece. 



R. Heber, Travels, &c. 
Major llennel. Geography. 
Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831, 

Life of Leo X., &c. 
Walter Scott, —1832, 

History, Biography. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIKO 



N. Maskelyne d. 1811 

Astronomy. 
G. L. Staunton, d. 1801 

Chinese Code. 
W. Hers-Theil, 1738—1822, 

Astronomy. 



Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766 — 
1832. Hist, of England. 

Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825, 
Political Annals. 

Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori- 
ental Hist, and Travels. 

Jas. Mill, —1836, Hist. 
British India. 

Robt. Morrison, —1834, 
Travels, Philology. 

Jas. Grahame, Hfstory of 
United States. 

John Gillies, 1747—1836, 
History of Greece. 

Basil Hall, 1788—1844, 
Travels and Voyages. 



Wm. Hone, —1842, 

Every Day Book. 



R. & J. Lander, 1834, 
Travels in Africa, 



1800 Arthur Young, 1741-1320. 

Agriculture. 
A. Rees, 1743—1825, Cyclo- 

pjedia. 
Joseph Banks, 1743— IS^O, 

Natural Historv. 
Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo- 

logy. 
D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Pcliti- 

cal Econor^y. 

C. Hutton, d. 1823, Mathe- 
matics. 

John Playftiir, d. 1819. 
P. Elmsley, Philology. 
T. Wollasion, Chemistry. 
Thomas Young, Hierogly- 
phics, Arc. 
T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity. 

D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta- 
physics. 

Vices.simus Knox, 1752— 

1821, Essays. 
Malthu.s, Polit. Economy. 
Wm. Hazlit, Critic and 

Essayist. 
Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849, 

Essays, Criticism. 
Archbish. Magee, d. 1831, 

Divinity. 
Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, 

Chemistry. 
Jer. Bentham, d. 1832, 

' Principles of Legisla- 
tion.' 
Adam Clarke, 1763—1832, 

Divinity, Criticism. 
Arch. Alison, 1757—1839, 

Essays on Taste. 
Francis Baily, 1774— 1844j 

Astronomy, &c. 
Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837, 

Theology. 
Herbert Marsh, 1758—1839, 

Theology. 
Thos. Mitchell, 1783—1845, 

Classic. Critic. 
Robert Mudie, 1777—1842, 

Scient. Miscellanies. 
Sir E. Brydges, 1762—1837, 

Miscellanie.s. 
Wrn. Cobbett, —1835, 

Politics, &c. 
J. Dalton, - 1844, Che- 
mist. 
J. F. Daniell, —184.5, 

Chemist. 
Sydney Smith, —1845, 

Theology, Essays. 
Chas. Bonnycastle, — 

1840, Mathematics. 
Thos. Chalmers, Theology 

and Political Aconomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 



627 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIli'IC. 


1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773—1834, 


1300 


1800 John Leslie, -1832, 


Ethics. 




Mathematician. 


L. E. Landon Maclean, 


Southey, 1774—1843, Bio- 


J. C. Louilon, 1783— 1S43, 


18G4-183S, Novels and 


graphy. 


Botany, Agricul., Archit. 


Poems, 


Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844, 


John Bell, 1763-182-5, 


Wm. Maginn, 1793-1842, 


Travels. 


Anatomy & Physiology. 


Poems, 


Arch. Alison, Histoiy of 


Olinthus Gregory, 1774^ 


Marryatt, —1847, Nov- 


Europe. 


1841, Mathematics and 


els. 


Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842, 


Religion. 


John Gait, 1779—1839, 


History of Rome. 


Robert Hull, 1764—1831, 


Novels. 


Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770— 


Sermons. 


Wm. H. L-eland, Shaks. 


1842, Archseology. 


Sir Chas. Bell, 1781—1824, 


Forsreries. 


Thos. McCrie, 1772—1835, 


Anatomy and Physio- 


Lady Morgan, — 184-, 


Life of Knox. 


!•■ gy- 


Novels. 


Sir .John Malcolm, History 




Jas. Morier, 1780— 


Persia and India. 




Novels. 


I. D'Israeli, 1766—1848, Cu- 




Thos. Campbell, 1777— 


riosities of Literature. 




1844, Poems. 


Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Voy- 




Thos. Banim, 1800—1842, 


ages and Travels. 




Novels. 






Henrv F. Cary, 1772—1344, 






Trans. Dante, &c. 







GERMAN. 



IMAGINATION. 



800 



Walafrid Strabo, d. 840, 
Poems, Theology. 



Otfried, Harmony of Gos- 
pels in rhyme. 



900 



Hroswitha, Let. Comedies. 
Notger, Trans, of Psalms. 



1000 



Witpo, 'Prai.se of Henrv 
111.,' Biography. 



Willeram, Francic Poems. 



800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life ol 
Charlemagne, Annals. 



Nithard, d 853, History of 
Wars of France. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



800 



Rabanus Maurus, 776—856, 
Theology. 



Gottschalk, d. 869, 'Or. 
Predestination.' 



900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 
Witikind, Hist, of Saxons. 



900 



Batherius, d. 974, Theolo- 
gy, Grammar. 



1100 



Hem 7 of Veldeck, Minne- 
einger. 



1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 1000 
of Saxon Emperors. 



Hermannus Contractus, 
Universal History. 

Mar. Scntus, 1028—1086, 
Chronicles. 

Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Lambert, General History. 

Sigebert, d. 111-3, Chron. 

Kosmas, 1045—1 126, Histo- 
ry of Bohemia. 



1100 Berthold Constantiensis, 
Universal History. 
Otto, d. 1158, Chronicle. 
Helmold, d. 1170, Chron. 
of Slavi. 



1100 Mangold, Theology. 



628 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1200 Giinther, Poems, 



Frcflcric II., 1196—1254, 
'De Arte Venandi.' 



Frcydanlc, Poems. 



13(X) Riidger of Manesse, Collec- 
tion of Ikillads. 
Henry Frauenlob, Songs. 
Roner, Fables. 



1400 



Felix Iliimmerlein, Satires. 



Hans von Rosenplut, 
Poems. 



Heinrich von Alkmaar. 
' lleinke de Voss.' 



Conrad Celtes, 1450—1508. 

Latin Poems, History of 

Nuremburg. 
Thos. Miirner, 1475—1536, 

'Rogues' Guild.' 



1500 



Melc. Pfinzing, 1481—1535, 
'Theuerdank.' 



Glareanus (H. L.) 1488— 
1563, Classics. 



Hans Sachs, 1494-1574, 

Poems. 
John Fischart, 1511— 1581, 

Satires. 



1200 



Arnold of. Lubeck, Chro- 
nicle of Slavi. 



1300 



Ilenrich von Rebdorf, 

Chronicle. 
Heinrich von Hervorden, 

Chronicle. 
Jacob von Konigshofen, 

Chronicle. 
John Schildberger, History 

of Timonr. 



1400 Gobelin Persona, General 
History. 

Windeck, Life of Sigis- 

mund. 
John Siadweg, Chronicle. 
Peler von Andlo, do Im- 
perio Romano. 



Mar. Behhaim. Geography. 

Breydenbach, Topogy. 
Conrad Botho, Chronicle. 



1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 
biography. 

Griinbeck, Lives of Em- 
perors. 

Albert Krnnz, d. 1517, His- 
tory of Saxons, «fcc. 

B. Pirkheimer, 1480—1530, 
History, Poetry. 

John Avontin, 1466-1534, 
Anals of Bavaria. 

Con. Peutinger, 1465—1.547, 
Historv and Gcoffraphv 

John Carion, 1409—1538, 
Comp. of History. 



.Tohn Sleidan. 150G— 1556, 
Thiiversal Historv. 

G. TFchudi, d. 1572, Hel- 
vetic Chronicle. 

Gerard Mercator, 1512— 
1594, Geography. 



SPECULATIVE AND SC.IESTlFia 



1200 



Epko of Repgow, * Saxon 

Mirror,' (Law). 
John Semeca, Law. 
Alb. Magnus, 1103—1280, 

Natural Philosophy. 



1300 



John Tauler, Sermons. 



John Huss, 13Sb— 1415, 
Theology. 



1400 



John von Gmilnden, Astro- 
nomy. 

Gen. von. Peurbach, 142J- 
14t;i, Theory of Planets. 

Regiomontanus, 1436 — 1476 
Astron., Mathemat. 

Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat. 

Tliomas a Kempis, 1380— 
1471, Theology. 

Gabriel Brie, d. 1495, The- 
ology. 

John " Geyler, 1445—1510, 
Theology. 

John Triihemius, 1462 — 
1516, Nat. Philo.=;ophy. 

Reuchlin, 1454—1522, Phil- 
ology. 



1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452- 
1528, Theol., Poems. 



Holoander, d. 1531. Law. 
Corn. Agrippa, 1486—1535, 

PhvpJcs, Theology. 
M. Luther, 1483-1546, 

Theology. 
Zwingle, 1484—1531, The- 
ology. 
Mclancthon, 1497—1560, 

Theologv. 
Paracelsus, 1493—1541, 

Cliemisiry. 
Joac. Camerarius, 1500 — 

1574. Philology. 
Conrad Ge^ner, 1516 — 1565, 

Natural History. 
Basil Faber, 1520—1576, 

The.s. Erud. Schol. 
Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1580, 

Theology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 



629 



IMAGINATION. 



1500 G. Fabriciiis, 15IC— 1571, 
Lat. Pms. Topography. 



Rollenhagen, 1542—1609, 

Frnschmiiusler. 
Fr. Tuubman, 1565—1613, 

Latin Poems. 



1600 



Martin Opitz, 1597—1639, 

Poem?. 
James Balde, 1603—1668, 

Poems. 
A. Giyphius, 1616—1664, 

Tragedies. 

Paul Fleming, 1609—1640, 
Poems. 



Lohenstein, 1638—1683, 
Poems. 



1700 C. Gryphius, 1649—1706, 
Poems, Ilist., Philology. 



Von Canitz, 1654—1699, 
Poenns. 



Gunther, 1095-1724, Poems. 



Li SCO V, Satires. 

J. C. Gott.'^rhecl, 1700-1766, 

Poems, Traa:., Criticism, 
flagednrn, 1708—1754, 

Fables. 
Haller, 1708-1777, 'The 

Alps.' 
J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, 

Drama. 
E. C. Kleist, 1715—1759, 

Idylls. 
Gellert, 1715—1769. Fables, 
Rabener,J714— 1770, Satir. 



1500 Simon Schard, 15-3.5-1573, 
Collec. German Hist. 



John Pistorius, 1544—1607, 
CJollec. German Hist. 

Marq. Freher, 1565—1614, 
Hist. Germy. «& France. 



1600 



P. Cluvier, 1580—1623, 

Geography. 
M. Goldast, 1576—1635, 

History. 



G. Calixtus, 1566— 1G56, 
Ecclesiastical History. 

Olearius, 1604—1685, 
Travels. 



S. von Puffendorf, 1631— 
1694. History, Law. 

D. G. Morhofl", 1639—1691, 
Biography. History. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCtENTIFlC. 



1500 Wm.Xylander, 1532— 1578, 

IMiildJogy. 
Wesenbeck, 1531—1566, 

Law. 
Fred. Sylberg, 1531—1596 

Philulosiy. 
Theod. Beza, 1519—1609, 

Theology, Philology. 

S 

C. Ritterhuis, 1560—1613, 
Law. 



1700 H. Meibomius, 1638—1700, 
History. 

C. Cellarius, 1638—1707, 
Geography, Antiq. 

C. Frankenstein, 1661— 
1717, History, Biog. 

J. Arnold, 166.5—1714, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

J. G. von Eccard, 1670— 
1730, General History. 

J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736, 
Bibliography. 



H. Frever, Gen. History. 
B. G. Siruve. 1671—1738, 

History of Germany. 
J. L. Mosheim, 1695—1755, 

Ecclesiastical History 



A. F. BuBching, 1724—1793 

Geography. j 



1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, 
Natural History. 
J. Buxtorf, 1555—1621, 

Philoloey. 
John Kepler, 1571-1631, 
Astronomy. 

B. von Helmont, 1577— 
1644, Chemistry. 

C. Scioppius, 1576—1649, 
Ars Criiica. 

John Baver, Uranometria. 
G. Barih, 1587-1658, Phil- 

ologv. 
Sol. Glass, 1503—1656, 

Philol. Sacra. 
Otio Guerike, 1602—1686, 

Air-Pump, &c. 
Her. Conring, 1606—1681, 

Antiquities. 
Ez. Spanheim, 1029—1702, 

NumJsmatolocy. 
John Schilter, d. 1705, An- 

tiquities. 

1700 Ludolph, 1649— 171], Phil, 
ology. 

Leibnitz, 1646-1716, Ma- 
thematics, Metaphysics. 

C. Thomasius, 1655—1728, 
Law. 

F. Budseus, 1667—1729, 
Divinity. 

G. E. Siahl, 1C60— 1734, 
Chemistry. 

F. Hoffman, 1660—1742, 

Medicine. 
J. Bernouilli, 1CG7— 1747, 

Mathematics. 
B. Hederick, 1675—1748, 

Philology. 



J. M. Gessner, 1691—1761, 

Philology. 
A. G. Baiimgarten, 1714-— 

1751, Ethics, Metaph 
J. J. Gc-'sner, 1707—1787, 

Numismatologv. 
G. F. Meyer, 1711—1777, 

Philosophy. 
F. W. von Gleicken, 1714- 

1783, Nat. History. 
J. Winkelmann, 1718—1768 

Antiquity. 
Leon. Euler, 1707—1783, 
Mathematics, 



630 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs. 



Klopstock, 1724—1803, 

'The Messiah.' 
Zacharicx, 1727—1777, 

Comic Poems. 
C. F. Weisse, Drama. 
J. G. Zimmei-man, 1728 — 

1795, ' On Solitude.' 
Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. 
Ramler, 1725—1798. Odes. 
Dusch, 1727—1788, Poems. 
G. E. Lessing. 1729—1781, 

Drama, Fables. 
S. Gessner, 1730—1788, 

'Death of Abel.' 
Wieiand, 1733—1813, Ro- 
mances, Poems. 
Pfetfel, 17.36-1809, Fables. 
G. A. Burger, 1748—1794, 

Poems. 
I. 11. Voss, 1751-1826, 

Novels. 
F. Schiller, 1750—1805, 

Diama. 
Kotzebue, 1761—1319, 

Drama. 
Goethe, 1749-18;32, Drama, 

Tales, Poems. 



1800 F. Schlegel, 1773-1829, 

Novels, Poetry, Hist..&c. 
Ernst Schultze, 1787—1817, 

Elegies. 
E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822, 

Tales. 
A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760 — 

1831, Tales. 
Korner, Poems. 



L. von Arnim, 
Poems, Novels. 



-1831, 



Sc.hoiicnhauer, 
Novels. 



-1838, 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIEJITIPIC 



1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 
Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 



C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. 



J. W. von Archenholz, 
1745-1812, 'Seven Years' 

War.' 



Sciirolvh, d. 1803, Eccle- 
siastical History. 

Forster, d. 179S, Geogra 
phy. 

A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1809 
History. 



1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni- 
versal History. 
J. G. Eichhorn, d. 1827, 
History. 

Heeren, History. 



Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. 
B. G. Niebuhr, History. 



Scholl, —1833, History, 

C. O. Muller, —1840, 

History, Archaeology. 



F. Rotteck, —1849, His- 
tory. 

H. Hase, —1812, His- 
tory, Antiquities. 



1700 G. .7. Zollikofer, 1730— 

1780, Sermons. 
J. A. E. Giitze, 1731—1786. 

Entomology. 
Im. Kant, 1724—1804. 

Metaphysics. 



Semler, d. 1791, Theology. 
Putter, Law of Nations. 



Adelung, d. 1807, Phil- 
ology. 

Lavater 1741—1801, Phy- 
siognomy. . 

Werner, Geology. 



1800 Herder, 1741—1803, Philo- 
sophy of Hi.story. 

Fichte, d. 1819, Metaphy- 
sics. 

F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, Me- 
taphysics. 

Blumenbach, Physiology. 

Schelling, Metaphysics. 



—1828, Agri. 
—1855, 



Thaer, 
culture. 

Rosenmuller, — 1855 

Theology, Criticism. 

Gail, —1829, Philology 

Griesbach, -181? , Phi 
lolo?y. 

Grotefend, —1836, Phi' 
lology. 

H..I. klaproth, 1784-1835, 
Philology. 

F. Passow, —1833, Phi- 
lology. 



—1831, Meta- 
—1838, Che- 



Hegel, 
phy.sics. 

F. Accum, 
mistry. 

Mohs, —1839, Minera- 
logy. 

G. A. Faut, —1841, Phi- 
lolosy 

E. Bekker, Philology. 

Biittmann, —lc>ll. Phi- 
lology. 

C. T. Follen, — 1*W(? 

Theology, Eesays. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 



631 



IMAGINATION. 



isoa 



Tieck, Poems, Novels. 



1800 Augt. Neander, 1S50, 

Ecclesiastical History. 

J. L. C. Heei-eu. —1842, 
History. 

H. Berghaus, Geography. 

A. von Humboldt, Travels, 
History. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1800 Gibers, 
nomy. 



-1840, Xs'.ro- 



-1843, 



Hahnemann, 

Homojopathy. 
A. W. Schlegel, —1845, 

Criticism, Essays. 



Humboldt, Science. 
Liebig, Chemistry. 



FRENCH. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


500 Venan. /ortunatus, Latin 
Poetry. 


500 

Gregory of Tours, 554—595, 
History. 


500 


600 


600 Marculfe, « Chartee Re- 
gales,' &c. 


600 


700 


700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 
800 

Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 


700 


800 Theodulph, d. 82], Hymns, 
Theology. 

Servatus Lupus, d. 862, 
Epistles. 

Hincmar, d. 882, Epistles. 
Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.' 


800 

Agobard, d. 840, Theology 

Paschasius Radbert, 'Traa* 
substantiation.' 


900 

Adalberon, d. 1030, Poetry. 


900 Flodoard, 896—966, Chron. 
Dudon, History of Norman 
Conquest in France. 


900 


1000 

Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles. 


1000 Almoin, d. 1008, History of 
France. 


1000 Gerbert,rf. 1003, Geometry, 
Mathematics, &c. 
Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, 
and Astronomy. 

Berengarius, d. 10S8, Theo- 
logy. 


1100 

Wm. of Poictiers, 1071— 
1126, First Troubadour. 

Hildebert, 1067-11 33, Po- 
etry. 

Bechada, Norman Poetry, 
' Gestes de Godefroi.' 


1100 Guibert. 1058—1124, Histo- 
ry of First Crusade. 

Pierre Theutbode, History 
of Crusades. 

Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio- 
graphy. 

Suger, 1082-1152, Life of 
Louis le Gros. 


1000 Anselm, 1033—1109, Scho- 
lastic. 

Pierre Abelard, 1079—1142, 
Theology. 

Bernard of Claimux, 
1091— UK, Mystic. 



632 



THE world's progress 



IMAGINATION. 



1100 



Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo- 
Norm. Chron. in verse. 

Rob. Wace, 'Roman de 
Roa.' 



Fouque, a Troubadour. 
Alexander of Bernai, Poet- 
ry, Fables. 



1200 



John ^gidiug, Poem on 

Medicine. 
William le Breton, 'Deeds 

of Philip,' in verse. 
P. Gamier, 'Alexandrieda.' 

William de Lorris, 'Roman 

de la Rose.' 
Jean de Meun, Contin. of 

' Roman de la Rose.' 
Esteve de Bezier, Last 

Troubadour. 



1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 
man Chronicles. 



Philippe of Vitri, Transla- 
tion of Ovid. 



1400 



Alain Chartier, d. 1458, 
Poetry. 

Corbeil, Satire. 

D'Auvergne, d. 14-58, Po- 
ems. 

Clement Marot, 1463—1525, 
Poems. 



1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097— 
1140, Geography, Histo- 
ry, and Theology. 



1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 
History. 
Geoffrey de Villehardouin, 
Conq. of Constantinople. 



Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- 
tory of France in verse. 
W. Rubruquis, Traveller. 

Jean de Joinville, 1260 — 
1318, Hist, of Louis IX. 



1300 



John Froissart, 1337—1402, 
Chronicles. 



1400 



1500 



F. Rabelais, 1483—1553, 

Satires. 
J. du Bellay, 1492—1560, 

Poems. 

Steph. Jodelle, 1532—1573, 
Odes, Tragedies, &c. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1100 



Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, 
Theology. 



Alain de Tlsle, d. 1202, 
Theology, Ethics. 



1200 



Vincentius of Bcauvais, 

Encyclopaedia. 
Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271, 
Theology. 



1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. 
John of Paris, d. 1306, The- 

olo£y. 
W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. 
W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. 



Philip de Comines, 1445 — 
1509, Hist, of his Times. 



1500 



Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543, 
History of his Times. 



Jaques Amyot, 1511— 1593, | 
Translations, 1 



1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425, 

Astronomy. 
John Gerson, 1363—1429, 

Scholastic. 
Raymund de Sebunda, d. 

1432, Theology. 
Henry of Balma, d 1439, 

Mystic. 



James Lefevie, 1436 — ^537, 

Theology. 
Wm. Budeeus, 1467—1540, 

Jurist. 



1500 J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558, 
Philology. 
Du Bois, 1478—1555, Anat. 



Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559, 

Philology. 
P.Ramus,]515— 1572, Logic 
Seb. Castellio, 1515- 1563, 

Philology. 
Jas. Cujacius, 1520—1590 

Law. 
Lambinus, 1516 — 1572, 

CommentarJes. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 



633 



IMAGINATION. 



1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585, 
Poems, Criticisms. 
Mich, de Montaigne, 1533— 
1592, Essays. 



Fran. Malherbe,1556- 

Odes. 



-1628, 



1600 M. Reignier, 1573—1613, 
Satires. 



J, Chapelain, 1595 — 1674. 
La Puceile.' 



P. Corneille, 1606—1684, 
Drama. 



St. Evremond, 1613—1703, 
Literature. 



RochefoucauU, 1603—1680, 

Reflections. Memoirs. 
Moliere, 1620-1673, Drama. 
La Fontaine, 1621 — 1696, 

Fables, Tales. 
Segrais, 1624—1701, Idyls. 
T. Corneille, 162o— 1709, 

Drama. 
M. de Sevigne, 1626—1694, 

Letters. 
J. Racine, 1639—1699, 

Drama. 



Boileau, 1636-171 1, Satires, 



17)0 Rognard, 1&17— 1709, 
Comedies. 
Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. 
of Arabian Nights. 



Fcnelon, 1651— 1715, 'Tele- 

machus,' &c. 
Dcshoulieres, 1638—1694, 

Elegies. 



1500 



J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609, 
History, Criticigm, «&c. 



J. A. ae Thou, 1553—1617, 
History of France. 



1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, 
History of France. 
An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, 
Collections of Histories. 



Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo- 

graphia Sacra.' 
Henry Spondanus, 1568— 

1643, History. 
S. Guicheron. 1607—1664, 

Hist, of House of Savoy. 
Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, 

Ecclesiastical History. 



Adr. Valesius, 1607—1692, 
' Deeds of the Franks.' 



L. Moreri, 1643—1680, 
Historical Dictionary. 

Tilkmontj 1637—1698, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 



1700 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 



1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528—1590, 

Philology. 
F. Vieta, 1540—1603, Al- 

gebra. 
Pierre Charon, 1543—1603, 

Theology. 
Isaac Casaubon, 1559 — 

1604, Philology. 



1600 



C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, 

History and Criticism. 
Dennis Petau, 1583—1652, 

Ch, nolosy. 
P. Gassendl, 1592—1655, 

Philosophy. 
Des Canes, 1596 1650, 

Metaphysics. Ma .hem. 



B. Pascal, 1623—1662, 

Miscellaneous. 
D'Herbelot, 1626— K95, 

Orientalist. 
Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron. 



J. Marsollier, 1647—1724, 
History, various. 

Fleury, 16.53-1723, Eccle- 
siastical History. 

G. Daniel, 1649—1728, His- 
tory of France. 

Vatincourt, 16>:>3— 1730, 
Biography. 
2*7* 



Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'nhy 
Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, 

Sermons. 
La Bruyere, 1636-1696, 

' Characters.' 
Malbranche, 1633-1715, 

' Search after Tru th.' 

1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, 
Dictionary. 
Hardouin, 1646-1729, 

Criticism. 
And. Dacier, 1651-1722, 

Philology. 
Anne Dacier, 1651-1720, 
Philology. 



Toiirnefort, 1656-1708, 

Botany. 
Fontendle, 1657-1756, 

' I'lurality of Worlds, 

&c. 
Montfaucon 1655-1741, 

Antiqiuties. 
Massillon, 1663-1742, 

Sermons. 



634 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 



1700 



J. B. Rousseau, 1671—1741, 

Odes. 
Crebillon, 1674—1762, 

Tragedies. 
Rea. Le Sage, 1677—1747, 

'Gil Bias.' 
P. N. Destouches, 1680— 

1754, Comedies. 
J. B. Grecourt, 1683—1743, 

Odes, Tales. »fec. 
Marivaux, 1688—1763, 

Novels. 
Voltaire, 1695—1778, Tra- 
gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. 



J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778, 

' Emile,' ' Heloise,' &c. 
Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En- 

cyclopedie,' Novels. 
Bernis, 1715—1794, Poems. 
Favart, d. 17.62, Comic 

Operas. 
Louis Racine, d. 1763, 

Poems. 
J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795, 

' Anacharsis.' 
Marmontel, 1719—1799, 

Tales. 
Gresset, d. 1777, Elegies. 
Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. 



Florian, 1755 -1794, Xales. 
Beaumarchais, d. 1799, 
Comedies. 



1700 Vertot, 1655—1735. History. 

Paul Rapin, 1661—1725, 
History of England. 

Bossuei, 1662-1701, His- 
tory, Sermons. 

C. Rollin, 1661-1741, 
Ancient History, Educa- 
tion. 



C. L F. H6nault, 1685-1770, 
History. 



C. Villaret, 1715—1766, 

History of France. 
L. P. Anquetil, 1723—1808, 

History. 
Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, 

Recueil d'Historiens. 
A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin 

of Laws, Arts, &;c.' 
Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans. 

of Herodotus. 
Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient 

History. 
Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias 

tical History. 



J. DeGuignes, 1721—1800, 
History of the Huns. 

D'Anville, 1702—1782, 
Geography. 

G.Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist, 
of East and West Indies. 

C. F. X. Millot, 1726—1785, 
History. 



ISO) B. St. Pierre, 'Paul and 

Virginia.' 

Madme. de Genlis, Novels. 

Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, 

Tales. 
Delillck 1813, 'L'Homme 

des Champs.' &c. 
Madame de Stael, 1768 — 

1817, ' Corinne,' &c. 
H. de Balzac, 1799-1850, 

Novels. 
J J. Boissaid, 1743-1831, 
Fables. 



1800 Sismondi, History and 
Political Science. 
Barante, History. 
Augustin Thierry, History 
Amedei Thierry, History, 
Guizot, History. 
Thiers, History. 

Denon, d. 1825, Travels in 

Egypt. 
J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767— 

1837, History. 
Louis E. Bignon, — 1841 

History. 
,1. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840, 

Education. 



SPECULAtlVE AND aCIENTIFIS 



1700 



Folard, 1669-1752, Stra- 

Sauri'n, 1677-1730, Ser- 
mons. 



Montesquieu, 1698—1755, 

' Esprit des Loix.' 
Reaumut, 1683-1757, 

Natural History. 
Houbigant, 1686—1783, 

Criticism, Philology. 
Girard, d. 1748, 'Synony- 

mes.' 



Buffon, 1707-1788, Natural 

History. 
De Brosses, 1709—1777. 

Philology, History. 



Helvctius, 1715—1771, 

'De I'Esprit.' 
D'Aubenton, 1716—1799, 
Natural History. 
N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law 

of Nations.' 
D'Alembert, d. 1783, ' En- 

cyclopedie.' 
La Grange, Mathematics. , 



Bailly, 1736—1793, Hist., 

Astronomy. 
Lavoisier, 1743—1794, 

Chemistry. 
Montucla, 1725—1799, 

Mathematics. 
Turgot, Polit. Economy. 
Mirabeau, Politics. 
Fourcroi, d. 1809, Chem. 
J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astron. 
« — 

1800 Volney, 17.55-1820, Travels. 
Philology, &c. 

HaLiy, d. 1822, Crystallo 
graphy. 

La Place, d. 1S27, Mathe- 
matics 

Guyton Morveau, Chem. 

Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hist. 

Dumont, Legislation. 

P. L. Courier, Politics. 

.1. F. Audoin, 1797—1841, 
Zoology. 

.1. E. D^ Esquirol, 1772— 
1840. on Insanity. 

Chas. Courier, 1772—1837, 
Socialism. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND POUTUGUESE. 



635 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1800 C. Delavigna, Tragedies, 


1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 


1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796—1842, 


and Poems. 


Biography. 


Metaphysics 


Victor Hugo, Tragedies, 


A. L. G. Laborde, —1842, 


A. L. de Jussieu, 1748-1836, 


Poems, and Romances. 


Travels. 


Botany. 


A. de Lamartine, Poems, 


Las Cases, —1842, Biog- 


S. F. Lacroix, 1765—1843, 


History, and Travels. 


. raphy. 


Mathematics. 


Mad. Dudevant (George 


J. Michaud, -1839, His- 


Lamarck, —1829, Natural 


Sand), Novels. 


tory. 


History. 


A. Duirias, Poems, Plays, 


Bourrienne, —1834 ' Life 


Legendre, 1753—1833, Ma 


and Romances, 


of Napoleon.' 


thematics. 




A. Coille, —1838, Voyage 


Louis, —1837, Surgery. 




a Tembuciou, «kc. 


Broussais, — 1838, Medi- 




Chanipollion le .leune, 


cine, Physiol. 




1&32, Antiq. Egypt. 


Chaptal, —1S32, Chem- 




J. P. A. Remusat, —1832, 


istry. 




Philology, Antiquities. 


Say, Polit. Economy. 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 

P. is prefixed yor Portuguese. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


500 


500 


500 Anian, Law. 

Fulgentius Ferrandus, 

Canoti Law. 
Martin, d. 580, Ethics. 


600 


600 John of Biclair, d. 620 
Chronicle.- 
Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de 
Goth. 


600 

Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics. 


800 


800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 
ology. 
Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. 


800* 


P. ilOO Egaz Monez, Songs. 

P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, 

Songs. 


1100 


1100 


1200 

Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes. 


1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245, 
History of Spain. 


1200 

R. de Penafort, 1175—1275, 
Decretals. 

Alphonso X., d. 1284, 
Astronomy, Alchemy. 

Rainiund Lullo, 1236— 
1315, Theology, Chem- 
istry, &c. 


1300 .Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- 
mances. 


1300 


1300 


1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 

Virgil and Dante. 
E. de Villena, 1434, Moral 

Drama. 
Juan de Mena, 1412—1456 

Poems. 
L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458, 

Poems. 


1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 


1400 

J. de Torquemada, d. 1463, 
Sermons, Criticisra. 



em 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics, 



Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral 
Drama. 



1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 
Torres Naliarro, Comedy. 
Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- 
nets. 
P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues. 
Garcilaso de la Vega, 
1503—1536, Poems. 
p. San (le Miranda, 1495—1558, 
Lyrics. 
Juan de la Cueva, Art of 
Poetry. 
P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, 
Comedy. 
J, de Montcmayor, 1520— 

1561. Romance. 
Ant. Ferreira, 1528—1569, 
Elegies. 



Diego dc Mendoza, d. 1575, 

Poems, History. 
P. Camoens,1524— 1579, 'The 

Lusiad.' 
Luis de Leon, 1527—1591, 

Lyric Poems. 
Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578, 

Classical Poems. 
p. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- 
mances, Pastorals, &c. 
P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, 

Epigrams, Pastorals. 
C. de Castillejo, d. 1596, • 

Romantic Poems. 
A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600, 

' Araucana.' 
Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589, 

Tragedy. 
L. de Argensola, 1565— 

1613, Tragedy, History. 
p. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. 
Cervantes, 1549—1616, 

'Don Quixote.' 



1600 



Bart, de Argensola, 1566 — 

1631, Tragedy, History. 
F. Quevedo, 1570—1645, 

Tales, Satires. 
L. Congora, 1585—1638, 

Poems. 
Lope de Vega, 1562—1635, 

Drama. 
J. P. de Montalvan, d. 1639, 
Tragedy. 
M. de Madrigal, Romances. 
p. Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. 

1649, Pastoral Po^ms. 



FACT. 



1400 R. de Zamora, 1407—1470, 
History of Spain. 
Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 



1500 



P. Daraian Goez, History, 

Travels. 



Joao de Barros, d. 1570, 
' Hist. Portugu. in India.' 

A. Zarate, 'Discov. of 
Peru.' 

A. de Morales, 1513—1590, 
History of Spain. 



J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist, 

of the West Indies. 
Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1580, 

Lives of the Popes. 
Luis Marmol, Description 

of Africa' 
Jeron. Zurita, 1513-1580, 

History of Arragon. 
Estevan Garibay, History 

of Spain.' 



Juan Mariana, 1537—1624, 

Hist., Chronology, &c. 
Blanca, History of Spain. 



J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of 
China. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFIO. 



1400 



Fras. Ximenez, 1437—1517, 
Polyglot Bible. 



1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565— 

162o, History of Spain. 
P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617, 

History of Augustines. 
P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of 

John III. 
P. B. de Brito, 1.570-1617, 

History of Portugal. 



A. de Andrada, d. 1633, 
Travels in Thibet and 
Cathay. 

Pru. de Sandoval, History. 

Jayme Bleda, History of 
Moors in Spain. 



1500 Perez de Oliva, cf. 1533, 
Ethics. 
J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540, 
Philosophy, Theology. 



Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544, 
Ethics, Epistles. 
P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law. 



Ant. Agostino, 1516-1586, 
Theology, Law. 

S. des Brosses, 1523—1600, 

Grammar. 
P. D. de Andrada, 1528—1535, 

Pheolosy. 
Luis Molina, 1535—1600, 

Metaphysics. 



J. Guevara, 1541— 162^ 
Publicist. 



J. Valverda, Anatomy. 



m 



LITERARY CHRONCLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 



637 



IMAGINATION. 



1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 
'El Diablo Coxuelo.' 
Vic. Espinel, 1545—1634, 
Elegies. 



Calderon, 1601—1667, 

Drama. 
L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. 
A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, 

Sonnets. 
Matheo Ribeiro, Romance. 



M. de Villegas, 1595—1669, 
Anacreontics. 

F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. 

R. de Macedo, d. 1682, 
Poems. 

Viol, do Ceo, 1601—1693, 
Poems. 

F. da Castanheira, Novel. 

A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son- 
nets. 



1700 Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 
Drama. 
Ant. de -Zamora. Comedy. 
P. Xav. de Meneses, 1673— 
1743, ' Henriqueide,' 
Epic Poem. 
Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, 
Art of Poetry. 



Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, 
Fables, «fec. 
P. A. de Bai'ros Pereira, 

Poems. 
P Manoel da Coste, Poems. 
V. Garcia de la Huerta, 
Tragedy. 
P. P. Correo Garcao I,yric 
Poems. 

Leon de Arroyal, Odes. 
P. Paulino de Vasconcellos, 
Sonnets. 
Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. 
P. Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. 



1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811, 

' Agrarian Law.' 
P. Tol. da Almeida, Satires. 
Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828, 

Comedies. 
M. Garcia de Villanueva, 

' On the Theatre.' 
J. II. Davila, General Lit- 
erature. 



1600 



C. Acuna, 1597—1641, < De- 
scrip, of River Amazon. 

E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, 
History of Ethiopia. 

J. F. de Andrada, 1597— 
1657, Life of .John de 
Castro, Comic Poetry. 



Nic. Antonio, 1617-1672, 
Bibliotheca Hispanica. 
P. Alb. Coelho, d. 1658, 
' Wars of Brazil.' 



Ant. de Solis, 1611—1686, 
Hist, of Conq. Mexico. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTiriO. 



1600 



1700 J. Ferreras, 1652—1735, 
History of Spain. 



Barbosa Maehado, Diction- 
ary of Learned Men. 
Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist. 
of Castilian Poetry. 
P. Figoeireda, Eccl. History. 



Munoz, Hist, of America. 



Cavanilles, Annals. 



1700 



Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Criti- 

cism. 
A. Ulloa, 1716—1795, Math- 
ematician. 



1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 
Inquisition. 

Jose Antonio Conde, His- 
tory of Moors in Spain. 



P. 



Ruiz, Botany. 

Pa von, Flora Peruvians. 

J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, 

Natural Philosophy, 
Felix de Azara, Zoology. 
J. N. de Azara, 1731—1904 

Antiquity. 



1800 



638 



THE world's progress. 



DUTCH. 



IMAGINATION. 



1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235— 
1300, Poems, ' Rymby- 
bel.' 
Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 



1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 
Chronicles. 
Heij. van Holland, Poems. 
Ciaes Willems, Poems. 



1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. 



Dirk van Munster, ' Chris- 
tian Mirror.' 



Lambert, Goetman, ' Mir- 
ror of Youth.' 



1500 



A. Byns, Religious Poems. 

Jan. Fruiiiers, Poems and 
Prose. 

J. Secundus, 1511 — 1536, 
Amatory Poems. 

Dirk Koornhert, 1522— 
1590, Transl. Homer. ' 

P. van Marnix, Odes, 
Songs. 

R. Visscher, Epigrams. 

Hendrick Spieghel, Didac- 
tic Poems. 




SPECULATIVE AND SCIEWTIVIO 



Gerard Groot, Theolofe/. 



1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, 
Chronicles of Brabant. 
p. vander Heyden, 1393— 
1473, Chronicles. 



1400 



1500 



S. Pighius, 1520—1604, 
'Roman Annals.' 



600 G. Brederode, 1585—1637, 

Comedies, &c. 
D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586— 

1626, Religious Poems. 
Daniel Heins, 1580 — 1655, 

Poems, Philology. 
J. Cats, 1577—1660, Drama. 
P. C. Hooft, 1587—1647, 

Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of 

the Netherlands. 
G. van Baerle (Barlseus), 

1584—1648, Latin Poems. 
Just van Vondel, 1587 — 

1679, Tragedies. 
M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. 
Jan van Heemskerk, 'Ar- 
cadia.' 
J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, 

Epigrams. 



A. Schott, 1552—1629, His- 
tory of Spain. 



1600 



H. de Groot (Grotius), 
1583—1645, Hist., Theol- 
ogy, Poetry, &c. 



J. W. Gransft 2t, Theo. 



Rud. Agricola, 1442-1485, 
Philosophy, Hist., &c. 



1500 Erasmus, 1467—1536, The- 
ology, Literature, 6r.r 



J. Heurnius, 1543—1601, 
Medicine. 

C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic- 
tionary. 

Justus Lipsius, 1547 — 1606, 
Philology. 

Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633, 
Hydrostatics, Matliem. 

H. Erpenius, 1584—1624, 
Orientalist. 



1600 



J. Golius, 1596—1667, On. 

entaiist. 
Voetius, 1589—1676. 

Polemics. 
Beverwyk, 1594—1647, 

Medicine. 
Diemerbroek, 1609—1674, 

Anatomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 



639 



IMAGINATION. 



Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687, 
EpiHTams. 

Jer. Decker, 1610—1066, 
Elegies. 

D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Ama- 
tory Poems. 

Nicholas Heins, 1620—1681, 
Poems, Philology. 

Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone 
of Wit.' 

Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- 
grams. 

Rainier Anslo, 1622—1669, 
' Plague of Naples.' 



PACT. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1700 P. Francius, 1645—1704, 
Latin Poetry. 
J. A. Vander Goes, 1647— 
1648, Drama. 



Ger. Brandt, 1626—1685, 

Hist, of Reformation. 
Cau, Collect, of Batavian 

History. 
J. G. Grsevius, 1632—1703, 

Roman Antiquities. 
J. Perizonius, 1631—1715, 

History. 



1700 



Eliz. Wolff, Novels. 
Loosjes, Novels. 

Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes. 
Klein, Lyrics. 
Van Alphen, Odes. 



1800 



J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, 
Greek Antiquities. 

P. Bondam, Collection of 
Batavian History. 

Simon Styl, History of 
Netherlands. 



J. F. Gronovius, 1611— 

1671, Phiiolosy, 
J. Leusden, 1614-1699, 

Philology, 



F. Burman, 16^—1679, 

Theology. 
Chr. Huygens, 1629—1695, 

Mathem., Mechanics. 
B. Spinoza, 1632—1677, 

Theology. 



Swammerdam, 1637—1680, 

Natural Histoiy. 
A. Leuwenhoek, 1632— 

1723, Natural History. 



Hincopen, Odes. 
Helmers, d. 1831, Poems 
J'Jieuwland, Poems. 
Borger, Odes. 

Bilderdyk. Dramas, Odes, 
&c. 



1800 



Te Water, Histoiy. 
Engelberts, Ancient Hist. 
of Netherlands. 



1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731, 
Anat. 



G. Bidloo, 1649—1713, 

Anat. 
C. Vitringa, 1659—1722, 

Theolosy. 
Binkersciioek, 1663—1743, 

Law. 
H. Boerhaave, 1668—1738, 

Medicine. 
Hemsterhuis, 1685 — 1766, 

Philology. 

A. Scliultens, 1686—1750, 
Philology. 

Gravesande, 1683-1742, 

Mathematics. 
Chr. Hecht, 1696—1748, 

Philolosy. 

B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771, 
Anatomy. 

Oudendorp, 1696—1761, 

Philology. 
W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768, 

Law. 
D. Gaubius, 1705—1780. 

Medicine. 
Hoogeveen, 1712—1794, 

Philology. 
G. van Swieten, 1700— 

1772, Medicine. 
P. Camper, 1722—1789, 

Anatomy. 
D. Ruhnker, 1723—1793, 

Philology. 
Valckenaer, Philology. 



1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808, 
Philology. 



Van Kampen, Statistics 



640 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


ToUens, Poems. 

Da Costa, Sacred Poems, 

Wilderbosch, Odes. 


Kluits, Hist, of Holland. 
Westehdoip, History. 
Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. 


De Jonge, Antiquities. 
Hamaker, Orientalist. 
Vander Palm, Literature. 



SWEDEN, "DENMARK AND ICELAND. 

S., Sweden ; D., Denmark ; Ic, Iceland. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 


900 


900 


Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 

Ic. Ssimund, b. 1156, The 
Elder Edda. 


1100 

Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice- 
land. 

D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 

1204, Hist, of Northern 
Nations. 

D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark. 


1100 

D. Sunesen, .Turist. 
D. Axel, Theology. 


Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson,rf. 1241, 
Younger Edda, Hist, 
of Norway. 

Ic. Suerron, Tales. 


1200 

D. Sturla Thoridsen, History 
of Norway. 


1200 


1400 


1400 

S. Eric Olai, History of Goths 
and Swedes. 


1400 

S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, 

Instruction to Kings and 
Princes. 


1500 


1500 

S. John Magnus, d. 1544, 

Hist, of Sweden. 
S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of 

Northern Nations. 
S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599, 

History North oT Europe. 
Ic. Am. .lonas, 1545 — 1640, 

Hist, of Iceland, &c. 


1500 

D. Tycho Brahe, 1546— 1601,' 

Astronomy. 
D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 


1600 

D. Anders Arrcbo, b. 1587, 
• Religious Poetry. 

D. Anders Bording, b. 1619, 

Poems. 
8. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem, 

' Hercules.' 


1600 

D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591—1640, 
Danish Hist. 


1600 

S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, 

Orientalist. 
D. G. Banholine, 1585—1629 

Anatomy, Theolory. 
D. Ole Worm, 1588—1654, Att 

tiquities, Philo. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOQY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICELAND. 641 



IMAGINATION. 



D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 16S1. 
Hymns. 



D. L. Ilolberg, 1684—1754, 

Drama, Satire, Hist. 

D. Ch. Falster, 1690— 

1752, Satirist. 



S. OlofDalin, 1708-1763, 

Poetry, History. 



Sneedorf, 1724—1764, 
Poems. 



D. Tullin, Lyrics. 

D. John Ewald, 1743— 

1781, Tragedy, Lyrics 
D. J. H. Wessel, Humor 

ous Poems. 
S. Bellerman, 1741—1796, 

Lvrics. 
D. H. Tode, 1736—1806, 

Dramas, Fables. 
D. Samsoe, 1759—1796, 

Tragedies. 
D. P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758 

Drama. 
S. S. Elgstrom, d. 1810 

Poems. 



Ic. Torffflus, 1639—1720, Hist, 
of Norway. 



1700 



D. 



John Permgskiold, 1654 — 
1720, History. 

Ame Magnussen, b. 1663, 
Collec.''Hist. 

Albert Thura, Hist. 

Hans Gram, d. 1748, His- 
tory. 



Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. 
Danish History. 

Pontoppidan, d. 1764, Ori- 
gines Havnienses. 

Lagerbring, d. 1781, His- 
tory. 



P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798, 
Hist, of Denmark. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



S. 01. Rudbeck, 1630-1702., 
Botany, Anat., «fec. 



1700 

D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635—1703, 
Phys., Maihem.- 



Ic. 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819, 1800 

Transl. Milton D. Malta Brun, d. 1826, Geog- 

D. C. L. Sander, Dramas. rapiiy, in French 



D. Jens. Baggesen, d. 

1826, I^yrics. 
D. Oehlenschlager, 

Poems. 
D. B. S. Ingermann, 

Lyrics. 
S. Atterbone, Poems. 

S. Tegner, Romances, «&c. 

S. F. Bremer Novels, 



S. Thorild Travels. 



S. Afzelius, Iceland Records. 

S. Halienberg, History. 

S. Granberg, Statistics. 

S. Blexell, Topography. 



Lirmasus, 1707—1778, 
Botany. 



Wallerius, d. 1785, 

Mineralogy. 
Oeder, Flora Danica, 
Ihre, Dictionary. 



1800 



S. 



Berzelius, Chemistry. 

Rask, Orientalist. 

Wodderstadt, ' On Yellow 
Fever.' 

Liliegren. Northern An- 
tiquities. 

Norberg, Orientalist, 

J. F. Blumenbach, 
1840, Naturalist. 



642 



THE world's progress. 



POLISH. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIFIO 


1200 


1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 
History of Poland. 
Bo^uphaius, d. 1253, 
Chronicle of Poland. 


1200 








Martin Polonus, d. 1278, 






Chronicle of Popes and 






Emperors. 


Vitellio, Optics. 


1400 


1400 Dlnglossus, 1415—1480, 
History of Poland. 


1400 


1500 


1500 


1500 

N. Copernicus, 1472—1543, 
Astronomy. 




Cawalezewski, Chronicles. 


Lucas Gornicki, Ethics, 




Bielski, Chronicles. 


Rey of Naslowic, 1515 — 
1568, Ethics. 


Kochanowski, 1530—1584, 


Stryjkovvski, Chron. of Po- 
land and Russia. 




1600 


1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637, 
Ecclesiastical Annals. 


1600 


Sarbiewski, 1595—1640, 




John Maccov, d. 1644, The- 


Latin Poetry. 




ology. 
Przipcov, 1590—1670, The- 




Lubienetski, 1623—1675, 


ology. 




History of Reformation. 




1700 


1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland. 
Mizler, Do. 


1700 


Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po- 






etry and History. 






ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman- 


1800 


1800 


ces. 






Boguslawski, Drama. 






Bronikowski, Novels. 






Bernatowicz, Novels. 






Bulgarin, Novels. 






Mickiewicz, Poems. 


Lach Szmyrna, Travels. 




Odyniec, Drama. 


Potocki, Travels. 


Linde, Lexicon. 



RUSSIAN. 

[The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. Almost 
rll books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly 
differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the 
other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established 
m 1553.] 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


lOOO 


1000 

Nestorof Kiew, 1056—1115, 
Chronicles of Russia. 


1000 Yaroelaf, Code of Laws. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 



643 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1100 

The Expedition of Ighor, a 
celebrated Poeiii, author 
Unknown. 


1100 Theodosius,(Z.1120, Annals. 
Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro- 
nicles of Russia. 

Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, 
Chronicles of Russia. 


1100 


1200 


1200 John of Novgorod, History 
of Russia. 


1200 



[The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia 
from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit of 
knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 



1500 



1600 



Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, 
Spiritual Dramas. 



1700 



Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- 
rical Poems. 

Lomonosoff, 1711— 17G.5, 
Poetry, History, Science. 

Tredianoffski, Poems. 

Popofski, Transl. Pope. 

Sumarokoff, 1718—1777, 
Drama. 

Kheraskoff, 1733—1807. 
'The Russiad.' 

Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. 
the Iliad. 

Petrotf, 1736— 1799, Transl. 
the Eneid. 

Kniajnin, 1742—1794, 
Drama. 

J. Khemnitzer, 1744— 17&1, 
Fables. 

Klu.?hin, Comedies. 

Ephimieff. Comedies. 

AblesimotT, Operas. 

G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816, 
Lyric Poetry. 

H. Bogdanovitch, 1743- 
1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. 

Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- 
dies, Tales. 

Nicoleff. Tragedies. 



1800 Maikoff, Comic Poems. 
Dmitrieff, Lyrics. Fables. 
OzerofT, d. 1816. Tragedies. 
P. Sumarokoff, Poems, 

Tales. 
V. A. .lukofski, b. 1783, 

Poems. 
Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. 
Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- 

lus. 
Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, 

Odes. 
Kryloff, Fables. 



1500 



1600 



1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. 
V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, 
Chronicles of Russia. 



Cherbatoff, History. 
Golikoff, History. 



Muravieff, 1757—1816, His- 
tory, Didactics. 
Euge'nius, History. 



1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History 
of Russia. 
Kachenofski, History. 
G. Glinka, History. 



Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis- 
covery. 

Gretch, Histoiy of Russian 
Literature. 

Timkowski,. Journey to 
China. 



1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws. 



1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The- 
ology, Spiritual Dramas. 



1700 Theophanes, Seimons. 



Plato, 1737—1812, Sermoni. 

P. S. Pallas, 1741—1811, 
Natural History. 



1800 Shishkoff. Criticism. 



Augustin, Sermons. 



644 



THE world's progress. 



ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 

P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. 



IMAGINATION. 



60C Mahomet, Koran. 

Lehid, 6i'2— 757, Poems. 
Zohair, Poems. 

Kais El Ameri, or Amrul- 
kais, Poems. 



600 



700 



Abun Massab, Poems. 
Abuno\vas,762— 810, Poems. 
Rehashi, Poems. 
A..U Obeid, d. 838, Fables. 



800 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIEJtTir A 



600 



700 



Muham. ben Omar, History. 



800 



A.Temain, 804—84.5, Poems. 



Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. 

Abu Mohammed Abdallah, 
Literature. 



Aharun, Medicine. 



700 Jafar, Chemistry. 

Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The- 
ology. 



900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 



Almotanabbi, d. WS, 
Poems 



Wahab, Travels. 
Abuzeid, Travels. 
I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. 
Abu .lafar, 838—922, Hist. 
Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, 
Translations from Greek. 



800 Asmai, 740-^30, Theology. 

Kendi, Philosophy. 

J. ben Seraj)ion, Medicine. 

Almamon, Astronomical 
Tables. 

Baluili, d. 835, Etymology. 

Alfragan, Astronomy. 

Nasir Khosru, Metaphys. 

Albumazar, 805 — 885, Ma- 
thematics, Astronomy. 

Bochari, 810—870, ' Tha 
Sahih,' Traditions. 

Geber, Chemistry. 



900 



F. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 

'Shah Nameh,' Epic 
Poem. 



Abul Ola, 973-1057, 
Poems. 



Said ben Batrik, 876—937, 

General History. 
Eutychius, History. 
Massudi, d. 957, History 

and Geography. 



Ibn Haukal, Geography. 



1000 Almuyadad, History of 
Saracens in Sicily. 



900 Albategni, Astronomy. 
Rases, d. 922, Medicine. 
Ben Musa, Mathematics. 
Azophi, Astronomy. 



Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 

Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 






1000 Achmet, Treatise on 
Dreams. 
Ibn Mesua, Medicine. 
Avicenna, 980— 1038, 
Philosophy, Medicine. 



Abulcasis, Medicine, 
Jelaleddin, Correction of 

Calendar. 
Arzachel, Astronomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TUR.KISH. 645 



IMAGINATION. 



jwo \'x\3i!:\, d. 1119, Poems. 



•"J'cJr:- TfK^ "1121, Moral 
Poeui!!^ 



P. Feleki, d. ?U?J, Poems. 
P. K>akjni, d. .t\S6, Poems. 
P. 4nM'ari, C. I'T^.V, Poems. 
jTaafar ebn ^I'oiriL d. 1198, 
'Hai ben YoVuan,' a' 
Novel. 
1. Eifaredh, d. i23A Poems. 



1100 



1200 



P. Saadi, 1193— AP9i 
tan,' 'Borland 

Elfaiagi, Poc^»»<i. 



Sulis- 



13J0 



Algazel, Antiquities, «&c. 
Ben Idris, b. 1U99, Geog. 



1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 
Abdollatif, Topography of 

Egypt. 
Abuldem, d. 1244, History. 
Ei Harawi, Travels. 



Abulfarage, 1226—1285, 
Universal History. 

Elmacin, d. 1302, History 
of Saracens. 



P. Fadlallah, History of Mo- 
guls. 



Hafix, d 1395, Ooww 



1400 



< 1486, Poems. 



1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1333, 

Geography, Hi-nory. 
Novairi, d. 1331, Universal 

History. 
Mohammed Ibn Batuta, 

Travels. 
Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, 

Geography. 
Abu Sliameh, b. 1299, Hist. 
Turan Shah. d. 1377, Hist. 
Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1100 Gaza'i, 1058—1112, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 

Alhazin, Optics. 

Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen« 
taries. 



Alchabit, Optics, Astron. 
A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. 

Averroes, d. 1206, Arista, 
telian Philosophy. 



1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. 



Caswin, d. 1274, Natural 

History. 
Beithar, d. 1248, Botany, 

Medicine. 



Nasireddin, 1201—1273, 
Astronomy. 



1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. 



1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, 
Life of Tamerlane. 
Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist. 

Arabshah. d. 1450, Life of 
Timur. 



Baccai, d. 1480, Biography. 
P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond, 
Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474. 

Baber, d. 1530, Autobio- 
graphy. 



1500 Alhassan, Description of 
Africa. 

Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- 
versal History. 



Firuzabadi, 1329—1414, 
'The Camoos.' 



1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, 
Dictionary. 

Ulug Beg, 1393-1444, 
Astronomy, Chronology 



Babacushi, d. 1481, 
Politics. 



1500 



Babacushi, d. 1566, Morals, 



646 



THE world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


IfiOO 


1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. 
Abulgazi, 1605—1663, Hist. 

of Tartars. 
T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, 

History. 


P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, JSIetaph. 
Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani 
Kata,' Dictionary. 


1700 


P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- 
nals of Ilindostan. 


1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar. 



UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIPIO. 


1600 


1600 


1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, 
Sermons, &c. 




Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist. 


John Cotton, cZ. 1652,Theol. 




of Massachusetts. 


Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, 
Sermons, ' Magnalia,'&c. 


1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, 


1700 Inc. Mather, 1723. 'History 


1700 Benj. Colman, d. 1747, 


Poems. 


of War with Indians.' 


Theology. 


Benj. Church, 1739—1776, 


Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist. 


Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, 


Poems. 


of New England. 


Theology. 


Wm. Livingston, 1723— 




Samuel Davies, d. 1761, 


1790, Poems. 




Sermons. 


John Trumbull, 1750-1831, 




John Clayton, d. 1773, 


'McFinsal,' &c. 




Botany 


Joel BarTow, 1755—1812, 


Cadwallader Colden, 1688- 




' The Columbiad.' 


1776, History of the Five 
Nations of Indians. 




John Blair Linn, 1777— 


John Bartram, d. 1777, 




1804, Poems. 


Botany, Travels. 






Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, 


Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, 




Hist, of Massachusetts. 


Theology. 
Benjamin Franklin, 1706— 


T. D wight, Conquest of Ca- 




1790,Natural Philosophy, 


naan, &c. 




Politics, &c. 
Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics. 
John Hancock, 1793, 

Politics. 
John VVitherspoon,d. 1794, 

Theology, Politics. 
Patrick Henry, d. 1796, 




David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, 


Politics. 




Astronomy. 


Samuel Adams, 1803, 




Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- 


Politics. 




tory of N. Hampshire. 


Samuel Hopkins, 1721— 




Amer. Biog. &c. 


1803, Theology. 




Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist. 


Fisher Ames, d. 1808, 




of Massachusetts Bay.' 


Politics. 




Isaac Backus, 1806, Church 






History of N. England. 




1800 Chas. B. Brown, d. 1810, 


1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 


1800 Thos. Paine, 1737— 18U9i 


Novels. 


of Maine. ^ 


Politics, ' Aee of Reason,' 


Robt. Treat Paine, 1773— 




' Rights of Man,' &c. 


1811, 'Invention of Let- 


David Ramsay, d. 1812, 


Jos. S. Buckminster, d 


ters,' 'The Ruling Pas- 


' Life of Washington,' 


1S12, Theology. 


•ion,' and other Poems. 


'American Revolution,' 


Alex. Hamilton, 1757— 




'Universal History.' 


1804, Politics. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— U. S. OF NORTH 



AMERICA. 



647 



IMAGINATION. 



1800 Paul Allen, 1775— 182G 
« Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist.' 
of Am. Revo].] 



1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813 
'American Ornitholoffv.' 

Hugh Williamson, d. 1818 
Hist, or N. Carolina. ' 

Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, 
Botany. 



J. G. C. Brainard, d. 1826, 
Poems. 



Wm. Wirt, 1772—1834, 
'British Spy.' 



Robt. C. Sandf3, d. 1832 

Poems. ' 

J. Q. Adams. 1767—1847, 

Poems. 
Washington Allston, 1779- 

1843, Painter, Poet, and 

Novelist. 
Timothy Flint, 1780-1840 

Novels. 
Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789— 

1841, Poems. ' 
Wm. Lcggett, 1802—1840, 

Poems, Miscellan., Polit 
R. H. Wilde, 1789—1847, 

Poems, Researches on 

Tas^->, &c. 



E.A.Poe,lSll-1849,Poeir3, 
Tales. 

J. F. Cooper, 1759—1851, 

Novels, &c. 



Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, 

Botany, Travels, 
.ledediah Morse, d. 1826, 

Gcog., Statistics, «fec. 



lajO, 'Letters from Eu- 
rope.' 

Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 
1830, Travels in Europe, 
Lectures on Literature. 
&c. 

•Fohn D. Godman, d. 1830, 
Anatomy, Natural Hist., 
&c. ' 

John Marshall, J 755— 1835. 
Life 01 Washington, &c' 

Jno Armstrong, 1758-1843, 
'War of 1812.' 

Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, 
Annals of America. 

Timothy Flint, 1780-1840, 
Hist, of Mississ. Valley. 

A. S. Mackenzie, —1849 
Travels in Spain, &c. ' 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 

1800 



Gouverneur Morris, 1752— 

1816, Politics. 
'^\'??^''^,^,^^^ght, 1752^ 

1817, ' Theoiugy Explain- 

ed and Defended ' 
Levi Frisbie, 1784-1822, 

Moral Philo'jophy 
Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, 

Law, Politics. 
Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835. 

Law ' 

^<Jk ^Channing, 1780- 
184^, Sermons, Criticism. 

Thomas .Jefferson, 174,3— 

1826, Politics, Philos. 
John Adams, 1735—1826, 

Politics. 
John Rl. ]\lason, D D 

1770-1829, Dlvinitv, '' 

Sermons, &c. 
John H. Ilobart, D. D , 

1776-1830, Sermons, &c. 
Jos. Story, 1779-1845, 

Law. 
Henry Wheaton, 1782— 

1848, Law. History. 
Edw. Livingston, 1764- 

1836, Criminal Code, &c 
David Hosack, 1769-1835, 

Medicine. 
Jas Madison, 1751-1836, 
Pohtics. ' 



Alex. H. Everett, 1790— 

1847, Essays. 
R, Harlan, i 796— 1843, 

Natural History. 
James Kent, 1763—1847. 

Comment, on Am. Law! 
Hugh S. Legare, 1797- 

1843, Miscellanies 
Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me- 
taphysics. 
Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849, 

Ethnology, Philology. 
J. C. Calhoun, 1782—1850, 

Politics, Speeches. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS, 



WITH THE 



HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTiaUITY. 



Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. 

Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. 

Abretu'nus, a surname of Jupiter. 

A'hron, a very voluptuous Grecian. 

Abt/'la, a famous mountain in Africa. 

Acan'/.ha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 

Acas'/.us, tlie name of a famous iiunter. 

Ace'/iis, one of the priests of Bacchus. 

Achcb'meties, the first king of Persia. 

Acha'les, a trusty frienii of jT.neas. 

Ach'eron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into 
a river of hell (or assisting the Titans in their 
war against Jupiter. 

Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and 
Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- 
ped by his mother in (he river Styx, was in 
vulnerable in every part except his right 
heel, by which she held him ; after signaliz- 
ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, 
as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by 
Paris with an arrow. 

Acid'alia and Arma'ta, names of Venus. 

Acidu'lus, a famous fountain of Bceotia. 

A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, 
because he rivalled him in the aflections of 
Galetea. 

Ac'inun, a famous king of the Titans. 

Ac'rafus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. 

A "Haion, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally 
discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned 
into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. 

Adme'fus^ a king of Thessaly. 

Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and 
Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by 
Venus and Pro.serpine. 

Adras'lea, the goddess Nemesis. 

^'actis^ one ol the infernal judges. 

jE'gci, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. 

ASge'us, a king of Atiica, giving name to the 
iEgean sea by drowning himself in it. 

JEgi'mt, a particular favorite of Jupiter. 

^'gis. a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. 

^'gle. one of the three Ilesperidea. 

JS'gon, a wrestler famous for strength. 

^gijp'tus, son of Neptune and Lybia. 

jS^VIo, one of the three Harpies. 

^ne'as, son of Anchises and Venus. 

jEo'liis, the god of the winds. 



JEo'us, one of the four horses of thi sun. 

JEscula'nus, a Roman god of riches. 

jEscula'pius, the god of physic. 

ji'JtlmL'ides, a son of mercury, 

jE'lhon, one of the four horses of the sun. 

JEfncbus^ a title of Vulcan. 

JSto'los, a son of Endymion aud Diana. 

Agamcm'non, a brother of Menelaus, chosen 

capfam-general of the Greeks at the siege 

of Troy. 
Aganip'pe, daughter of the river Permessus, 

which flows from mount Helicon. 
Age'noi; the first king of Argos. 
Ageno'iia, the goddess of indu-itry. 
Agelas'tus and Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. 
Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. 
A'jux, one of the most distinguished princes and 

heroes at the siege of Troy. 
AUm'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. 
A/ci'des, a title of Hercules. 
A/ci'nous, a king of Corcyra. 
A/ci'oneiis, a giant slain by Hercules. 
Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. 
Alcmc'na, the wilit; of Amphitryon. 
ALecHo, one of the three Furies. 
Alec'lryon, or Gal'/.us, a favorite of Mars. 
Alhji.u6-, and Alwm'tius, titlei5 of Jupiter. 
Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. 
Alcb'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter, 
A'mallhoi'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. 
AniburvaHe, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. 
AmbTo'sia, the Ibod of the gods. 
Ani'inon^ a title of Jupiter. 
A'mphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypermnestra, 

a very famous augur. 
Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penelope. 
Amphi'on, a famous musician. 
Amphttri'te, the wife of Neptune, 
Amijn/or, a kin^ of Epirus. 
Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution. 
Ancoi'us, a king of Arcadia. 
Andro'geus, the son of Minos. 
Andrum'ache, the wife of Hector. 
Androni'cda, the daughter of Cepheus and Caa- 

siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty 

with the Nereides, was by them bound to a 

rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea 

monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and 

married her. 
Ange'rona, the goddess of silence. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC 



649 



iln'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. 

Antcb'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he 
was squeezed to death by Hercules. 

JLn'teros^ one of the names of Cupid. 

Antever'la, a goddess of women in labor. 

An'thia, and Argi'va, titles of Juno. 

An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. 

Aon' ides, a name of tha Muses. 

Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'iis, titles of Venus. 

AJpis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, 
Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the 
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines ; 
after his death they worshipped him in the 
form of an ox, a symbol of liusbandry. 

Arach'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva 
into a spider, for presuming to vie with her 
at spinning. 

Arethu'sa, the daughter of Neretis. 

Argend'nus, and jEscula'nus, gods of wealth. 

Argo, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- 
panions to Colchis, and reported to have been 
the first man-of war. 

Ar'g07iauts, the companions of Jason. 

Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- 
dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the 
ship Argo. 

Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, 
gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him 
out of the Cretan labyrinth : bemg aftei*- 
wards deserted by him, she was married to 
Bacchus, and made his priestess. 

Arimas'pi, a warlike people of Scythia. 

Art-on, a .yric poet of Methymna. 

Aristcb'us, son of Apollo and Cyrene. 

Aristo)?ie'nes, a cruel Titan. 

Aristuph'anes, a comic poet, bom at Lindus, a 
town of Rhodes. 

Arte'ims. "he Delphic sybil ; also Diana. 

Ascle-pia festivals of ^sculapius. 

Asco'lia, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. 

Aste'ria, daughter of Ceu.s. 

Astrapcb'us, and Atuby'rus, Jupiter. 

Astrcb'a, the goddess of justice. 

AstroVogus, a title of Hercules. 

Asty'anax, the only son of Hector. 

Astypalcb'a, daughter of Phcenix. 

A'te, t!ie goddess of revenge. 

Ailan'tes, a savage people of Ethiopia. 

At' Las, a king of Mauritania. 

At'ropos, one of the three Fates. 

Aver'nus, a lake on the boi'ders of hell. 

Aver rune' us. a god of the Romans. 

Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable of 3000 
oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- 
cules cleansed it in one day. 

A'vistuper, a title of Priapus. 

Au'rea, a name of Fortuna. 

Auro'ra, the goddess of morning. 

Auto'leon, a general of the Crotoniaas. 

Autum'nus, the god of fruits. 

B 

Bac'chus, the god of wine. 

Bap'ta, the goddess of shame 

JBarba'la, a title of Venus and Fortuna. 

Bas'sareus, a title of Bacchus. 

Bat'tus, a herdsman, turned by Mercury into a 
loadstone. 

Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband 
Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, 
travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- 
fused. 

28 



Bellero'phon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyra, 
who underwent numberless hardships for 
refusing an intimacy with Sthenobcea, the 
wife of PrcEtus, king of Argos. 

Bello'na, the goddess of war. 

Berecyn'lhia Ma'ler, a title of Cybele. 

Bereni'cs, a Grecian lady, who was the only 
person of her sex permitted to see the CMyni" 
pic games. 

Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. 

Bib'lia, the wife of Duillius, who first instituted 
a triumph for naval victory. 

Bi'ceps, and Bi'J'rons, names of Janus. 

Bisul'tor, a name of Mars. 

Bi'thon, a remarkably strong Grecian. 

Boli'na, a nymph rendered imirortal for her 
modesty and resistance of Apoilo. 

Bo'na De'a, a title of Cybele, and Fortuna. 

Bo'nus Dcb'mon, a title of Priapus. 

Bo'reas, son of Astraeus and Heribeia, generally 
put for the north wind. 

Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna. 

Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and 
Terra : the poets feign him to have had a 
hundred arms and fifiy heads. 

Bri'mo, and Bu'buslis, names of Hecate. 

Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter, 
given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr- 
nessus, a ciiy of Troas, by the Greeks. 

Bron'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. 

Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself 
into mount ^tna. on account of his de- 
formity. 

Bruma'liu, feasts of Bacchus. 

Bubo'na, the goddess of oxen. 

Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel 
tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules. 

Byb'lis, the daughter of Miletus. 

C 

Cabar'ni, priests of Ceres. 

Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. 

Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitae. 

Cu'cus, a son of Vulcan. 

Cad'mus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who, 
searching in vain for his sister, built the city 
of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the 
Greek alphabet. 

Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. 

Cob'ca, and Conserva'lrix, titles of Fortune. 

Ccbc'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan. 

Ccb'neas, a title of Jupiter. 

Cal'chas, a iamous Greek soothsayer. 

Calis'io, the daughter of Lycaon. 

Calli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry. 

Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who 
reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she 
entertained and became enamored of Ulys- 
ses, on his return from Troy. 

CuTn'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. 

Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the 
Medes and Persians. 

Camcb'na, and Carna, goddess of infants. 

Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. 

Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. 

Car'dua, a household goddess. 

Carmen'ta, a name of Themis. 

Car'na, a Roman goddess. 

Carya'tis, a title of Diana. 

Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to 
starve their parents to death when 70 years 
old, and to train up dogs for war. 



650 



THE world's progress 



Cassan'dra, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. 

Castal'ides, the Rluses, from the fountain Cas- 
talius, at the foot of Parnassus. 

Cas'tor, son of Jupiter and Leda, between whom 
and his brother Pollux immortality was al- 
ternately shai'ed. 

Ca'lins, a tutelar god to grown persons. 

Ce'crops, the first king of Athens. 

Ceicb'no, one of the three Harpies. 

Cen'taurs, children of Ixion, half men, half 
horses, inhabiting Thessaly. 

Cepha'lus, the son ol' Mercury and Hersa. 

C'i^pheus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia. 

Cerau'jiius, a title of Jupiter. 

Cei'berus, a dog with three heads and necks, 
who guarded the gitss of hell. 

Cerca'lia, festivals in honor of Ceres. 

Ce'res, the godde-st: of agriculture. 

Ce'rus, or ii'e'riis, the god of opportunity. 

C/icd'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan. 

Char'ites, a name of the Graces. 

Cha'ron, the lerryman of hell. 

Chi'mera, a strange monster of Lycia, which 
was killed by Bellerophon. 

Chi'ron, the preceptor of Achilles, 

Chro'mis, a cruel son of Hercules 

Chrysao'rius, a surname of Jupiter. 

Chry'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. 

Cir'ce, a famous enchantress. 

Cir'r/ia, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence 
the winds issued which caused a divine rage, 
and produced oracular responses. 

Cithcb'rides, a title of the Muses. 

Clau'si7ia, a name of Venus. 

Clau'sius, or Clu'sms, a name of Janus. 

Cleo'niedes, a famous wrestler. 

Cli'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- 
troness of heroic poets. 

Clo'tho, one of the three Fates. 

Ciytemnes'tra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, 
killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her 
adultery with ^gisihus. 

Cocy'luSy a river of hell, flowing from Styx. 

CuUi'na, the goddess of hills. 

Compita'lia, games of the household gods. 

Cu'mus. the god of festivals and merriment. 

Conco7'dia, the goddess of peace. 

ConservaUor, and Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter. 

Con'sus, a title of Neptune. 

Corii'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. 

Coryhan'les, and Curf'ic.s, -^riests o''' C'^'bele. 

Cre'u7i, a king of Thebes. 

Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo. 

Criitis'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change 
him.^elf into any shape. 

CrcB'sus, a rich king of Lydia. 

Cro'niu, festivals in honor of Saturn. 

Ctes'ibus, a famous Ather.ian parasite. 

Cuhiia^ the goddess of new-born inl'ants. 

Cuspid, son of Mai-s and Venus, the god of love, 
smiles, &c 

Cy'clops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye 
in the middle of their forehead. 

Cyb^ele, the wife of Saturn. 

Cyc'mis, a king of Liguria; also a son of Nep- 
tune, who was invulnerable. 

Cyllehiius, and Camil'lus, names of Mercury. 

Cyiioceph'ah, a people of India, said to have 
heads resembling those of dogs. 

Cyn'thia, and Cynh.hius^ Diana, and Apollo. 

Cypnrissoi'a^ a title of Minerva. 

Ci/phia, Cythere a, titles of Venus. 



D 

Dcuda'Hon, the son of Lucifer. 

DcBa'alus, an artificer of Athens, who formed the 
Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, 
axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts ana 
sails ibr ships. 

Da'moii, the shicere friend of Pythias. 

Dcb'mon, Buhius, Diihyram'bus, and Dionys'' 
ius, titles of Bacchus. 

Da'nae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, 
seduced by Jupiter in the Ibrm of a golden 
shower. 

Dana'ides, or Besides, the fifty daughters )f 
Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except 
Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, the sons 
of their uncle .^gyptus, on the marriage 
night : they were therefore condemned to 
draw water out of a deep well with sieves, 
so that their labor was without end or suc- 
cess; 

Daph'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 

Darda'nus, the founder of Troy. 

Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an 
account of the Trojan war. 

De'a Syr'ta, a title of Venus. 

Dec'ima. a title of Lachesis. 

Deian'ira, the wife of Hercules. 

Deida'tnia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of 
Scyros, hy whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, 
while he lay concealed in woman's apparel 
in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to 
the Trojan wai-. 

Deinpjt'a^ a beautiful attendant on Juno. 

Deipli'obe^ the Cuniean sybil. 

Deiph'obus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

Denia, Del'ius, Diana and Apollo. 

De'las, the island where Apollo was born. 

Del'phf, a city of Phocis, tamous for a temple 
and an oracle of Apollo. 

Del'phicus, DidymaJi.s, titles of Apollo. 

Beni'ades, an Athenian orator. 

Der'bices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who 
punished all crimes with denth. 

Deiica'lJon, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes 
saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre 
served from the general deluge, and re-peo 
pled the world. 

Dever'ra^ the goddess of breeding women. 

Diag'oras, a Rhndian, who died for joy, because 
his three sons had on the same day gained 
prizes at the Olympic games. 

Diahia, the goddess of hunting, &c. 

Di'do, daughter of Belus, the Tounder and queen 
of Carthage, whom Virgil I'ables to have 
burnt herself through despair, because .^Ene- 
as left her. 

Di'es, and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter. 

Din'dyme, Di)idy?Jie'ne, titles of Cybele. 

Bioni'edes, a kii:g of ^lolia, who gained greal 
reputation at Troy, and, accompanied hy 
Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; also,! 
tyrant of Thrace. 

Di'onc, one of Jupiter's mistresses. 

Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. 

Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. 

Dih-m, a title olthe Furies. 

Dis, a title of Pluto. 

Discur'dia, the goddess of contention. 

Donddu'ca, a title of Juno. 

IJoinid'u'ais, and Doriii'tius, nuptial gods. 

Do'in'ina^ a title of Proserpine. 

Dry'ades, nymphs of the woods and foresta 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



651 



m 

Echi'on, a companion of Cadmus. 

Ec'ho, daughter of Aer and Tellus, who pined 
away for love of Narcissus. 

Edo7i':d''.s, priestesses of Bacchus. 

Edu'ca, a goddess of new born infants. 

Ege'ria, a title cf Juno ; also a goddess. 

Elec'fi-a, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra. who instigated Orestes to revenge 
their father's death on their mother and her 
adulterer ^Egisthus. 

EHeus^ and Eleuthe'rise, titles of Bacchus. 

Eliusiti'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- 
pine. 

Elo'ides, nymphs of Bacchus. 

Empu'soi; a name of the Gorgons. 

Endyin'ion, a sliepherd of Caria, who, for inso- 
lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a 
sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited liim by night 
in a cave of mount Latmus. 

EniaUius, a title of Mars. 

En'i/o, the same as Bellona. 

Epe'us, the artist of the Trojan horse. 

Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who 
besieged Thebes, a second time. 

Epi/oi'nea, sacrifices to Bacchus. 

Epistro'phia, and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. 

Ep)izeph'rii, a people of Locris, who punished 
those with death that drank more wine than 
physicians prescribed. 

Era' 1.0, the muse of love-poetry. 

Er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox; 
a river of hell. 

Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated 

Eriotho'nius, a king of Athens, who, being lame 
and very deformed in his feet, invented 
coaches to conceal his lameness. 

Erin'nys, a common name of the furies. 

E'ros, one of the names of Cupid. 

Eros'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his 
name, set fire to the celebrated temple of 
Diana at Ephesus. 

Ete'ucles, and Fcly'nices, sons of OSdipus, who 
violently hated, and at last killed each other. 

Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who 
threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- 
band Cataneus, from affection. 

Euc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du- 
plicity, and dissimulation. 

Eumen'ides, a nan.e oi 'the Furies. 

E'j,phros'yne, one of the three Graces. 

Exru'pa, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, 
was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a while 
buil, into Crete. 

Euryiaie, one of the three Gorgons. 

Euryd'ice, the wife of Orpheus. 

Eurym'one, aa infernal deity. 

Euter'pe, the muse presiding over music. 

Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler. 



F 

Pah'uJa, the goddess of lies. 

FahuU'-.ius, a god of infants. 

Fa'ma, the goddess of report, &c. 

Fas'cinum. a title of Priapus. 

Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. 
Cloihos, Lachesis, and Atropos, intrusted 
with the lives of mortals, &c. 

Fau'na, and Fat'ua, names of Cybele. 

Fau'nus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and fa- 
ther of the Fauns, rural gods. 



Feb'rua, Flor'ida, Fluohiia, titles of Juno, 

Feh'rua, a goddess ol purification. 

Feb'ruus, a title of Pluto. 

Feli'ciUis, the goddess of happiness. 

Fer'cidus, a household god. 

Fere'trius, and FiUmin.a'tor, titles of Jupiter. 

Fero'nia, a goddess of woods. 

Fesso'nio. a goddess of wearied persons. 

Fid'ius, the god of treaties. 

Ftavi'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c. 

Flo'ra, the goddess of flowers. 

Fiuvia'les, or Polamides, nymphs of rivers. 

For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers. 

Forta'na, or For'lune, the goddess of happiness, 
&c., said to be blind. 

Fu'ries, or Eumen'ides, the three daughters of 
Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, Megnera, 
andTisiphone, with hair composed of snakes, 
and armed with whips, chains, &c. 



G 



Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion- 
ately beloved by Polyphemus. 

Gal'ii, castrated priests of Cybele. 

Gal'Uis, or Alec'trion, a favorite of Mars, and 
changed by him into a cock. 

Game'lia, a title of Juno. 

Gan'ges, a famous river of India. 

Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. 

GeUtsi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles. 

Gelo'ni, a people of Scythia, who used to paint 
themselves in order to appear more terrible 
to their enemies. 

Ge'nii. guardian angels. 

Ge'nius, a name of Priapus. 

Ger'yun, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with 
human flesh, and was therefore killed by 
Hercules. 

Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva. 

Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating 
a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus, 
wlio exchanged his arms of gold for the bra- 
zen ones of Diomede. 

Gnos'sis, a name of Ariadne. 

Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of 
Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords 
on which the empire of Asia depended, in so 
very intricate a manner, that Alexander the 
Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. 

Gor'o-ons, the three daughters of Phorcys and 
Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who 
could change into stone those whom they 
looked on; "Perseus slew Medusa, the prin- 
cipal of them. 

Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas. 

Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, the 
daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; atten- 
dant's on Venus and, the Muses. 

Gradi'vus, a title of Mars. 

Gyiges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of 
Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so 
incensed her that she slew Candaules, and 
married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by 
means of a ring could render himself invi- 
sible. 

H 

Hafdes, a title of Pluto. 

Hamaxo'bii, a people of Seythia, who lived in 

carts, and removed from place to place aa 

necessity required. 



852 



THE world's progress. 



ffarmo'nis, a famous artist of Troy. 

Haiyal'yca, a very beautilul maid of Argos. 

Hca'pies, three monsiers, Aello, Celoeno, and 
Ocypeie, with the faces of virgins, bodies of 
vultures, and hands armed wiiii monstrous 
claws. 

Harpoc'rates, the Egyptian god of silence. 

He'bc^ liie goddess oT youth. 

He'lirus, a river in Thrace. 

He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. 

Hec'ale, Diana's name in hell. 

Hec'tor, a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the 
most valiant of all the Trojans, 

Hec'uba, the wife of Priam. 

Hege'sius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de- 
scribed the miseries of life with such a 
gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors 
killed themselves through despair. 

Hel'ena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti- 
ful woman In the world, who, running away 
with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. 

Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

Hel'icon, a famous mountain of Boeotia, dedi- 
cated to Apollo and the Muses. 

Hera'ia, sacrifices to Juno. 

Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re- 
markable for his numerous exploits and 
dangerous enterprises. 

Heribe'ia, the wife of Astreus. 

Her'mcb, statutes of Mercury. 

Her'ines, a name of Mercury. 

Hernu'one, a dau£hter of Mars and Venus, mar- 
ried to Cadmus; also a daughter of iMene- 
laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 

He'ro: a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, 
priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, 
loved her so tenderly that he swam over the 
Hellespont every night to see her ; but being 
at lensth unfortunately drowned, she threw 
herself into the sea, through despair. 

Herod'oius, a very famous historian of Halicar- 
nassus. 

Heroph'i/a, the Erythraean sybil. 

Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. 

Hes'penis, or Vesper, the evening star. 

Hes'perides, the daughters of Hesperus ; .^gle, 
Arelhiisa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar- 
den bearing golden apples, watched by a 
dragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away 
the Iruit. 

He'sm, a name of Mars among the Gauls. 

Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis. 

Hippoc'im'pi, Neptune's horses. 

Hijj'pocrene, a foumain at the bottom sf mount 
Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. 

Hixj'jMi'ytus, the son of Theseus and Aniiope or 
Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his 
stepmother Pheedro. At ihe request of 
Diana, jEsculapius restored him to life, 
after he had been thrown from his chariot, 
and dragged through the v/oods till he was 
torn in pieces. 

Hippo'nu. the goddess of horses and stables. 

Hislo'riii, the goddess of history. 

Horten'sis, a name of Venus. 

Ilit'rus, a title of the sun. 

Hostillhia, a goddess of corn. 

Bij'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
JE'.hra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- 
thoe, Plexaris, Pyiho, and Tyche. They 
were changed byJupiier into seven stars. 

ily'bla, a mountain 'in Sicily, universally famous 
for its thyme and bees. 



Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or afl 
some say nine, others fifty, killed by Hercu- 
les in the lake Lerna. 

Hyge'ia, the goddess of health. 

Hi/t'Uis, the son of Hercules and Dejanire. 

Hy'men, the god of marriage. 

Hype'rion, a son of Ccelus and Terra. 

Hypsipi yle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- 
ished for preserving her lather when all the 
other men of the island were murdered by 
their kindred. 



lac'chus, a name of Bacchus. 

Ian' the, the beautiful wife of Iphis. 

lapeHus, a son of Coelem and Tef;ra. 

[ar'bas, a cruel king of Mauritania. 

Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, ?.avmg re- 
ceived from JJacchus a bottle of wine, went 
into Attica, to show men the use of it; but, 
making some shepherds drunk, they thought 
he had given them poison, and therefore 
threw him into a well. 

Ica'rus, the son of DasdaJus, who, flying with his 
father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring 
too high, melted the wax of his wings, and 
fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian 
sea. 

I'da, a mountain near Troy. 

Idch'a Mater, a name of Cybele. 

Idcb'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele. 

Ida'lia, a name of Venus. 

Id'mon, a famous soothsayer. 

Ido'lhea, Jupiter's nurse. 

lli'one, the eldest daughter of Priam. 

llis'sus, a river in Attica. 

I'lus, the son of Tros andCallirrhoe, from whom 
Troy was called Ilium. 

Impera'tor, a nanie of Jupiter. 

Ini'acliis and I'ses, names of lo. 

I'lio, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and 
wife of Athainas. 

Inter cidohia, a goddess of breeding women. 

Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of .) uno. 

In'uiis, and inc'ubus, names of Pan. 

I'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- 

' ter into a white heifer ; but afterwards re- 

sumins her former shape, was worshipped 

as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the 

name of Isis. 

Iph'idus, the twin brother of Hercules. 

Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready 
to be sacriticed to appease the rage of Diana, 
was, by that goddess, transformed into a 
white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her 
priestess. 

I'phis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself 
for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas. 

Iph'itus, son of Praxonides, who instituted 
Olvmoic games to Hercules. 

Vris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno's 
favorite companion, and her messenger on 
affairs of discord, &c. 

I'tys, ihe son of Tereus and Progne, murdered 
and served up by his mother at a banquet 
before Tereus, in revenge for his having vio 
lated her sisier Philomela. 

Ixi'on, the son of Phiegyas, who was fastened i& 
hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, 
for boasting that he had lain with Juno. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



653 



Jan''Uo7-, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus. 
Ja'nus, the lirst king ol' Italy, son of Apollo and 

Cieasa. 
Ja'sun^ a Thessalian prince, son of iEson, who 

by Medea's lielp brought away the golden 

lleece from Culchis. 
lo'custa, the tlaughier of Creon, who unwittingly 

married her own son, CEdijJus. 
Jii'nu, the sisier anil wile of .hipiter. 
Ju'no, hifei'/ia, a name of Proserpine. 
Juno''iei;s, guardian angels of women. 
Ju'piier, a son of Saturn and Ops— the supreme 

deity of the heathen. 
Ju'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune. 
Ju'piter I'ei'liiis, TiiJ'er'nus, or Sly'gius, se^ 

ral appellaiions given to Pluto. 
Juven'ta, a goddess of youth. 



La'chesis, one of the three Fates. 
Lacin'ia, and Lticil'ta, titles of Juno. 
Lacfi'Jra, or Lacticci'na, a goddess of com. 
Lcbslrig'unes^ cannibals of Italy, who roasted 

and ale the companions of Ulysses. 
La'iits, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by 

his own son, CEdipus. 
La'/nioi, a name of the Gorgons. 
Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of 

Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by 

serpents for opposing the reception of the 

wooden horse into Troy. 
La.'pis, or Lajnd'eus, titles of Jupiter. 
La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped 

as household gods. 
La.tera'nus, a household god. 
Laver'na, a goddess of thieves. 
Lean'der, see Hero. 
Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and v/ife of Tyn- 

darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a 

swan. 
Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, &c. 
Le'ncb, priestesses of Bacchus. 
Ler'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra, 

killed there by Hercules. 
LeHhe, a river of hell, whose waters caused a 

total forgetfulness of things past. 
Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants. 
Libiti'nu, the goddess of funerals. 
Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. 
LubfJi'tia, the goddess of pleasure. 
Lu'cifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the 

morning star. 
Luhia, Diana's name in heaven. 
Liiiper'calia^ feasts in honor of Pan. 
Lyj)er'ci^ priests of Pan. 
Lyca'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter 

into a wolf. 



M 



MaHa, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned into 

a star to avoid Juno's rage. 
Managcnc'ta, a goddess of women in labor. 
MatitTi'ra, a goddess of corn. 
Manturhia, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. 
Mari'na, Mel'anis, Mer'etrix, Migoni'tis, and 

Mur'cia, titles of Venus. 
Mars, the god of war. 



Maiiso'lits, a king of Caria, who had a most 
magniticent tomb erected to iiim by his wife 
Artemisia. 

Medt'a, daughter of JZltes, king of Colchis, a 
famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob- 
tain the golden lleece. 

ATed/fri'na, a gotldess of grown pe:*T!ns. 

Medii'su^ the chief of the three Gorgons. 

Mfgcb'ra, one of the three Furies. 

Mcgakiu'siu, festivals in honor cf Cybele. 

Megu'rci, ihe wife of Hercules. 

Meiuni'ra., a name of Venus. 

Me'lioi, nymphs of the tields. 

Me'lius, a name of Hercides. 

Melo'na, the goddess of honey. 

Melponi'ene, the njuse of tragedy. 

Mem' noil, a king of Abydos. 

Menulu'us, a famous Centaur. 

Menela'us, ihe husband ol' Helena. 

Meyi'tlia., a mistress of Pluto. 

Me7i'tor, the governor of Telemachus. 

Mer'cury. the messenger ol' the gods, inventor of 
letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise, 
and robbers. 

Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. 

Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac- 
chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power 
given him of turning whatever he touched 
into gold. 

Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. 

MimaU lories, attendants on Bacchus. 

3Imer'va, the goddess of wisdom. 

Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi- 
nary justice, a judge of hell. 

Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. 

Min'ya, a name of the Argonauts. 

Mn.emos'yne, the goddess of memory. 

Mo'mus, the god of raillery, wit, «fcc. 

Mone'la, a title of Juno. 

Mor'pheiis, the god of sleep, dreams, &c. 

Mors, the goddess of death. 

Mul'ciber, a title of Vulcan. 

Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of 
all the sciences, presidents of musicians and 
poets, and governesses of the feasts of the 
gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, 
and Urania. 

Mu'ta, the goddess of silence. 



N 

Namia, the goddess of funeral songs. 

Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. 

Narcis'sus. a very beautiful youth, who, falling 
in love with his own shadow in the water, 
pined away into a daffodil. 

Na'tio, and Nundifna, goddess of infants. 

Namoi'a, a country of El is, famed for a terrible 
lion killed there by Hercules. 

Nein'esis, the goddess of revenge. 

Nep'tune, the god of the sea. 

Ne'reides, sea nymphs. 

Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. 

Niceph'oi-us, a title of Jupiter. 

Ni'nus, the first king of the Assyrians. 

Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- 
phion, who, preferring herself to Latona, 
had her 14 children killed by Diana and 
Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. 

No'?niiis, a name of Apollo. 



654 



THE world's progress. 



^ox, the most ancient ot the deities ; she was 
even reckoned older than Chaos. 



O 

Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. 

Occa'lo?; the god of harrowing. 

Oce'anun, an ancient sea god. 

Ocyp'eic, c.ne of ihe three Harpies. 

(Ecl'ipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of 
Thebes, who solved die riddle of the Sphinx, 
unwittingly killed his father, married his 
mother, and at last ran mad, and toi'e out 
his eyes. 

Om'phale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- 
cules was so enamored, that she made him 
submit to spinning and other unbecoming 
offices. 

0/ er'tus, a name of Pluto. 

Opi'gena, a name of Juno. 

Ops^ a name of Cybele. 

Orboina, a goddess of grown persons. 

Ores'tes, the son of Agamemnon. 

Ori'on, a great and mighty bunter. 

Or'pheus, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had 
great skill in music, and was torn in pieces 
by the Maenades, for disliking the company 
of women after the death of his' wife Eury- 
dice. 

Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons. 

Osi'ris, see Apis. 



Pac'lohis, a river of Lydia, with golden sands 
and medical waters. 

Pcb'an^ and PlKB'bus, names of Apollo. 

Pa'les, the goddess of shepherds. 

Palil'ia, feasts in honor of Pales. 

Pallu'diwm, a statue of Minerva, which the 
Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that 
their city could not be taken whilst that re- 
mained in it. 

Pal'las, and Pi/'lofis, names of Minerva. 

Pan, the god of shepherds. 

Pando'rch, the first woman made by Vulcan, and 
endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- 
ter gave her a box containing all manner of 
evils, war, famine, &c., with hope at the 
bottom. 

Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. 

Pa'phia, a title of Venus. 

Par'ccb, a name of the Fates. 

ParHs, or Al'exander, son of Priam and He- 
cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away 
with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan 
war. 

Parnas'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for 
a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite 
residence of the Muses. 

Par'lunda, a nuptial goddess. 

Pastoph'oii, priests of Isis. 

Pal'areus, a title of Apollo. 

Pateli'na, a goddess of corn. 

Patula'ciiis, a name of Janus. 

Patule'ius, a name of Jupiter. 

Paven'Ua, and Poli'iia. goddesses of infants. 

Peg'q.'ius, a winged horse belonging to Apollo 
and the Muses. 

Pello'nia, a goddess of grown persons. 

^ena'tes «mall statues pr household gods. 



Penel'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for her 
chastity and fidelity during the long absenc« 
of Ulysses. 

Per'seus, son of Jupiter and Danae, who per- 
forr^ed many extraordinary exploits by 
means of Medusa's head. 

PhcBcasta'ni, ancient gods of Greec/i. 

Pha'eion, son of SA (Apollo) and Climene, who 
asked the guidance of his fother's chariot 
for one day, as a proof of his divine descent; 
but unable to manage the horses, set the 
world on fire, and was therefore struck by 
Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po. 

Phal'tica, feasts of Bacchus. 

Philarn'mon, a skilful musician. 

PailomaHa, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, 
who was ravished by her brother-in-law, 
Tereus, and was changed into a nightin- 
gale. 

Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- 
gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, 
but was recompensed with the knowledge 
of futurity; also a king of Thrsce, turned 
into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- 
dusa's head. 

Phles'ethon, a boiling river of hell. 

Phle^gon, one of the four horses of Sol. 

Plileg'yoi, a people of BcEotia, destroyed by 
Neptune, on account of their piracies and 
other crimes. 

PhcB'bas, the priestess of Apollo. 

PhfB'bus. a title of Apollo. 

PhcR'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- 
cused of having attempted the honor of one 
of his father's concubines, was condemned 
to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by 
Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege 
of Troy. 

Picum'nus, a rural god. 

Pihwi'nus, a god of breeding womei^. 

Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly. 

Pi'lho, a goddess of eloquence. 

Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
Pleione; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, 
Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they were 
changed into stars. 

Plu'to, tlie god of hell. 

Plu'lus, the god of riches. 

Pol'lux. See Castor. 

Poli/d'amas, a famous wrestler. 

Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. 

Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. 

Polyphe'iniis, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- 
tune, with but one eye in the middle of hia 
forehead. 

Pomohia, the goddess of fruits and autumn, 

Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. 

Prai7iesti'na, a name of Fortuna. 

PrcBs'les, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. 

Pra.vil.'eles, a famous statuary. 

Pri'ani, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, 
Hector, &c. ; he was the last king of Troy. 

Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and 
sister of Philomela; she was turned inio a 
swallow. 

Prome'lheus, son of lapetus, who animated a 
man that he had formed of clay, v/ith fiie, 
which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole 
from heaven, and wds therefore chained by 
Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture 
continually preying upon his liver. 

Propy'lcba, a name of Hecate. 

PrQs'erpine, the wife of Pluto. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



655 



ProUeus, a sea god, who could transform himself 
into any shape. 

Psi/'cha, a goddess of pleasure. 

Pyl'ad'js, the constant friend of Orestes. 

Pyr'amus, and This'be^ two lovers of Babylon, 
who killed themselves with the same sword, 
and occasioned the turning the berries of the 
mulberry-tree, under which they died, from 
white to red. 

Prycb'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. 

Pyr'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his 
cruelty at the siege of Troy. 

Py'thon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud 
of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and ii>. 
memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. 

Puihonis'sa) the priestess of Apollo. 



Quad'rifrons, a title ofjanus. 
Qui'e.i, a goddess of grown persons. 
Quieia'lis. and Q.iiie'lits, names of Pluto. 
Quijiqua'tria, feasts of Pallas. 



R 

Reci'us, a litle of Bacchus. 

Rt'dux, and Re'gia, ritles of Fortune. 

Jiegi'na, a title of .luno. 

Rhadanian'thus, one of the three infernal 

judges. 
Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. 
Rhe'a-syl'via. the mother of Romulus. 
Robi'gus, a god of corn. 
Rom'idus, the first king of Rome. 
Rumi'tia, a godtless of new-born infants. 
Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. 
Rusi'na, a rural deity. 



Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. 

Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. 

Salino7ie'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- 
bolt to hell for imitating .Jupiter's thunder. 

JSa'lus, the goddess of health 

Sanc'us, a god of the Sabineb 

Sator, and Sorri'loi; rural gods. 

Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. 

SatuT'nus, or Sat'urn, the son of Coelus and 
Terra. 

iSal'yrs. the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- 
sters, half men, half goats. 

Scy'run, a famous robber of Attica. 

Se'ia, and Sege'lia, goddesses of corn. 

^Se/'/i, priests of Jupiter. 

Sen'/a, a goddess of married women. 

Sera'pis. See Apis. 

Silehius, the fosier-fatherand companion of Bac- 
chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, 
and was drunk every day. 

Si'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. 

Sis'yp/ius, the son of .^olus, killed by Tiieseus, 
and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone 
up a mountfiin in hell for his perfidy and 
numerous robberies. 

Sol, a name of Apollo. 

Som'nus, the god of sleep. 

Sphinx, a monster, born of'Syphon, and Echidna, 
who destroyed herself because CEdipus 
solved the enigma she proposed. 



'Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. 

Sie7i'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to 

have been as strong and as loud as the voices 

of 50 men together. 
Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. 
Styx, a river of hell. 
Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. 
Stimma'niis, a nante of Pluto. 
Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests. 
Sy'rens, sea monsters 



T 

Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. 

TantaHits, a king of Paphlagonia, who, serv- 
ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelops, 
to try the divinity of the gods, was plunged 
to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to 
everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- 
ment lor his barbarity and Impiety. 

Tarta'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. 

Tan' Ills, the bull, under whose form Jupiter 
carried away Europa. 

Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. 

Telcnia'clius, the only son of Ulysses. 

Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the 
resort of the gods. 

Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. 

Terpsichu're, the muse of music, &c. 

'I'er'rur, the god of dread and fear. 

Tha'liu, the muse of comedy. 

The' mis, the daughter of Coelum and Terra, the 
goddess of laws, oracles, &c. 

Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. 

The' lis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- 
dess of the sea. 

Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. 

Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. 

Tisiph'one, one of the three Furies. 

Ti'tan, son of Ccelum and Terra, and the elder 
brother of Saturnu.s, or Saturn. 

Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. 

Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. 

Tri'lonia. a name of Minerva. 

Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out 
a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but 
they at last captured and destroyed it. 

Tuleli'na, a goddess of corn. 

Ty'vo, one of the Nereids. 



U 



Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king 
of lihaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, 
was eminently serviceable to the Greeks in 
the Trojan war. 

Unx'ia, a title of Juno. 

Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. 



V 



Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. 
Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. 
Vallunia, a goddess of valleys. 
Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. 
Vehius, the goddess of love, and beauty. 
Vergil'loi, a name of the Pleiades. 
Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. 
Vei'tum'nus, the god of spring. 



656 



THE world's progress. 



Ves'la, the goddess of fire. 

Via'les, deities of the highways. 

Vibil'ia, the goddess of wanderers. 

Viremen'sis, a nuptial goddess. 

Vir'go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. 

Viri/is, and Visca'ta, titles of Fortune. 

Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- 
conciled husbands to their wives ; a temple, 
at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the 
married couple repaired after a quarrel, and 
returned together friendly. 

VituHa, the goddess of mirth. 

Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. 

Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. 



Xan'thus, one of the horses of Achilles, horn of 



the harpy Celoeno, a river near Troy, called 
also Scamander. 



Z 

Za'greus, a title of Bacchus. 

Zeph'yrus, son of ^olus and Aurora, wuo pas- 
sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put 
for the west Avind. 

Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, 
who accompanied the Argonauts, and drove 
the Harpies from Thrace. 

Zi'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert 
in music. 

Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. 



1 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 



N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the sarliest period to the present time, is not 01 
course intended to include every name mentioned iii history, but merely the most important in 
their several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lista 
are given in their proper place. 

This list may be useful in two ways, viz : 

First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in this volume ; and 

Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and contemporary 
public characters during the life of each person in the list. 

Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. J. The tables or, 
page 20 to 24, show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. 

Milton was born a. d. 160S, one year after the first settlement at .Jamestown, Vii-ginia; six 
years after the East hidia Company was founded ; five years after James 1. ascended the throne ; 
the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany; one year before Gtisiavua 
Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. He 
was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he was 17 when Charles I. suc- 
ceeded .lames, and he was 41 years old when Charles was beheaded. Among his contemporaries 
were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Si)' C. Wren, Butler, Waller, 
Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England : Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton, and 
Eliot, in America: Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Des Cartes, Molijre, Corneille, 
Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died a. d. 1674, nine year.'= after the great plague in London, 
14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New-York was ceded to the English. 

And thus of any person mentioned in the Index — a great variety of particulars may be found 
at a glance, on referring to the tables. 

*,* No living persons are mentioned, except some of the most noted in Europe. 

Abbreviations. — See List in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbarian), inchcdes several different 
natio7is, some not entirely civilized, f is used for flourished. The dales before Christ 
are indicated by b. c. — all others are A. d. — In some cases the dates are necessarily left b'.ank. 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... 

Jew. Aaron, the f "st high-priest ..... 

Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician . . . 

Eng. Abbot. George, Archbishop nf Canterbury and author . 

Arab. Abd 'el Kader, distinguished warrior 

Fr. Abelard, Peter, a celebrated scholastic divine . 

Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician 

Sp. Abenezra, an astron., philos., poet, philologist, &c. 

Eng. Aberdeen. Earl of, statesman and antiquary 

Eng, Abercromby, Sir Ralph, military commander . . 

Eng. Aberneihy, John, eminent physician and medical writer 

Fr. Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the classics 

Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation 

Dan. Absalom (real name Axel), archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor, 

Ara. Abubeker, father-ill-law and successor of Mahomet 

Syr. Abulfeda, the geographer ..... 

Rom. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) 

Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic 

Ger. Accum., Fred , operative chemist (in Eng.) 

Pruss. Ackerman, Ptudolph, introduced gas lighting and lithog. in London 

Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war 

Gr. Achilles Fatius (of Alexandria), Christian bp. and author 

Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 

Eng. Adam, Alexander, schoolmaster and author 

28* 



BORN. 


DIED. 


f 1188 




c. 1570 


1453 


f. 622 




1562 


1623 


1806 




1079 


1142 


1802 




1119 


1174 


1738 


1801 


1764 


1831 


1606 


1664 


;. 1995 B. 


c. 1821 


1128 


1203 


561 


624 


1273 


13^15 


!. . 171 






1229 


1769 


1833 


1764 


1834 




f. 1184 


3d cent. 




1220 


1282 


1741 


1809 



6, i 



THE world's progress. 



NA. rON. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

En{ Adam, Robert, an architectural author 

Amt r AJams, .Fohn Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. II. S. 

Amt. , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 

Aine;- , .John, patriot and statesman — 2d Pres. U. S. 

Eng. Addison, .Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 

Rom. Adrian, the 15th Enip. (born in Spain) 

Ire. Adrain, Robert, mathematician (at New-York, &c.) 

Gr. ,^lian, the historian and rhetorician . . 

Gr. iEneas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . 

Gr. .^schines, of Athens, philos. — disciple of Socrates 

Gr. orator , . . , b. 

Gr. 3Escliylus, of Athens, the great tragic writer . . b. 

Gr. F>sop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . . f. b. 

Rom. Etius, mil. com. (defeated Aiilla) 

Rom. ;-iiJricanus. .Julius, historian . . . 

Gr. /{fimemnon, '> the king of kings" 

Gr. A%i.'.hius, historian and poet 

Swiss. Agctsstz, Louis, naturalist . 

Gr. AgesMaus II., king of Sparta ; (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 

Gr. Agis lY., the greatest of the Spartan kings 

Eng. Aglioaby,, one of the translators of the Bible 

Rom. Agricoia, Cneius .Julius, military commander 

Ger. Agricoia, John, a divine ; — founder of the Antinomians 

Rom. Agrippa, naiitary commander, governor of Juaea 

Fr. , Ocraelius, philosopher, &c. 

Eng. Aikin, .John, M. D., an elegant writer ; editor of poets, &c. 

Eng. Ainsworth, grtrnmarian and lexicographer 

Tartar. Akbar, Moha]ni?aed, a great Mogul sovereign, 

Eng. Akenside, Mark, i popular poet 

Swe. Akerblad, philologist 

Bar. Alaric I., king of \.hs Visigoths 

Span. Alberoni, Julius (ccudinal), statesman . . 

Ital. Alberti, an eminent water, paint., sculp., &c. 

Ger. Aibertus Magnus, phiJoccphic writer; tutor of Aquinas 

Bar. Alboin, the Lombard concji^ror . . . 

Port. Albuquerque (the great), "military commpnder 

Gr. Alcseus, of Lesbos, a lyric pGei 

Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian a'.id author 

Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . 

Eng. Alcuinus (founder of schools at Parifj, &c.) 

Eng Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar atid poet 

Fr. Alembert, John le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher 

Bar. Alexander, the Great, founder of tiis Macedonian empii'e 

Rom, , Severus, emperor 

Rus , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ;--def of the Tartars, «&c. 

Rus. , I., emperor (coaliti'/n agairitt Napoleon) 

Gi*. Alexius Commenus, emperor of the 'Eh.^ 

Ital. Alfieri, Victor, an eminent tragic poet 

Eng. Alfred, jt.rstly called the Greaf, king 

Ital. Algarotti, a general schnlar and critic 

Bar All Bey, gov. of Egypt, -revolted against the Turks . 

Bar. — Tepehni, pacha of Jannina 

Scot. Alison, Archibald Rev., 'Essays on Taste' 

Scot. Alison, Archibald, ' History of Europe,' 'EtsSays' 

Amer, Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the RevoS^jon 

Amer. AUston, Washington, painter and poet 

Sar. Almamon, Caliph, patron of learning , 

Sar. Almansor, Caliph, patron of learning 

Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leoft — and author 

Port. I., Henriquez, founder of the Portuguwe monarchy 

Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous mil. cow. 

Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah 

Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan— author 

Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence) — explored the SE. Amer. coast 

Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator 

Eng. Amherst, Jel^Yey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c. 

Rom, Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian 

Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher 

Fr. Ampere, Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philos, 

Fr. Amyot, James, bp. of Auxerre— translator of Plutaicb 

Bar. Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, and disciple of S^vion 

Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet 



BORK. 

1723 

1767 

1726 

1735 

1672 

76 

1775 

160 

.c,U83 

0. 393 B. 
c. 468 B. 
c. 600 



f. 565 

1807 



40 
490 

40 
.486 
1747 
1660 
1555 
1721 



1664 
1398 
1205 

1452 
c. 606 

1492 

c. 450 b. 

732 

1717 
c. 356 B. 

209 
1218 

1777 

1749 

849 

1712 

1728 
1744 
1757 



1779 



1203 
1094 
1508 

340 
1451 
1750 
1717 



1775 

1513 

c. 592 



BIGD. 

1794 

1848 
180a 
1826 
1719 
138 
1843 



c. *»S3 

c. ^00 

454 

232 

c. 904 



0. 361 

0. 251 

1610 

93 

1565 

94 

1535 

1822 

1743 

1605 

1770 

1819 

411 

1752 

1490 

1280 

574 



1550 
c. 404 

804 

709 

1783 

c. 323 

235 
1262 
1825 
1118 
1803 

900 
1764 
1773 
1822 
1839 

1789 
1843 

833 

775 
1284 
1185 
1.582 
c. 809 

387 
1512 
1808 
1797 

300 

c. 24 

1836 

1593 



B. 0. 474 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



659 



NATION, 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Pruss. 

Dan. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 
Eng. 
Car. 
Fr. 

Ene. 
Egypt. 
Ital. 
Mace. 

Mace. 
Gr. 

Rom. 

Horn. 

Rom. 

Pers. 

Egypt. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Scotch. 

Gr. 

Gr, 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Pruss. 

Span, 

Span. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ge.-. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Aniei. 

Ital. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Anastasius I., emperor of the East 

Anaxagoras, a philosopher .... 

Ana.xarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great 

Anaximander of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher 

Anaximenes " " " , 

Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist 

Anciilon, .F. P. F., historian and statesman 

Andersen, Hans Chris., poet and novelist 

Anderson, Sir Edmund, a judge and author 

, Adam, commercial writer . . . 

Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester , , 

Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine 

Andronicus of Rliodes, a peripatetic philosopher, flourished 

Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masiniello), a fisherman of Naple 

who rose to great power .... 

Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I.', historian 
Annet, Peter, a deistical writer .... 
Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general 
Anquetil du Perron, a classic scholar, and author . 
Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury— a learned divine 
Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander 
Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions 

, of Padua, a divine .... 

Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great 
Antiochus V. ..... 

Antipaier, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . 
Antisthenes, a philos.— Ibunder of the sect of Cynics, before Christ 
Antoninus, Pius, emperor 

. Marcus Aurelius, emperor— -surnamed the philosopher 

Antony, Mark, mil. commander and statesman 
Anveri, a celebrated poet .... 

Apion, a grammarian, and bitter enemy of the Jews, flourished 
ApoUoniiis, surnamed Rodius, a poet 

• — — , Pergamensi.?, a geometrician, flourished 

• , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher 

Appian, an historian, flourished 
Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian 
Arago, astron., nat. philos., and statesman 
Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder 
Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman 
Arbuthnot, .John, Dr., a poet .... 
Archelaus, Ionic philosopher, flourished 
Archills, a poet, flourished .... 

Archilochus. a poet, flourished 
Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician 
Archytas, a mathematician .... 
Aretino, Guido, inventor of the gamut of music 
Leonard, an historian 



— , Peter, satirist 



Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer 

Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet . . 

, Bartholomew, historian . , 

Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . 

Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician an 1 philosopher 

, grammarian and critic 

Aristides, an Athenian statesman 

, .(Elius, an orator and sophist 

, one of the fathers of the church, flourished 

Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher— founder of the Cyreniacs 

Arisiomenes, a warrior and patriot, flourished 

Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet 

Aristotle, philosopher— founder of the Peripate'.ics 

Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Aria?, sect 

.Montanus, Benedict.— orientalist 

Arkwnght, Su- Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 
Arlincouri, \''ictor, vieompte de, novelist 
Arminius, the deliverer of Germany 

, James, a celebrated divine — founder of a sect 

Armstrong, John, M. D., p.oet . . 

, John, general, statesman, military com., and historian 

Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour .... 
, Francis Baculard d', dramatist and poet 



BORN. 




DIED. 






518 


B. C. 500 B 


c 


428 


f. B. C. 340 






611 B 


c 


547 


B 


c 


504 


1794 






1767 




18-37 
1605 


1692 




1765 


1555 




1626 


1797 






B. c. 63 






Dies 






1623 




1646 


1,183 




1148 


1703 




1778 


B. c. 247 B. 


c. 


183 


1731 




1805 


1033 




1109 


1697 




1762 


251 




356 


1195 




1231 


B. 


c. 


301 


B. 


c. 


164 


B. 


c. 


319 


423 






86 




161 


121 




180 


B. C. 86 B. 


c. 


30 
1201 


80 






B. c. 194 






B. c. 242 




97 


143 






1224 




1274 


1705 




1759 


B. c. 273 B. 


c. 


216 
1735 


B. c. 450 






B. c. 719 






B. c. 685 






B. c. 287 B. 


c. 


212 


B. C. 408 B. 


c. 


360 


905 






1369 




1414 


1492 




1556 


1799 






1565 




1613 


1566 




1631 


1474 




1533 


i. B. c. 280 






B. c. 160 






B. 


c. 


467 


129 




185 


127 






f. B. c. 392 






B. c. 662 






B. 


c 


389 


D. c. 384 B. 


c. 


38! 
336 


1527 




-598 


1732 




J 792 


1789 




20 


inco 




1610 


1709 




]:79 


1758 




1843 
1220 


1718 




1805 



660 



THE world's progress. 



NATIOIf 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Prus. 

Ttal. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Brit. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Bar. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Bar. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



Rom. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Ara. 

Ara. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer 

Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . , 

Arnim, L. A. von, poet and novelist 

Arnold, of Brescia, a learned monk — disciple of Abelard 

, Thos., D. D., theologian, historian and philologist 

-, Benedict, major general — the traitor to his country 

Arrian, historian— disciple of Epictetus 
Arrovt^smith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts 
Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . 
Artaxerxes I., king of Persia 

, founder of the new Persian kingdom 



f. B, 



Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable 

Arundel, Thomas H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles 

Ascham, Roger, a learned writer 

Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general 

Ashmun, John II., jurist — professor of law 

Asser, John, historian 

Ast, Geo. A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' 

Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York 

Athanasius, St., one of the fathers of the church 

Athenagoras, philosopher ..... 

Athenais, Enip. of the West, and authoress (called also Eudoxia) 

Atheneeus, a celebrated grammarian — the Greek Varro 

Attains, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus — inv. of parchment 

, Rhodius, mathematician . . . f. b. 

Atterbury, Francis, bp. of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy 

Atticus, a knight, and author (works lost) . . . b. 

Attila, king of the Huns, " the Scourge of God" 

Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer 

Auckland, William, lord, statesman .... 

Audoin, J. F., zoologist ..... 

Augereau, duke of Castiglione, mil. com. 

Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 

, the Apostle of the English— 1st archbishop of Canterbury 

Augustulus, Romulus, the last emperor of the West 
Augustus, Cains Julius Caesar Octavius — 1st emperor 
Ausonius, Decimiis Magnus, poet 

Auvergne, Theophilus — republican — military commander 
Averroes, philosophei', physician, and author . 
Avicenna, philosopher, physician, and author 
Ayscough, Samuel, Compiler of Index to Shakspeare, &c. 



BORN. 

1710 

f. 303 

1781 

1795 

f. 140 

C. 250 

B. 

472 

1515 

B. 

1800 

1778 

1763 

296 

f. 177 

f. 190 

B. 

c. 173 
1662 
. c. 109 B. 

1784 

1797 

1757 

354 

c. 63 

1743 

980 



DIKD. 

1778 

1831 
1155 
1842 
1801 

1823 

c. 425 

242 

542 

1646 

1568 

c. 220 

1833 

909 

1841 

1848 

,371 

460 

c. 198 

1731 
c 32 

453 

1814 

1841 

1816 

430 

604 

476 

14 

394 

1800 

1197 

1037 

1804 



Eng. 

Gr. 

Port. 

Amc 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dan. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Turk. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Swe. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Turk. 

Fr. 



Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist 

Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . f. B. c 

Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet 

Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian 

Back, Geo., Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 

Bacon, Roger, a monk, celebrated for his scientific knowledge 

•, Francis, lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and statesman 

Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature 

Biihr, Jno. C. F., classical philologist .... 

Bailey, Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer 

Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 

Baillie, Matthew, physician and anatomist . 

Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician 

Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revolution 



Bainbridge, Wm., naval commander 

Baird, Sir David, military commander 

Bajazet. sultan— conquered by Tamerlane 

Baibi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer 

Baldwin, who became emperor of the East 

Balzac, Honore de, novelist 

Banier, or Banner, a celebrated military commander 

Banim, John, novelist 

Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator — President Royal Society 

Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age 

Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer 

Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair — usurper of Algiers 

Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous Avriter 



Princeton 



1790 

450 

1610 

1724 

1214 
1561 
1735 

1798 

1649 
1761 
1774 
1736 
1774 
1757 



Venice 1782 



Tours 



1799 
1596 
1800 
1743 
1721 
1743 

.1674 



1663 
1806 

1292 
1626 

1804 

1742 
1706 
1823 
1844 
1793 
1833 
1829 
1413 

1206 
1850 
1641 
1842 
1820 
1740 
1823 
1518 
172» 



I 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



66i 



HAtlON. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomati'st . . Va. 

Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman, and Judge of Sup. Court . Va. 

Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers 

Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer — author of Travp.Is, &c. 

Eng. Baring, Alex, (lord Ashburton), statesman 

Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman, and poet 

Eng. Barnes, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar 

Amer. , Daniel H., a distinguished conchologist 

Dutcl I, Barnereldt, John, statesman (beheaded) 

Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval comii ander 

Fr. Barrai, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the revolution 

Eng. Barrow, Isaac, a divine, and mathematician 

Amer. Barry, W. T., statesman and diplomatist . . Va. 

Fr. Bartheleray, .John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &c., . 

Amer Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist 

Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist .... 

Gr. Basil, St , a celebrated father of the Greek church 

Fr. Basnage De Beaval, James, historian 

Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman . 

Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman 

Eng. ■ Bathurst, earl of, statesman — friend of Pope, &c. 

Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine, and author . . 

Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander .... 

Amer. ■ , James A., a distinguished statesman, and lawyer 

Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... 

Ger. - — — , Theophilus, chronologist, and historian 

Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher, and critic [Bayle's Dictionary] 

Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet .... 

Eng. Beattie, James, LL.D., poet .... 

Fr. Beauhamois, Eugene Hortense, ex-queen of Holland 

Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene, son of the empress Josephine, mil. com. — vice 
roy of Italy, &c. ..... 

Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist 

Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist 

Eng. Beaumont, Francis, dramatic writer ... 

Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian 

Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher 

Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy, and author 

Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman 

Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist 

Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk, and historian 

Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander 

Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet (bro. of 'Meyerbeer') 

Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer 

Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist ... 

Rom. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror 

Scot. Bell, John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist 

Scot. Bell, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist 

Amer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author 

Ital. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 

Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet ..... 

Fr. Belleisle, Count de, military commander 

Ital. Bellini, Vincenzo, musical composer 

Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic — translator of Herodotus, &c. 

Fr. Belon, William, naturalist and traveller 

Eng. Belsham, William, historical, political, and miscellaneous v/riter 

Ital. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt 

Ital. Bembo, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature 

Eng. Benbow, John, a gallant admiral 

Ital, Benedict, St., one of the originators of rnonasteries 

Ital. — XIII., pope — theological writer 

Ital. ■ XIV., pope— theological writer 

Fr. Benezet, Anthony, philanthropist and historian (died in America) 

Bar. Benhadad, king of Syria 

Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet 

Eng. Beniham, Jeremy, political and philosophical writer 

Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar 

Fr. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . 

Fr. Berenger, A^ M. M. T., statesm.an and jurist 

Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer 

Swe. Bergman, nrofessor of chemistry at Upsat 



BORII. 

1775 
1783 

1648 
1716 

1756 
1654 

1547 
1759 
1755 
16.30 
1785 
1716 
1766 
1701 
320 
1653 
1758 
1682 
1684 
1713 
1615 
1476 
1767 

1694 
1647 
1797 
1735 
1753 

1780 
1732 
1798 
1555 
1714 
1716 
17.35 
1119 
1760 
672 

1800 
1770 



1763 
1781 
1719 
1542 
1523 
1684 
1808 

1518 
1752 

1470 
1650 

480 
1649 
1675 
1713 

1612 

1662 

1785 
1797 
1735 



DIED. 

1842 
1811 

1690 
1789 

1812 
1712 
1818 
1619 

1818 
1829 
1677 
1835 
1795 
1815 
1777 
379 
1723 
1839 
1764 
1775 
1780 
. 1691 
1524 
1815 
1627 
1738 
1706 
1839 
1803 
1837 

1824 
1799 

1616 

1789 
1781 
1793 
1170 
1844 
735 
1435 
1833 
1827 

~ 565 
1825 
1842 
1790 
1626 
1577 
1761 
1835 

1564 
1827 
1823 
1542 
1702 
5-17 
1728 
1758 
1784 
c. 895 
1691 
1832 
1742 



1781 



662 



THE world's progress. 



NATION 

Dan. 

Bel. 

Irish. 

Amei'. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ei->g. 

Dutcl' 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Swif^i 

Bar, 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 
Fr. 
Br. 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Swe. 

Brit. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fv. 

Ger. 

Dutch 

Horn. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bchiing, a navigator, from whom the strait dividing Asia and America 

was named . . • • 

Beriot, Chas. A. de, violinist and composer . 
Berkely, George, bp., an eminent prelate and philosopher 

, William, governor of Virginia 

Berlioz, Hector, musical composer . • 

Bemadotte, .). B. .1., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV 
Bernard, Simon, engineer and mil. commander 

,St., preacher of crusades, and author 

, Edward, a divine, astronomer, and author 

, John Frederick, a iDOokseller, editor and author 

-, Francis, governor of Massachusetts 



BOHM 



Bernardin, De Sainte Pierre, author of ' Studies of Nature, &c. 

Bemi, poet (poisoned) . _ . 

Bernoulli, James, mathematician 

Berosus, the Chaldean historian _ ' ^ , -o ' , r r^^A ■ 

Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God, 

vols. 4to. . • • • 

Berryer, Pierre A;, statesman . . ■ • 

Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 
Berthollet, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist 
Bertrand, Henri G., gen. in Napoleon's army . 

Berv/ick, duke of, military commander (k. at Phillipsburg) 
Berzelius, .John James, chemist . • 

Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander (k. at Lutzen) 
Bessel, Fred. Wm., astronomer . . • 

Bettinelli. Xaviev, an elegant miscellaneous writer 
Beudant, Francois S., mineralogist and naturahst _ 
Beveridge, William, an eminent theologian, and orientalist 
Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer 
Bezout, maihematician • , • , 

Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author 
Bias, one of the seven sages 
Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist 
Biddle, John, an eminent Socinian writer 

, Nicholas, financier and literateur 

, Nicholas, a captain in the U. S. navy 

James, commodore, in U. S. navy 

Bi£non, Louis E., historian 

Bion, pastoral poet 

of Borysthenes, philosopher (Cyreniac) . 

Biot. Jean B"., mathematician . .. .... 

Birbeck, Geo., M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions _ 

Biron, duke of, military commander (beheaded for conspiracy) 
. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer . • 

Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name 

the Cid . . • , • , :u . 

Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and authoi 
Blair, Robert, a divine and poet . ■ 

,.Tohn, a chronologist 

, Dr. Hugh a divine and rhetorician .. .• . 

' James, founder of William and Mary's college m Virginia 

Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . ^ ,. • , 

Blessington, Marguerite, Countess, novelist, and bterateur 

Bloomfield, Robert, a poet . • 

Blucher, a celebrated military commander 

Blumenbach, John Fred., naturalist 

Boadicea, the wariike queen of the Iceni . • • 

Boccacio, John, one of the great classic writers of modern Italty 

Boccalina, a satirist . . •. • 

Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine, and orientalist 

Bodin, John, a lawyer and author 

Bajhmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • , ■ • ' 

Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians . 

Boeihius, a statesman and philosopher 

Bohemond, a Norman adventurer 

Bockh, Augustus, classical philologist 

Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet 

Boissurd, Jean J., fabulist . . • • 

Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . • . . • 

1 D'Ar"-les, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 

Bolmbroke, Henry St. John, lord, political and deistical writer 



11 



of 



f. 1730 




1802 




1684 


1753 




1667 


1803 




1704 


1844 


1779 


1839 


1091 


11.53 


1638 


1697 




1751 




1779 


1737 


1814 




1536 


1654 


1705 


c. 268 




1681 


751 


1790 




1753 


1815 


1748 


1822 


1778 


1844 


1670 


1734 


1779 




1769 




17S4 




1718 


1801 


1787 




1638 


1708 


1519 


1605 


1730 


1783 


1662 


1729 


c. 606 




1771 


1802 


1615 


1662 


1786 


1844 


1750 


1778 


1783 


1848 


1771 


1841 


B, 


c. 300 


B. 


c. 240 


1776 


1841 


1561 


1602 


1759 


1805 


1040 


1099 


1723 


1780 


1699 


1777 




1782 


171S 


1800 


1660 


1743 


1599 


1657 




1849 


1766 


1823 


1742 


1819 


1752 


1540 




61 


1313 


1373 


1556 


1613 


1509 


1567 


1530 


1596 


1575 


1624 


1668 


1738 


455 


526 




1111 


1636 


1711 


1743 


1831 


1694 


1758 


1756 


1826 


1678 


1751 



BTOGK IPHICAL INDEX. 



66S 



NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Colom. Bolivar, Simon, the heroic deliverer of his country 

Fr. Bonaparte, Napoleon, emp. of France 

Fr. , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon 

Fr. , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain 

Fr. , Lucien, prince of Canino 

Fr. -, Louis, ex-king of Holland 

Fr. , Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia 

Fr. , Louis Napoleon, 1st pres. Republic of France 

Eng. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants . 

Bwisa. Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist . 

Eng. Bonnycastle, John, mathematician . . 

Eng. , Charles, mathematician . . 

Amer. Boone, Daniel, the first settler of Kentucky 

Ger. Bopp. Francis, Sanscrit scholar . . 

Fr. Bonpland, Anne, traveller and botanist 

Ital. Boregli, philosopher and mathematician . . 

llal. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian 

Ital. Borgia, Caesar, the infamous pope, Alexander VL 

Ital. BoiTomeo, cardinal, theological wriier 

Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist 

Eng. Boscawen, Edward, a brave and skilful admiral 

Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer 

Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian 

Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician 

Scotch. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author 

Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson 

Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . 

Gr. Botzarris, Marco, a gallant leader in the modern revolution 

Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist 

Fr. Boufflers, duke of, military commander 

Fr. Bourgainville, Louis A., military commander, and author 

Fr. Bourguer, Peter, mathematician and hydrographer 

Fr. Bourlainvilliers, Heniy, count de, historian 

Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer 

Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 

Fr. Bourdaloue, Louis, a noted preacher 

Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author 

Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 

Eng. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet 

Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon 

Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer 

Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &c. 

Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakspeare, &c. 

Amer. Bowdoin, James, LL. D., philosopher and statesman 

Amer. , James (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 

Eng. Bowring, John, statesman, poet, and linguist 

Fr. Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 

Amer Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician 

Scotch. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poef 

Lrish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher 

Eng. Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician 

Eng. Bradwardine, Thomas, mathematician and theologian 

Eng. Brady, Robert, physician and historian 

Amer. Bradford, William, second governor of Plymouth colony 

Amer. , William, attorney genei-al of the United States 

Dan. Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer 

Ger. Brandes, Henry Wm., mathematician and astronomer 

Ger. , John Christian, actor and dramatist 

Amer. Brainard, David, missionary to the Indians 

Amer. , J. G. C, a poet 

Ger. Breitkopf, John G. E., an eminent printer and type-founder 

Swe. Bremer, Fredrika, novelist 

Bar. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, 

Scotch. Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher 

Eng. Bridgewater, duke of, introducer of canals in England 

Eng. Briggs, Henry, mathematician 

Fr. Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist 

Fr. Bissot. .John, a revolutionist and author 

Fr. Broglio. due de, statesman . . , 

Irish. Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer 

Amer Brooks, John, LL. D., governor of Massachusetts 

Fr. Brotier, G., a Jesuit— editor of Tacitus 



BORN. 


DIED 


1785 


1831 


1769 


1821 


1750 


1836 


1768 


1844 


1775 


1840 


1778 


1B46 


1784 




1808 






1569 


1720 


1793 




1821 




1840 


1730 


1823 


1791 






1840 




1507 


1781 




1608 


1679 


1538 


1584 


1759 


1828 


1711 


1761 


1711 


1787 


1627 


1704 


1730 


1814 


1676 


1732 


1710 


1795 




1835 


1780 


1823 


1740 


1821 


1644 


1711 


1729 


1811 


1698 


17.58 


1658 


1752 


1728 


1809 


1700 


1780 


1632 


1704 


1016 


1680 


1773 






1747 




1834 




1807 


1773 


1838 


1754 


1825 


1727 


1790 


1752 


1811 


1792 




1776 


1850 


1680 


1776 


1562 


1601 


1626 


1691 


1692 


1762 




1319 




1700 


1588 


1657 


1755 


1795 


1546 


1601 


. 1777 




1735 


1799 


1718 


1747 


1797 


1826 


1719 


1794 


1802 




B. 0. 390 




1785 




1736 


1803 


1536 


1630 


1723 


1806 


1757 


1793 


1785 




1706 


17S3 


1752 


1825 


1723 


1789 



664 



THE world's progress. 



NATION 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Anier. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger, 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Polisli. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Nor. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Ens. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Brotigniart, Alex., mineralogist and geologist 
Adolphe T., botanist 



Brouo-ham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist _ . 
Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer 
Brown, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister 

, C^harles Brockden, a novelist 

, .lohn, D D., a miscellaneous writer 

•, .John, a divine and author 

_, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet 

, Maj. Gen. .lacob, general in war of 1812 

\ .laiiies, senator, minister to France 

, Robert, eixiinent botanist 

Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and philos. writer 

, George, count de, an officer in the Russian service 

, William George, a traveller in Africa, &c, 

Bruc«, Robert, the deliverer of his country 

, .lames, a celebrated traveller 

Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral 

Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . _ .. 

Brune, WilliaiTi Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 

Brunei, Sir M. .1., engineer of Thames Tunnel, &c. 

Brunet, .Jacques Charles, ' Bibliographer's Manual 

Bruno, St., founder of the Carthusian order . 

Brunsv/ick, Ferdinand, duke of, mihtary commander „ - j„ 

- Lunenburs, Charles VVm. Fer., duke of, mil. commande 

Brutus, Lucius .Junius, founder of the republican government 

, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar 

Bruyere, .John de la, a celebrated writer 
Bruyn, Cornelius le, traveller 
Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary 
Brydo-es, Sir Egerton, eccentric literateur 
Buat°Nancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer 
Bucer, Martin, one of the lathers of the relormation 
Buchan, William, a physician and author 
Buchanan, George, an eminent writer 

, Claudius, a divine . . • • 

Buckin'^hara. George Villiers, duke of, statesman 

,' George Villiers, son of the former 

Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . .. • 

Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit, and miscellaneous writer . 

Buffon, George L. le Clerc, count of, celebrated naturalist 
Buseaud, T. 11., marshal of France 
Buhle, J. G., hist, of philosophy, &c. 

Bull, Ole, famous violinist . . • • 

BuUinger, Henry, reformer and author . • 

Bulwer, (now Sir Edward Lytton,) novelist and dramatist . 

, Sir Henry L., diplomatist and pol. writer _ . 

Bun^'en C C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian 
Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress ' 
Burckhardt, John Louis, oriental traveller 

, John Charles, mathematician 

Burdett, Sir Francis, politician .. , , ' i • i™^;f»,. 

Burgess, Thomas, bp of Salisbury, classical and theological writer 

Biirgoyne. John, military commander and author 

Burke. Edmund, a great statesman and writer 

Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman 

Burman, Peter, critic and editor . , ^ V , , , : 

Burnes. Sir Alex., travels in Bokkara-' Cabool, &c. 

Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian 

Burney, James, admiral and author 

, Charles, a doctor of music 

Burns, Robert, a popular and national poet 

Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-pres. U. S. • • 

Burton, Robi^rt, author of the 'Anatomy of Melancho y 

Buschins, Anthony Frederick, philosopher and geological water 

Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman 

Butler, Samuel, a humorous poet , • , ,, " 

, Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and authoi . 

^^ Samuel, bp. of Litchfield, editor of ' iEschyles,' &c. 

-, Richard, colonel, an officer in the revolution 

Buttman, Philip C, philologist . : • 

Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer . 



BORM. 


DIKD, 


1770 




1801 




1779 




1772 


1833 




1805 


1771 


1810 


1715 


1766 


1722 


1787 


1777 


1S20 




1828 


1766 


1835 


1781 




1605 


1682 


1698 


1792 




1814 




1329 


1730 


1794 


1750 


1798 


1688 


1742 


1763 


1815 


1769 


l&i;. 


1377 


1444 


1721 


1792 


1735 


1806 


B. 


c. 505 


B. 


c. 42 


1644 


1697 


1652 




1715 


1804 


1762 


1837 


1491 


1551 


1729 


1791 


15U6 


1582 


1766 


1805 


1592 


1628 


1627 


1688 


1778 


18-39 


1661 


1737 


1707 


1788 


1784 




1763 




1810 




1504 


1575 


1803 




1791 




1628 


1683 


1784 


1815 


1773 


1815 


1770 


1844 


1756 


1&37 




1792 


1730 


1797 


1520 


1598 


1668 


1741 


1805 


1841 


1643 


1715 


1739 


1820 


1726 


1814 


1759 


1796 


1756 


1836 


1576 


1639 


1721 


1793 


1738 


1792 


1612 


1680 


1692 


17.52 


1774 


1840 




1791 


1764 


1829 


1564 


1625 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



665 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Biixtorf, John, (son of the preceding) lexicographer 

Eng Byng, honorable John, admiral 

Eng Byron, honorable John, admiral 

Eng J George Gordon, lord, a popular poet 



BORN. DIED. 

1599 ]M4 

1704 1757 

1723 178e 

1788 1824 



C 

Ital. Cabot, Sebastian (son of John) navigator . 

Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator 

Span. Cabrera, don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 

Fr, Cadet De Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher 

Ital. Cudamosta, Louis da, navigator 

Fr. Caille, Kene, ' Voyage k Tembonctou,' &c. 

Rom. Cassar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author 

Ital. Cajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author 

Gr. Calaber, Quintus, poet 

Span. Calderon de la Barca, don Pedro, dramatist 

Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a Lexicon in 11 languages 

Amer. Calhoun, John C, senator of the U. S. 

Gr. Calippus, astronomer and mathematician 

Gr. Callimachus, a poet .... 

Gr. Callisthenes, philosopher and historian 

Fr. Calmet, Augustine, an erudite divine and author 

Ital. Calogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author 

Fr. Calohne, Charles Alex, de, minister of state 

Fr. Calvin, John, one of the apostles of the Reformation 

Amer. Calvert, Leonard, first governor of Maryland [See Baltimore] 

Fr. Cambaceres, John J. R., distinguished revolutionist 

Eng. Cambridge, duke of, sixth son of George III. 

Eng. Camden, William, an eminent antiquary and historian 

Rom. Camillus, Marcus Furius, a distinguished dictator 

Port. Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country 

Scotch. Campbell, George, a divine and author 

Scotch. , John, a multifarious writer . 

Scotch. -^ , Thos., poet— 'Life of Petrarch,' &c. 

Scotch. , Lord, jurist — ' Lives of Chancellors' 

Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . , 

Fr, Campiston, John G. de, dramatist . , 

Fr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, Sieur du, historian . 

Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . 

Fr. Capefigue, B. H. R., historian . . . 

S}>an. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian 

Rom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor 

Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior 

Ital. Cardan, Jerom, philosopher, mathematician, and physician 

Fr. Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist 

Eng. Carey, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, translator 

Amer. , Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, and politician 

Eng. , William, missionary to India . 

Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer 

Irish. Carleton, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 

Ital. Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author 

Eng. Carlisle. Sir Anth., physician and medical writer 

Span. Carlos, don, son of Philip II. (hero of Schiller's tragedy) 

Port. , don M. J. . . . , 

Scotci . Carlyle, Thomas, historian and metaphysician 

Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy 

Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist 

Fr. Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician 

Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translatress, &c. 

Amer. , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller 

Eng. Cartwright, Major John, parliament reformer 

Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . 

Amer, Carver, Jonathan, traveller aaid author 

Amer. , John, first governor of Plymouth colony 

Eng. Cary, Henry F., poet — translator of ' Dante' 

Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian 

Fi\ Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer 

Ital. Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur., statesman and historian 

!Rom. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar 

Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicograpTier 



1477 




f. 1500 




1810 




1769 


1521 


. f. 1456 






18.38 


B. C. 100 B. 


G. 44 


1510 


1593 


. f. 250 




1600 


1687 


1435 


1511 


17B2 


1850 


f. B. c. 330 




. f. B. B. 150 




B. 


c. 328 


1672 


1757 


1699 


1768 


1734 


1802 


1509 


1564 


e] . 


1676 


1753 


1824 


1774 


1850 


1551 


1623 


B. 


c. 365 


1517 


1579 


1709 


1796 




1775 


. * 1777 


1844 


1778 




1722 


1789 


1656 


1723 


1610 


1688 


1770 


1827 


1799 




. 1754 


1810 


188 


217 


(ab.) 100 




1501 


1576 


1720 


1783 


1596 


1661 


1760 


1839 


1761 


1822 


1600 




nada . 1724 


1808 


1720 


J 795 


1768 


1840 


1545 


1568 


. * 1795 




B. c. 218 B. 


c. 128 


1753 


1823 


1800 


1836 


1717 


1806 




183C 


. * 1740 


1824 


1789 




1732 


1780 




1621 


. ' . 1772 


1844 


1474 


1564 


1625 


1712 


470 


516 


B. 


c. 42 


1606 


F>.^5 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ital. CasUElione, Balthasar, statesman and author 

Ital. Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist, 

Eng. Catesbv, Mark, naturalist . . • • 

Russ. Catherine II., a powerful and profligate empress 

Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator 

Fr Catinat. Nicholas, military commander 

Rom. Caio, Marcus Fortius, the Censor, statesman and author 

j^om. , Marco Porcius, ' of Utica,' statesman 

Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . . • • 

Fr. Cauchy, Aue. L., mathematician . • ^ ,' 

Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of 'The Holy Court 

Fr. Cavaisnac, Gen., military commander and statesman 

Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer 

Eng \ Thomas, navigator . ' i j 

Epo-'. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England . 

Pt.° Cazales, James A. M. de. an eloquent orator 

Fi. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer 

R)m. Ceisus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician 

Gr. ' , an Epicurean philosopher 

Rom. Censorius, a critic and grammarian 

Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . . • • 

Span. Cervantes. Saavedra IMichael, author of ' Don Quixotte 

Ital Cesarotti, Melchior, a voluminous author 

Scotch. Chalmers, George, miscellaneous writer . • • 

£n^ . Alex., 'General Biographical Dictionary,' &c. _ 

gcotch. ', Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist 

En°- ' Chambers, Sir William, an architect . • 

Fr. ChampoUion, the younger, ' Monuments d I'Egypte, &c. 

Fr Champollion-Figeac, historian and antiquary . . 

Anier. Channing, William EUery, D. D., tlreoiogian and philanthropist 

En*^. Chantry, Sir Francis sculptor 

En^. Chapman, George, poetical translator 

Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer 

Fr.° Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist . . . • 

Fr Charles Martel, statesman and warrior 

Fr' Charles. J. A. C, natural philosopher 

Fr ,' V. E. P., historian and literateur 

Fr' Charlemasne, emperor of the West, and king of France 

Swe Charles Xll., kins, a celebrated warrior . 

Fr Charlevoix, Peter F. X. de, a Jesuit historian 

Dutch. Chasse, David IL, baron, military commander . 

Fr Chateaubriand, poet, statesman, and traveller 

Fr Chatel, Abbe Fer. F., theological reformer 

Eno-. Chatham, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman 

Eng Chatterton, Thomas, famed for precocious talent 

Eng Chaucer, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry . 

Amer Chauncey, Charles, D. D.. president of Harvard College 

j^nier , Commodore Isaac, naval commander 

En-^ Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist . . 

Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 

Itaf Cherubini, musical composer . • 

Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller, and statesman 

Fr' Chevreul, M. E., chemist 

Gr" Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta— one of the seven wise men 

Amer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . 

Eno- Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . 

Pof Chlopicki. J., military commander— dictator of Poland . 

Fr Choiseul-Stainville, C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author 

Swe Christina queen (daughter of G. Adolphus) _ . 

Afric. ( hristophe, a slave— afterwards king of Hayti 

Gr Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher 

Gr Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator 

Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical pnet . 

Amei Church, Benjamin, military commander . 

Eno- Gibber, CoUey, tragic and comic actor and poet 

Rom Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators 

Ital. Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer 

Gr ("imon, an Athenian general . • • 

Rom Ci.icinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, the patriot, flourished . 

Rom Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, partisan ol Marius, flourished 

Ital Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and pliysician 



BORN. 


SIE9 


1468 


152£ 


1782 


18-4 


1680 


1749 


1729 


1796 


B. C 


62 


1637 


1712 


B. C. 232 B. c 


147 


E. C. 95 B. c 


. 46 


B. c. 86 




1780 




1583 


1651 


1505 


1557 




1.591 


1410 


1492 


1752 


1805 


1720 


1765 


f. 30 




. f. 50 




f. 240 




1667 


1723 


1047 


1616 


1730 


1S08 


1744 


1825 


1759 


1834 


1770 


1846 




1796 


1790 


1832 


1779 




1780 


1842 


1781 


1841 


1557 


1634 


1727 


1801 


1756 


1832 




741 


1746 


1825 


. * 742 


814 


1682 


1718 


1682 


1761 


1765 




1769 


1848 


1795 




1708 


1778 


1752 


1770 


1328 


1400 




1671 




1840 


. ' 1688 


1752 


1694 


1773 




1842 


1806 




1786 




f. B, c. 598 




1752 


1843 


1776 


1841 


1772 




1762 




1626 


1689 


1767 


1820 


. B. c. 280 B. 


c. 207 


344 


407 


1731 


1764 


1639 


1718 


1671 


1557 


B. c. 105 B 


c. 43 


1754 


1801 


B 


c. 449 


B. c. 456 




B. a. 87 




1734 


1799 






BIOG-K.APHICAL INDEX. 



667 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. CUii-, Arthur St., a distiiiguislied officer in the revolution 
Clairaut, Alexis Ciaude, geometrician 
Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College 
Ciapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa 
Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, statesman and historian 
Clarke, Simuel, Dr., theologian and philosopher 

, Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist 

, Dr, Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 

Sir James, medical author 



Fr. 

Amor, 

Sco(ch 

En2. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 



Clark, Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist 

Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist . . , ' 

Clayton. John, an eminent physician and botanist 

Cleanihes, a Stoic philosopher, flourished 

Clementi, Mazio, musical composer 

Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men, flourished 

Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen .... 

Amer. Clinton, George, governor of New- York, and vice-president of U. S. 

Amer , Dewiit, governor and benefactor- of New-York . 

Eng. Clive, Robert, lord, military commander . . . * 

Fr. Cloquet, Hypolite (brother of Jules), anatomist 

Fr. Clot, or Clot Bey, surgeon and medical writer (in Egypt) 

Eng. Cobbei-t, William, political writer 

Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Ciike, Sir Edwanl, a learned judge .... 

Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman 

Amer. Colburn, Zerah, precocious arithmetician 

Amer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c. 

Amer. — , Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c. 

Eng. Coleridge, Henry N., literateur . . , 

Eng. , Samuel T., poet and metaphysician 

Eng. Colliijgwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral 

Eng. Collins, William, a popular poet .... 

Eng. Coleman, George, dramatic writer 

Amer. , Benjamin, a learned divine (in Boston) , 

Eng. Caiman, George, the younger, dramatist . , 

Fr. t'olonibat de flsere, medical writer 

Ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America 

Eng. Colton, C. C, author of 'Lacon' 

Scotch. Combe, George, phrenologist and philosopher . 

Scotch. , Andrew, medical and physiological writer 

Fr. Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon, Protestant military commander 

Fr. Condillac, Stephen Bonnot de, metaphysical writer 

Chinese. Confucius, a celebrated philosopher 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Ens:. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ens. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Pruss. 



Gr. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Port. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Fr. 



Congreve, William, a comic dramatist 

Conon, an Athenian general .... 

Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician 
Constantine (the Great), the first Christian emperor 

Vn. (Porphyrogenitm), emperor and author 

■ (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 

Cook, James, a celebrated circumnavigator 
Cooke, Thomas, editor and translator 

, George F., an eminent actor 

Cooper, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer 

, Sir Astley Paxton, physician and medical writer 

, Thoma.s, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) 

, Coote, Sir Eyre, military commander in India 

Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer — the reviver of the Py 

thagorean system of the universe 
Corinna, a poetess, flourished in tlie fifteenth century, before Cluist. 
Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior 
Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vie. de, political writer 
Cornuro, Lewis, a noble — author of a book on temperance 
Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer 

, Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist . . 

Cornelius, Peter, painter (in fresco, <fec.) 

Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian 

Cornwallis, Charle?, marquis, military commander 

Cortes, Ferdinand, the brutal conqueror of Mexico 

Cosia, Paola, lUerateur . . 

Cosier, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 

Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . 

Cottin, Sophia, madame, a novelist .... 



BORN. 


DIED. 




1818 


171.3 


1765 


1703 


1767 


1783 


1827 


1608 


1674 


1675 


1729 


1767 


1821 


1760 


1832 


1810 


1841 


1761 




1705 


1773 


E. 3. 260 






1832 


B. c. 559 




B 


30 


1739 


1812 


1769 


1828 


1725 


1774 


1787 




1795 






1835 


1736 


1818 


1549 


16.34 


1619 


1683 


1804 


18-10 


1683 


1776 


1769 


1834 


(ab.) 1800 


1843 




1834 


1748 


1810 


1720 


1756 


1733 


1784 


1673 


1747 


1762 


1836 


(ab.) 1800 




1441 


1506 


1773 


1832 


1788 




1797 




1621 


1686 


1715 


1780 


B. c. 550 




1670 • 


1728 


B. 


c. 390 


1767 


1830 


274 


337 


905 


959 


1403 


1453 


1728 


1776 


1702 


1756 


1756 


1812 


1725 


17S3 


1763 


1841 


1759 


1840 


1726 


1783 



1473 



1543 



1788 




1467 


1565 


1606 


1684 


1625 


1709 




1718 


1738 


1805 


1485 


I5r>4 


1771 


183G 


1370 






183*1 


1773 


18C/ 



668 



THE world's progress. 



KA.TIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer.* Cotton, John (of Boston), a leaiiied divine 

Fr. Coulomb, Charles, Augustine de, philosopher . 

Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist 

Fr , Paul Louis, political writer 

Fr! Court de Gebelin. Anthony, an antiquarian and author 

Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian . ... 

Fr, -, Victor, statesman and metaphysician 

Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet 

Eng. Cowper, William, poet 

Eng. Coxe, William, traveller and historian 

En°. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet 

Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer 

En"^ Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . 

Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius (the Rich), military commander 

Ainer. Crawford, William IL, statesman and jurist 

Fr. Crebillon, Prosper Jolyott de, tragic poet 

Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian 

Amer Crockett, David, eccentric statesman 

Ensc. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . 

EnS- Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor of Wolsey . 

£^-,S , Oliver, military commander and statesman 

Scotch. Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance to the Bible 

En''. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature 

Eng. Cudwonh, Ralph, philosopher 

Scotch. CuUen, William, an eminent physician .^ . - 

En- Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, military commander 

Eng! , Richard, a multifarious writer 

Scotch. Cunningliam, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . 

Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 

Rom. Curtius, Rufus Uuintus, history . . 

Fr Cuvier, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists . 

Fr' , Fred, (brother of the baron), naturalist . . 

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the churctl 

Cyril, St., the apostle of tlie Sclavi 



BORX. 


DIED. 


1585 


1632 


1736 


18U6 


1772 


1S25 


1774 


1825 


1725 


1784 


1627 


17U7 


1613 


1657 


1731 


180-0 


1747 


18:i8 


1754 


1832 


1723 


1788 


1489 


1556 


B. 


C 53 


1772 


1834 


1674 


1762 


1693 


1765 




1836 


1490 


1540 


1599 


1658 


1701 




1780 




1617 


1688 


1712 


1790 


1721 


1765 


1732 


1811 


1768 


1842 


1750 


1817 


1769 


1832 


1773 


1838 




258 




822 



Fr. 

Swe. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Aust. 

Fr. 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fi. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Or. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 



D 

Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar 
Dalin, Olaus Von, the father of Swedish poetry 
Dallas, James Alexander, secretary treasury U. S. 

, Commodore A. J., naval commander 

Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician 
Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer 
Dampier, William, an eminent navigator 
Daniell, John F., chemist . . • * x j- 

, W., R. A., Author of pictorial works on India 

Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.) ^ 

Dante Alighieri, ' the sublimest of the Italian poets 
D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny Burney), novelist _ 
Darwin, Erasmus, a poet, physician, and botanist . . 

Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary, count de, military commander 
Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and liter ateur . : 

Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius 
Davies, Samuel, president of Princeton College— theol. writer 
Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian - ,'0^ ,u. > " 

Davis, John, a navigator— discoverer of Davis btiaits 

Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist 

Dpnne Silas, minister of the U. S. to France . . • 

Dearborn Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 

Debrue, V^illiam Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 

DecandoUe, A. P., botanist, ,■■.-, -.'t a 

Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. b 

Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . 

Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer 

Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist 

Delille, James, a celebrated poet 

Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer 

Democritus, a celebrated philosopher 

Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . 

Denham, lieut. colonel Dixon, an enterprising traveller 

Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian 



navy 





1651 


1720 




1708 


1753 




1759 


1817 




1791 


1844 




1766 


184-t 




1699 


1778 




1652 


1711 




1790 


1845 
1837 




1758 


1841 




1265 


1321 




1752 


1840 




1721 


1802 




1705 


1766 




1761 


1840 




1308 


1825 




1724 


1761 




1576 


1631 
1605 




1778 


1829 




1758 


1789 


irs 


1751 


1829 




1731 


1782 




1778 


1841 




1779 


1820 




1661 


1731 




1749 


1822 




1794 


1843 




1738 


1813 


1G83 


1768 


B. c. 460 




. B. C. 381 B. 


c. 322 


1786 


1823 




1731 


1813 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



669 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Russ. Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman 
Fr. Desaix, Louis (Jh;ules Anthony, military commander 

Fr. Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . 

Fr. Desfaix, .1. M., count, marshal of France 

Afr. Dessalines, Jolin .lames, emperor of Hayti 
Fr. Destouches, Phiiip ISericault, dramatic writer 

DutcK Deurhoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author 
Amer. Dewees, W. P., medical writer 
Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman 
Port, Diaz. Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 
Dibdin. Charles, a dramatic and musical composer 

, Thomas, dramatist and song writer (son of Charles) 

Rev. Thomas F., bibliographer 



Dick, Thomas, author of ■ Christian Philosopher' 
Dickens, Charles, novelist 

Diderot, Denis, first editor of ' Encyclopsedie Methodique ' 
Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 

— , Firmin. publisher, and member of Deputies 

-, Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller 



Eng 

En-f 

Eng 

Eng 

En^ 

Fr.'^ 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Egypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3000 to 6000 works 

Pruss. Dii bitsch-Sabalkanski, count, military commander 

Pruss. DiefTenbach, J. F., surgeon 

Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist 

Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 

Mace. Dinocrates. an architect— (built Alexandria, «S:c.) 

Gr. Dion Cassius, author of Roman history 

Gr. Dio Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher 

Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian 

Gr. Diogenes, the Cynic, a philosopher 

Gr. Diogenes Laeriius, biographer 

Gr. Dioiiysius, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian 

Gr. , a geographer 

Eng. Dodd, Dr. William, miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Doddridge, Philip, a gifted and pious divine and writer 

Ger. Doebereiner, J. W., chemist 

Iial. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer 

Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country (Genoa) 

Scotch Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator 



Gr. 

Eng. 

Dutch 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scotc... 



Draco, an Athenian legislator 
Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator 
Drebbel, Cornelius Van, inventor of the thermometer 
Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer 
Dryden, John, an eminent poet . . . 
Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author 
Duchesne, Andrew, an historian . . 
Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian 
Duguescland, Bertrand, military commander 
Dumas, Alex., novelist, traveller, &c. . 
, J. B., chemist 



Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . . 

d'Urville, J. S. C. circumnavigator 

Dumourier, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 

Dunbar, William, a poet 
Scotc V Duncan, William, logician and translator 

Scotch. , Adam, viscount, a successful admiral 

Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian 

Fr. Dupin, Louis Ellies, an ecclesiastical historian 

Fr. — , A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman 

Fr. , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman 

Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c. (at Philadelphia) 

Fr. Dupuytren. surgeon and anatomist 

Fr. Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral 

Eng. Durham. .1. G. Lambton, earl of, governor general of Canada 

Fr. Duroc, Michael, duke of Friuli, military commander 

Ami ?. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 



f. B 



f. B 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1743 


1816 


1768 


1800 


1596 


16S0 


1768 






180C 


1680 


1754 


1650 


1717 


1768 


1841 


1625 


1672 




1500 


1748 


1814 




1841 




1849 


1713 


1784 


1730 


1804 


1764 


1836 


1790 




. c. 30 




1785 


1831 


1795 




1802 




1775 


1825 


. c. 350 






155 


f. 30 




B. c. 10 




. c. 413 E. 


0. 323 




52 


f. 140 




1729 


1777 


1702 


1756 


1780 




1468 


1560 


1474 


1521 


f. 623 




1.545 


1596 


1572 


1634 


1631 


1700 


1803 




1584 


1640 


1704 


1772 


1314 


1380 


1803 




1800 






1726 


1790 


1842 


1739 


1823 


1465 


1535 


1717 


1760 


1731 


1804 


1766 


1839 


1637 


1719 


1783 




1784 




1760 


1844 


1778 


1835 


1610 


1688 


1792 


1840 


1772 


1813 


1752 


1817 



• E 

Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian 
Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist . .• 

Eng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . 



(about) 



1674 
1770 
1330 



1730 
1376 



670 



THE world's progress. 



NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Edwards, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician 

Eng. , Bryan, an historian 

, W. F., anatomist and physiologist (bom at Jamaica) 

, Milne (son of the last), naturalist 

Gr. Eginhard, an historian ..... 

Ger. Ehienberg, C. J., naturalist 

Ger. Eichborn, F. C, theologian and jurist 

Eng. Eldoh, Lord, lord chancelior of England 

Scotch. Elgin, T. Bunce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin narbles 

Eng. Elizabeth, queen ..... 

Am^er. Elliot, John, ' the apostle to the Lidians' 

Amer. Elliott, J. D., commodore in American navy 

Amer. Ellsworth, Oliver, a distinguished chief justice of the U. S. . 

Eng. Emerson, William, an eminent mathematician 

Irish. Ennnet, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator 

Ger. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher 

Eng. Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer 

Fr. Eon De Beaumont, Chevalier, an eccentric writer 

Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general 

Gr. Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher . . . ' 

Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of philosophers 

Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and author 

Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet .... 

Span. Ericeira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian 

Eng. Erigena, John Scotus, a learned Avriter of the ninth century . 

Pruss. Erman, A. G., 'Travels in Siberia,' &c. 

Ger. Ernesti, John, Augustus, an eminent critic 

Scotch. Erskine, Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator 

Span. Escobar, Y. Mendoza Anthony, a celebrated casuist 

Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity 

Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer .... 

Eng. Essex, Robert Devereux, earl ot", a warrior 

Aust. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman 

Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician 

Fr. Eugene, Francis, prince, a great warrior (in the German service) 

Swiss. Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician 

Gr. Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet 

Gr. Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and 

ecclesiastical historian .... 

Rom. Eutropius, an historian .... 

Rom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect . . 

Eng. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer . . • 

Amer. Everett, Alex. IL, essayist and diplomatist 



f. B 



BORN. 


DIED 


1703 


1757 


1743 


1800 


1777 





1795 



839 



1750 


1838 


1771 


1841 


1533 


1603 


1604 


1600 


1785 


1845 


1745 


1807 


1701 


1782 


1764 


1827 


1741 


1797 


1728 


1810 


B. 


c. 363 


f. 40 




c. 342 B. 


c. 371 


1467 


1536 


1525 


1595 


1614 


1699 


1806 




1707 


1781 


1750 


1823 


1589 


1669 


1772 


1840 


1770 




1567 


1601 


c. 300 




1663 


1736 


1707 


1783 


c. 480 








f. 360 



1620 
1790 



340 



1651 

1847 



F 

Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer 

Rom. Fabiiis, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . . 

Ger. Fabricius, John Albert, a critic and bibliographer 

Ital. — , John Christian, a celebrated entomologist 

Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer 

Pruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher 

Eng P'airfax, Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war 

Eng. Falconer, William, a poet 

Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice (beheaded,^ 

Ii'ish. Faraday, Michael, chemist . . 

Port. Faria Y. Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet 

Irish, Farquhar, George, a dramatist ... 

Cer. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing 

Eng. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator 

Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous winter 

Fr. Fenelon, Francis de Salignac de la Motte, an able writer, and one of 

the most virtuous of men 

Swe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist 

Eng. Ferguson, James, a self-educated astrononaer, philosopher, &c. 

Eng. , Adam, an historian and moral philosopher 

Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian 

Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest — cardinal, archbishop of Lyonf 

Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist 

Span Feyjoo Y. Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 

Ital Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher 



B. 


c. 201 


1668 


1736 


1742 


1807 


1732 


1803 


1686 


1736 


1611 


1671 


1730 


1769 




1355 


1790 




1588 


1647 


1678 


1707 




1466 


1721 


1777 


1632 


1693 


)I 

1651 


1715 


1743 


1790 


1710 


1776 


1724 


1816 


1652 


1735 


1763 


1839 


1775 


1833 


1701 


1764 


1433 


U99 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



671 



tIATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Fielding, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist 

Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria 

Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent nonconformist divine 

Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate 

Ger. Fleischer. H. L., orientalist . . ' . 

Eng. Fletcher, John, a dramatist . 

Fr. Fleury, Claude, a divine and historian 

Fr. , Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 

Anier. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian 

Fr. Fiorian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer 

Gep Fliigel, G. L., philologist and historian 

Ger. Follen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.; 

Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Foote, Samuel, a comic writer and actor 

Ital. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer 

Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic writer 

Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman 

Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archasologist (Ency. Antiq.) 

Eng. Foster, John, essayist 

Fr. Fouche, Joseph, duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist 

Fr. Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system 

Eng. Fox, John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' 

Eng. , George, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers 

Eng. , Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators 

Irish. Francis, Sir Philip, political writer 

Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 

Pruss. Frederick II., the Great, king— an able general and author 

Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., Arabic Dictionary, &c. 

Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator 

Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet 

Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist 

Eng. Fuller, Thomas, a divine and historian 

Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister 

Amer. Fulton, Robert, the introducer of steamboats in America 

Fr. Furitiere, Antony, a philologist 



Bonu 


DIED. 


1707 


17.54 




1547 


1627 


1691 


1632 


1710 


1801 




1576 


1625 


1640 


1722 


1653 


1743 


1780 


1840 


1755 


1794 


1802 




1796 


1&40 


1657 


1757 


1721 


1771 


1688 




1.586 


1639 


1780 


1841 


1770 


1842 


1763 


1820 


1772 


1837 


1517 


1587 


1624 


1690 


1748 


1805 


1740 


\c^ 


1706 


1790 


1712 


1786 


1778 






1594 


1333 


1400 


1780 


1845 


1608 


1661 


1754 


1815 


1767 


1815 


1620 


1683 



Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author 

Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... 

Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 

Amer. Gaines, Maj. Gen. E. P., military commander 

Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician 

Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 

Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science 

of phrenology ..... 

Swiss-Amer, Gallatin," Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol 
Scotch. Gait, John, novelist ...... 

Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher— discoverer 

of galvanic electricity . . . . . 

Port. Gama, Vasco de, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 

Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist ...... 

Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer .... 

Span Garcias Lasso, de la Vega, ' the Prince of Spanish poetry ' . 

Fr. Garnier, Count Germain, jurist .... 

Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist 

Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry Prince of 

Wales I'or a misdemeanor .... 

Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher 

Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the revolution 

Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... 

Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist .... 

Ger. Geilert, Christian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Bar. Genghis Khan, a celebrated conqueror 

Fr. Genlis, Stephania Felicite, countess de, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12ih century 

Fr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. 

Rom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cassar, military commander . 

Fr. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author 

Swiss Gesne", Conrad, an eminent naturalist 

Ger. ,. John Matthias, a philologist .... 

Amer Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice president U. S. 



1670 
1755 
1728 
1777 
131 
1564 

1758 
1761 
1779 

1737 

1798 
1779 
1503 
1754 
1716 

1350 
1592 
1728 
1688 
1778 
1715 
1164 
1746 

1770 

1363 
1516 
1691 



1740 
1829 
1806 
1849 

1642 

1828 
1849 
18:39 

1798 
1.524 
1841 
1832 
1536 
1821 
1779 

1413 

1655 
1806 
1732 
1850 
1769 
1327 
1830 



19 
1429 

ireji 

1761 
1811 



672 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

I;al. Giannone, Peter, an historian .... 

Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of tlie greatest of Ens^Iish historians 
Amer. Gibson, Col. .John and Col. George, both officers in the Revolution 
Eng. Giflbrd, William, a critic and poet 

Eng. , .John, an historical and political writer 

Eng. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, one of ihe earliest adventurers in America 

Eng. Gill, .John, a divine, oriental scholar, and author 

Scotch. Gillies, .John, ' History of Greece,' &c. 

Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences 

Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, a chemist 

Fr. Godfrey of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the crusades 

Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, &c. 

Eng. Godwin, William, novelist and metaphysician 

Ger. Goethe, a celebrated dramatist 

Ital. Goldoni, Charles, ' the Italian Moliere ' 

Irisi) Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 

Batch. Golius, James, an orientalist and lexicographer 

Span. Gonsalvo of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . . 

Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist, f. B. C. 5th century 

Fr. Gourgaud, Gen., military commander under Napoleon 

Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . 

Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 

Rom. r Caius Sempronius 

Ger. Grsefe, or Grsevius, an erudite classic writer 

Scotch. Grahame, James, author of ' History of the United States ' 

Scotch. Grahame, James, a poet .... 

Scotch. Grant, Anne (of Laggan), novelist, essayist, &c. 

Eng. Granville, John Carteret, earl, a statesman . . 

Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law, f. 12th century 

Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman 

Dutch. Gravesande, Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 

Eng. Gray, Thomas, a poet ..... 

Gregory Nazianzen, St., Christian writer . . . 

Gregory of Nyssa, St., do. . 

Fr. Gregory (of Tours), St., an historian . 

Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, an author 

Ital. Gregory VII., the Great, pope (Hildebrand), a celebrated despot 
Scotch. Gregory, James, a philosopher and mathematician . 
Scotch. Gregory, David, do. do. 

Irish. Gregory, George, D. D., a miscellaneous writer 
Eng. Gregory, Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer . 
Amer. Greene, Nathaniel, maj. geji., distinguished in the Revolution 
Eng. Grey, lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 
Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman— whig premier for William IV. _ . 
Ger Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist 
Amer. Grimke, Thomas S., jurist ... 

Ger. Grimm. J. L. C, miscellaneous vvriter 
Dutch. Gronovius, James, in erudite critic 
Ger. Grotefend, G. F., p. lologist . . . 

Dutch. Grotius, or De Groot, Hugh, an eminent scholar 
Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France 

Amer. Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. (Tenn.) 
Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist .... 

Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet 

Ger. Guericke, Otto, exp. philos. — inventor of the air-pump 
Ital. Guicciardini, Francis, an historian 
Nor. Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior 
Fi-. Guise, Francis of Lorraine, duke ot", a celebrated warrior 

Fr. Guise, Charles of, Cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 

Fr. Guise, Henry, of Lorraine, duke'of, an ambitious warrior 

Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician 

Eng. Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician — inventor of the ' Gunter's scale,' &c 
Swe. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, an able warrior 
Scotch. Guthrie, William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c- 
Ger. Guttemberg, John, one of the inventors of printing . 
Piuss. GutzlafT, Charles, traveller and historian of China 



BORN. 


DIBD. 


1676 


1758 


1737 


1794 


1757 


1826 


1758 


1818 




1583 


1697 


1771 


1747 


1836 


1767 


1829 


1748 


1805 




1100 




1830 


1755 


1835 


1749 


1831 


1707 


1793 


1731 


1774 


1596 


1667 


1443 


1515 




1402 


B 


c. 133 


B. 


0. 121 


1632 


1703 


1765 


1811 


1755 


1838 


1690 


1763 


1750 


1820 


1688 


1742 


1716 


1771 


328 


389 


331 


396 


544 


593 


544 


604 




1085 


1648 


1685 


1661 


1710 


1754 


1808 


1774 


1841 


1741 


1786 


1537 


1554 


1764 


1845 


1745 


1812 


1786 


1834 


1785 




1645 


1716 


1775 


1836 


1583 


1645 


1766 




1777 


1840 


1616 


1664 


1537 


1612 


1602 


1686 


1482 


1540 


1015 


1085 


1519 


1563 


1525 


1574 


1550 


15.38 


1787 




1581 


1619 


1594 


163t} 


1708 


1770 


1400 


146S 


1803 





H 



Pers. 

Ger. 



Hafiz, Moharnmedi a poet — the Anacreon of Persia 
Hahn, Simon Frederick, an historian 



169S 



1389 
1729 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



673 



VATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Hahnemann, founder of ' Homoeopathy ' in medicine 

Ger. Hahn-IIahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 

Eng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c. of the English 

Eng. Hale, Sir Matthew, an eminent anS incorruptible judge 

Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer 

Scotch. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. 

Eng. Hall, Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator 

Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian 

Swiss. Haller, Albert Von, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician 

Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, a statesman — first secretary of treasury, U. S. 

Irish. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Hamilton, Thomas, Captain, novelist, 'Men and Manners in America 

Ger. Hammer, Von, baron, historian and orientalist 

Eng. Hampden, .John, a celebrated patriot 

Amer. Hancock. John, a distinguished patriot — president of Congress 

Ger. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers 

Nor. Hansteen, C, mathematician and astronomer . 

Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, a celebrated statesman 

Sar. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning 

Amer. Harlan, Richard, M. H., naturalist 

Eng. Harris, .James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c. 

Amer. Harrison, Gen. W. H., military commander, and pres. U. S. 

Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College 

Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood . 

Ger. l.ase, Henry, classical antiquarian .... 

Eng. Haslam, John, writer on insanity 

Eng. Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India 

Eng. Hastings, marquis of, military commander 

Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious 'wild-boy' 

Fr. Haussez, Baron, minister of Charles X. — traveller 

Fr. Hauy, Kenatus Justus, mineralogist .... 

Eng. Havvke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral 

Eng. Hawkesworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Hawkins. Sir John, a navigator — originator of the slave trade 

Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer 

Eng. Hayley, William, a poet and niiscellaneoift writer . 

Amer. Hayne, Robert Y., governor of South Carolina, and senator of U. S. 

Eng. Hazlitt, Willia-m, essayist and critic .... 

Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine, and poet 

Ger. Hederich, Benjamin, a lexicographer .... 

Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist 

Ger. Heeren, A. H. L.', historian ..... 

Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician .... 

Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and literateur .... 

Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa), the first romance writer, flourished in the 4th 

Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist . 

Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... 

Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquarian, and theologian 

Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . 

Eng. Henry, Robert, an historian ..... 

Amer Henry. Patrick, an orator and patriot 

Gr. Heraclitus, a philosopher, flourished before Christ 

Ger. Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer 

Ger. Hermann, J. G. J., philologist .... 

Ger. Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, ' History of Philosophy,' &c. 

Gr. Hermogenes, a rhetorician, flourished .... 

Gr. Herodian, an historian .... 

Gr. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are extant, 

Fr. Herold, L. G. F., musical composer , . . 

Span Herrera, Anthony, an historian .... 

Eng. Herrick, Robert, a poet ..... 

Eng. Herschel, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers 

Jew. Herschell, Dr. Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Jews in England 

Eng. Herschell, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher 

Eng. Ilervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer 

Gr. He.siod, a poet, contemporary of Homer, flourished . . ; 

Ger. Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . 

Eng. Hick es, Georoe, a theologian and philologist 

Fr. Hilaire, Geof St.. naturalist .... 

I5ng Hill, viscount, military commander (Peninsula and Waterloo) 

Eng Hill, sir John,. 1 botanist and multifarious writer 

29 



BORN 


DIBD. 


1755 


1843 


1805 




1553 


1616 


1609 


1676 


1766 


l»i4 


1788 


1344 


1764 


1831 


1708 


1777 


1656 


1741 


1757 


1804 


1768 


1816 


1789 


1842 


1774 




1594 


1643 


J 737 


1793 


1684 


1758 


1784 




1661 


1724 




808 


1796 


1843 


1670 


1719 


1773 


1841 




1688 


1569 


1658 


1789 


1842 


1764 


1844 


1733 


18lt 


1754 


1825 




1833 


1778 




1742 


1822 


1713 


1781 


1715 


1773 


1520 


1595 


1732 


1809 


1745 


1820 


1791 


1835 




1830 


1783 


1826 


1675 


1748 


1730 


1799 


1760 


1842 


1770 


1831 


1799 




century. 




1581 


1617 


1794 


1835 


1802 




1553 


1610 


1718 


1790 


17.36 


1799 


504 




1744 


1803 


1772 




1804 




180 




. f. 230 




B. c. 484 




1792 


1833 


1559 


1625 


1591 




1738 


1822 


1760 


1842 


1713 


1758 


B.C. 907 




1729 


1812 


1642 


1715 


1772 




1772 


1842 


1716 


1775 



674 



THE world's progress, 



WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

.lew. Hlllel, the elder, one of the compilers of the Talmud 

Amer. Hiilhouse, James A., poet 

Gr. Hippocrates, the father of medicine 

Eng. Hoadley, William, a celebrated prelate and author 

Amer. Hobart, .John Henry, bishop of Is^ew York . 

Eng. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator 

Fr. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander 

Swiss Hofer, Amlrew, a Tyrolian patriot 

Eng. Holland, Barbara, novelist 

Ger. Hotrmann, E. T. A., novelist . 

S.?oich. Hogg, James, 'The Ettrick Shepherd' 

Dan. Hoi berg, Louis, baron de, an historian 

Eng. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Holingshed, a chronicler 

Eng. Holland, Lord, statesman and literateur 

Eng. Holland, Philemon, a translator 

Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America ' 

Scotch. Home, John, a divine, dramatist, and liistorian 

Gr. Homer, the " greatest of poets," [supposed to have] flourished 

Eng. Hone, William, author of ' Every Day Book' and political works 

Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer 

Eng. Hood, Thomas, poet and humorist 

Dutch. Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet 

Eng. Hook, Roljert, a mathematician 

Eng. Hook, Theo. E., novelist and humorist 

Eng. Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman History . 

Eng. Hookei-, Sir W. J., botanist 

Eng. Hooker, Richard, an eminent divtne 

Eng. Hoole, John, a poet and translator 

Eng. Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs 

Eng. Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Hopkins, Samuel, an eminent divine aad author 

Amer. Hopkinson, Joseph, jurist and statesman . 

Rom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, an eminent poet 

Eng. Home, George, a learned prelate 

Eng. Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician . 

Amer. Hossack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer 

Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist 

Eng. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of " Hudson river" 

Fr. Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author . 

Fr. Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman 

Amer. Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer., &c.) 

Pruss. Humboldt, F. H. A., baron, traveller — geog. and nat. philosopher 

Scotch. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher 

Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior 

Eng. IJunt, Leigh, poet and essayist 

Eng. Husklsson, Rt. hon. William, an able statesman 

Ger. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer . 

Irish. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer 

Amer. Hutchinson, Thos., a distinguished gov. of Massachusetts, and historian 

Scotch. Hutton, .Tames, a geologist and philosopher 

Eng. .Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician 

Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author 

Ind. Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior . 



Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet .... 

Span. Ignatius De Loyola, the founder of the .Jesuits . 

Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, a dramatist and novelist 

Amei. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter . 

Eng. Ireland, W. H., author of the 'Shakspeare Forgeries* 

Eng. Irving, Rev. Edward, theological writer 

Gr. Isseus, an orator .... 

Gr. Isocrates, an orator .... 

Spar. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico 



BORN. 

B.C. 112 

17«9 
B. c. 460 
1676 
1776 
15S8 
1768 
1765 

1776 
1772 
1685 
1744 

1773 
1551 
1763 

1724 
c. 907 

1724 

1778 
1687 
1635 
1788 



1553 
1717 
1495 

1721 
1770 

c. 65 
1730 
1731 
1769 
1726 

f. 1600 
1630 
1802 
1775 
1769 
1711 



1769 
1376 
1694 
1711 
1726 
1737 
1629 



f. B. c, 550 
1491 
1756 
1801 

1792 
B c. 413 
B.C. 436 

1784 



PIED 

ISli 

17C1 

1S:10 
1679 
1797 
J 810 
1844 

is-^a 

1835 
1754 
1809 
1582 
1840 
16.36 
1837 
1808 

1842 
1816 
1845 
1763 
1702 
1841 
1763 

1600 
1803 
1555 
1S31 
1803 
1842 
c. 8 
1792 
1806 
ia35 
1790 

1721 

1845 

1776 
1456 

1830 
1416 
1747 
1780 
1797 
1823 
1705 

178:^ 



1556 
1821 
1840 

1834 



1824 



I 



Amer. Jackson, Gen. Andrew, military commander, Pres. IT. S. 
Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H.. philosopher, novelist, &c. 
Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical pliilologist 



1767 
1743 
176« 



1845 
1819 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



67^ 



ITATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. .Tacotot, Jean J., educational writer 

Dutch. .Tacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist 

Gor. .Tahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar 
James, G. P. 11., novelist and historian 
Janin, Jules, lUeraieur . . . . • 

Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect 
Jasmin, Jacques, a barber— poet . . , 

.lay. John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 
JetJerson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d president of the 



Eng. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Scotch. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic 

£ng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inoculation 

Eng. .lenyns, Soame, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Jerome, St., one ol'the failiers of the churcli 

Ger. Jerome, of Prague, a reformer, companion of Huss 

Eng. Jewel, John, a learned prelate and author . 

Fr. Joan of Aix, " the greatest of heroines" 

Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty 

Eng. Johnson, Samuel, 'Mhe colossus of English literature' 

Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, a dramatic and musical composer 

Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron, military writer 

Eng. Jones, Inigo, an eminent architect 

Eng. Jones, Williain, a divine and author . 

Eng. Jones, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 

Scotch Jones, John Paul, a cai)tain in the navy of the United States 

Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, a celebrated poet and dramatist . 

Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, a learned theologian and author 

Josephine, empress of the French (born in Mariinico) 

Jew. Joseph us, a celebrated historian and warrior 

Fr. Jouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman 

Fr. Jourdan, J. B., marshal of France 

Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don. a warrior . 

Jew. Judah, Hakkadosh, a famous rabbi, and Talmudist 

Dan. Juel, Nicholas, a celebrated admiral 

Julian, Flavins Claudius, a Roman emperor and author 

Fr. Julien, A. J., orientalist 

Ger. Junge, Joachim, philosopher .... 

Dutch. Junius, Adrian, a voluminous writer 

Fr. Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer 

Fr. Junot, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. 

Ff. Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist .... 

Gr. Justin Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 

Rom. Justin. Latin historian .... 

Rom. Juvenal, Decius Junius, the n" -^st vehement of satirists 



BORH. 


DIED. 


1770 


laio 


17-27 


1817 


1750 


1817 


. * ISOi 




1585 


I63S 


1798 




1745 


1329 


United States 1743 


1826 


1773 


1S50 


1749 


1823 


1704 


1787 




420 




1416 


1.522 


1571 


1410 


1431 


1649 


1703 


1709 


1784 


1714 


1774 


1775 




1572 


1652 


1728 


1800 


1746 


1794 


'.736 


1792 


-574 


1637 


1698 


1770 


1761 


1814 


37 


95 


1796 


1842 


1762 


1833 


1546 


1578 


129 


194 


1629 


!f'97 


331 


363 


1799 




1587 


1657 


1512 


1575 


1771 


1813 


1784 


1839 


1748 


1836 


91 


165 


. fB.C. 200 


128 



K 

Ger. KcBmpfer, a naturalist, traveller, and historian . 

Ger. Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, a mathematician and astronomer 

Fr. Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 

Scotch. Karnes, Henry Home, lord, a judge and author 

Ger- Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician 

Russ. Karamsin, Nicholas M., historiographer of the empire 

Eng. Kean, Edmund, tragedian .... 

Eng. Keats, John, a poet ..... 

Scotch. Keith, Jaines, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service 

Irish. Kelly, Michael, a composer and singer 

Eng. Kenible, John Philip, a celebrated tragedian 

Fr. Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the " Imitation of Christ" 

Eng. Kennet, White, a learned prelate and author 

Eng. Kennicoit, Benjamin, a divine and biblical critic 

Amer. Kent, James, jiirist — chancellor of N. Y. 

Ger, Kepler. John, an eminent astronomer 

Scotch, Kerr, Robert, a miscellaneous writer . 

Amer. King, Rufus. statesman and diplomatist 

Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican Antiquities 

Eng. Kitchiner, William, writer on cookery 

Priiss. Klaproth, Henry J., philologi,?t and ethnologist . 

Fr. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer . 

Ger. Klopstock, " the Milton of Germany" . 

Scotc'u Knox, John, the great champion of the reformation 

Eng. Knox, Dr, Vicesimus, a divine and miscellaneous wcitei 



1651 


1716 


1719 


1799 


1717 


1780 


1696 


1782 


1724 


1804 


1765 


18-26 


1787 


1833 


1796 


18-20 


1696 


1753 


1762 


1826 


1757 


1823 


1380 


1471 


1660 


1728 


1718 


1783 


1763 


1847 


1571 


1630 




1814 


17.55 


1827 


1795 


18:37 




1827 


17S4 


1835 


1754 


1800 


1721 


1803 


1505 


1572 


1752 


182] 



676 



THE world's progress, 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Knox, Henry, military officer and statesman 

Ger. Koch, Chris'topher William, an historian . . 

Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelise and dramatist 

Polish. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a warrior and patriot 

(Served in the American army during the revolution.) 

Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick, Fer. Von, an historian, &c. 

Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist . . . 

Russ. Kutosoff, Michael L. G., field marshal . • 



Bonn. 


DIED, 


1760 


1806 


1737 


1313 


1794 




174G 


1S17 


1761 


1819 


1788 




1745 


1813 



Fr. Laborde, Alex. L. G., comte de, traveller, «&c. . . • 

Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. de la Ville, count do, naturalist . 

Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and literateur 

Lactaniius. L. C, a father of the church ; styled the Christian Cicero 

Fr Lacroix, Silvestre F., mathematician 

Fr. Laennec, 11. T. H., an eminent physician 

Fr La P'ayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and statesman 

Fr. La Fayette, George W., statesman 

Fr. Lafontaine, "an inimitable fabulist" .... 

Gel. La Fontaine, Aug. H. .7., author of 200 volumes, miscellaneous 

Fr. Lafitie, .Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman 

Ital. Lagrange, .Joseph Louis, an able mathematician 

Fr. La'tfarpe, .lohn Francis de, a dramatist, critic, &c. . , 

Swiss. La ilarpe, F. C, statesman and author 

Fr. Lalande, .Joseph .1. le Francis de. astronomer 

Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist .... 

Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., a general of the revolution of 1789 

Fr. Lamartine, poet, historian, traveller, and statesman 

Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist ..... 

Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist 

Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer 

Eng. Lancaster. .Joseph, founder of system of Education 

Eng. Lander, Richard and .John, travellers in Africa . . 

Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts 

Eng. Lane, Edward William, orientalist — author of Modern Egyptians, &c, 

Ital. Langfranc, a learned arciibishop of Canterbury 

Eng. Langton. Stephen, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury 

Eng. Lansdowne, Win. Petty, marquis ol — premier 

Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, Pres. of Council . 

Fr. Laplace, marquis Peter Simon, an eminent astronomer and geometrician 

Eng. Lardner, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine 

Fr. Las Casas, biographer of Napoleon, &c. 

Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian 

Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate— martyred lor being a reformer 

Eng. Laud, Williahi, a prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 

jimer. Laurens, Henry, a patriot and statesman 

Fr Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander 

Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, a celebrated physiognomist . 

Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., a celebrated chemist 

Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh . 

Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., a poet .... 

Swiss. Leclerc, John, an eminent critic 

Amer. Ledyard, .John, an intrepid and enterprising traveller 

Amer. Lee, Char.es, an officer in the revoluiion , . 

Amer. Lee, Richard Henry, president of congress . . . 

Amer. Lee, Arthur, M. U.. a statesman 

Amer. Legare. Hugh S., jurist, statesman, and literateur . 

Fr. Legendre. mathematician . . . 

Amer. Lesgett, William, political and miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, an able and learned philosopher 

Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist 

Scotch. Leigluon, Riibert, an able prelate 

Eng. Leiaiid, .John, an eminent divine and author 

Irish. Lekmd. Thomas, an eminent divine and author 

Eng. Lenipriere. John, a biographer and lexicographer 

Dutch. Lennep, David J. von., Jurist and poet 

Ital. Leo X., pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts 

Gei'. Leo, Henry, historian .... 

Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta^— the hero of ThermopylsB . 

Fr. Lesage, Alain Reno, a novaiist aiid dramatist " . 





1842 


. 1756 


1825 




325 


1765 


1S43 


1781 


1826 


1757 


^834 


1621 


1695 


1756 


1831 


1768 


1844 


1736 


1813 


1739 


1793 


1754 


1838 


1732 


1807 


1745 


1829 


1770 


1832 


1802 




1761 


1842 


1775 


1834 


1782 




1771 


1839 




1834 




182G 


1005 


1689 




lf^8 


17.37 


1805 


1780 




ian 1749 


1827 


1684 


1763 


1763 


1842 


ISOO 




1470 


1555 


1573 


1645 


1724 


1792 


1769 


1830 


1741 


1801 


1743 




1729 


1807 


1657 


1735 




1783 




1782 


17.32 


1794 


1740 


1782 


1797 


1843 


1753 


1833 


1802 


1840 


1646 


1716 


1752 


1&12 


1613 


les-i 


1691 


1766 


1772 


1785 




1824 


1774 




1475 


1521 


1799 




f. B. 0. 491 




1668 


1747 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



677 



KATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Scotch. Leslie, John, mathematician anil natural philosopher 

Fr. Levjzac. John P. i}- I-. de, a grammarian 

Amer. Lewis, IVIaj. Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. 

EiJg. Lewis, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Lichieuberg, George C. experimental philosopher 

Ger. Liebig, .Justus, baron, chemist 

Eng. Lightlbot, John, a learned divine and author 

Duich. Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer, and author 

Dutch. Limborch, Philip, a theologian and author 

Eng. Lingard, John, author of 'History of England' . 

Fr. Lingueei, Simon N. H., political writer, and historian . 

Swed. Linnasus, Charles Von, the most, celebrated of naturalists 

Hung. Liszt, Francis, perlbrmer on piano 

Eng, Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist, and biographer of Clarendon 

Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 

Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier 

Amer. Livingston, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman 

Amer. Livingston, William, a poet . . . . 

Rom. Jjivius. or Livy, Titus, a celebrated historian 

Fr. Lobau, Count, marshal of France . . , 

Eng. Locke, John, an eminent philosopher and metaphysician . 

Scotch. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist — editor of ' Quarterly' 

Russ. Lomonozoff, Michael V., a poet and historian 

Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, a statesman 

Gr. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, a critic and philosopher . 

Span. Lope, De Vega Carpio, Felix, a poet and dramatist 

Scotch. Loudon. J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agricult., and 

Fr. Louis, Baron, eminent, surgeon 

Eng. Lowih. Robert, an eminent divine and author 

Lucan, Marcus Annagus, a Latin poet 

Gr. liUcian, a celebrated writer .... 

Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . 

Rom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, an eminent poet 

Rom. Lucullus. a wealthy warrior . . . 

Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation . 

Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, a military officer . . 

Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator . . . . 

Scotch. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller . . 

Gr. Lysander, a famous Spartan general , , 

Gr. Lysias, an orator ..... 

Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, a poet and historian 





BORN. 


DIED. 


• 




18:^2 
1813 


, 


1754 


18:32 


, 


1773 


1818 


, 


1742 


1790 


, 


1303 




, 


1(302 


1675 


, 


1735 


1814 


. 


1633 


1712 


• 


1736 


1794 


• 


1707 
1811 


1778 


• 


1801 


1842 


, 


1781 




, 


1770 


1828 


. 


1764 


1836 


, 


1723 


1796 


, 




17 


, 


1770 


18:^^ 


• 


1632 

1794 


1704 


, 


1711 


1765 


, 


1769 


1822 


f. B 


. C.250 






1.562 


1635 


irchitect. 


1783 


1843 
13:37 


• 


1710 


1787 
.37 


. 


120 


210 


B. 


c. 148 B. 


c. 191 


B. 


c. 95 




B. 


C. 115 B. 


c. 49 


, 


1484 


1546 


, 


1628 


1695 


B. 


c. 893 




, 


1797 




, 


B 


c. 395 


B. 


C.459 




• 


1709 


1763 



M 

Eng. Macaulay, T. Babington, essayist, historian, critic, and statesman . 

Scotch. McCrie, Thomas, D. D., biographer of Knox . . . 

Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c ... 

Scotch. Macculloch, political economist and statistician 

Fr. Mac Donald, marshal of France .... 

Amer. Mac Donough, Thomas, commodore, victor on Lake Champlain 

Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, a celebrated writer on politics, &c. 

Scotch. Mackenzie, Henry, " the Addison of the North" . . 

Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of Travels 

Eng. Mackintosh, Sir James, a celebrated literary character 

Scotch. Macknight, James, a divine and author . . . 

Scotch. Maclaurin, Colin, a mathematician .... 

Ens. Mac Lean, L. E. L. (Miss Landon), poet and novelist . . 

Scotch. Maclure, William, geologist, &c. . . . . 

Amer. Macomb, Maj. Gen. Alex., military commander 

Scotch. Macpherson, James, a miscellaneous writer , . , 

Rom. Mascenas, Caius C, the minister of Augustus, and patron of literature 

Amer. Madison, James, 4th President of United States 

Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, a celebrated navigator . . 

Fr. Magendie, Francois, physiologist .... 

Irish. Maginn, Williani, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 

Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, the founder of the religion which bears his name 

Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish sultan— conqueror oflConstantinople 

Itai. Maio, Angelo, discoverer and editor of Latin classics 

Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, an historian 

Jew. Maimonides, Moses, a celebrated rabbi .... 

Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigno, queen . . . 



1772 


1835 


1773 


1835 


1765 


1840 


1773 


18:25 


1469 


1.527 


1745 


1831 




1849 


1766 


1832 


1721 


1800 


1698 


1746 


1804 


1838 


1763 


1840 


1782 


1841 


1738 


1796 




B.C. 9 


i7ri 


1836 




1521 


17&3 




1793 


1842 


569 


6:32 


1430 


1481 


1610 


1686 


1131 


1204 


1635 


1719 



678 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eiig. Maittaire, Michael, a bibiiographer, &c. 

Eng. Malcolm, Sir .lolin. History ol' Persia and India 

lial" Walibran, M. F. Madame, vocalist . . 

Eng. Malmesbury, William of, an liistorian 

Eng. Ma lone, Edward, a dramatic commentator 

Ital. Maipigiii, Marcellus, a naturalist and anatomist . 

Ger. Maiie-Brun, Conrad, a poet and geographer 

Ger. Make-Brun, M., geographer . 

Eng. Malihus, T.Pv, political economist 

Pefs. Manes, or Manichaeus, founder of the Manichsean sect 

Ger. Mansfield, Ernest ol, a warrior 

Eng. Mantell, G. A., geologist 

Ital. Manutius, Aldus, a celebrated piiinter and author 

Ital. Manzoni, author of ' I Promessi Sposi ' 

Fr. Marat, John Paul, an infamous revolutionist 

AusL Maria Louisa, Empress of France, alterwards Duchess of Parma 

Span. Mariana, John, a celebrated historian . 

Amer. Marion, Francis,, a distinguished officer ia the revolution 

Rom. Marius, Caius, a famous general, and demagogue 

Eng. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, an able warrior 

Fr. Marmont, marshal of France, and traveller 

Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, a celebrated writer 

Eng. Marryait, Captain, novelist and traveller 

Eng. Marsden, oriental traveller and historian 

Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician 

Eng. Marsh. Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 

Fr."^ Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . 

Amer. Marshall. John, chief justice of U. S., biographer 

Rom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, an epigrammatist 

Span. Martinez, de la Rosa, don F.. staiesman and literateur 

Ger. Martins, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller 

Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculiJtor 

Ital. Martyr, Peter, a reformer and theologian . . 

Eng. Mason, John, a divine and author 

Eng. Mason, William, a divine and poet 

Amer. Mason, John M., an eminent divine 

Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals 

Fr. Masiilon, John Baptist, an eloquent divine 

Eng. Massinger, Philip, a dramatist 

Amer. Maiher," Cotton, a divine 

Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, a divine, dramatist, novelist, and poet 

Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist 

Fr. Mauperiius, Peter L. M., a geometrician and astronomer 

Fr. Maury, John Siflrein, a cardinal and statesman . 

Eng. Mawe, Joseph, a mineralogist 

Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, an able statesman 

Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks 

Ital. Medici, Lorenzo d', a poet— governor of Florence, and patron of the arts 

Ger. Meiners, Christopher, an historian 

Ger. Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated reformer 

Gr. Menander, a comic poet 

Ger. Meninski, Francis M., a learned orientalist 

Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, a geographer 

Fr. Merimte, Prosper, novelist 

Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., a celebrated poet . 

Aust. Metternich, Prince, states-man and diplomatist 

Dutch. Meursius, John, an erudite critic 

Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer 

Fr. Mezerai, Francis Eudes de, an historian . 

Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . 

Gr. Miaulis, naval commander 

Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian 

Ger. Michaelis, John David, a learned orientalist and critic 

Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian 

Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian 

Eng. Middleton, Conyers, a divine and an elegant writer 

F'r. Mienet, F. A., historian 

Port. Miguel, Don, rival of Don Carlos for the throne of Portugal 

Scot. Mill, Jas., historian of British India and political economist 

Fr. Millevoye, Charles Hubert, a poet 

Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, a naturalist, &c . 

Eng. Millman, Rev. H. H., poet and historian 



BORN. 


DIED, 


1668 


1747 


1808 


1836 




li4S 


1741 


1812 


1628 


1694 


1775 


1826 




1834 


239 


274 


1585 


1626 


1447 


1515 


1754 


1793 


1787 




1537 


1624 




1795 


c. 153 


B.C. 86 


1650 


1722 


1723 


1799 




1847 


1755 


1836 


1794 




1758 


1839 


1755 


1835 


40 


100 


1786 




1753 


1835 


1500 


1561 


1706 


1763 


1725 


1797 


1770 


1829 


1758 


1817 


1663 


1742 


1584 


1639 


1663 


1728 


1782 


1825 


1776 


1835 


1698 


1759 


1746 


1817 


1755 


1829 


1602 


1661 




1709 


1448 


1492 


J 747 


1810 


1497 


1560 


0. 342 


B.C 290 


1623 


1C98 


1512 


1594 


1800 




1698 


1782 


1773 




1579 


1639 


1791 




1610 


1683 




1849 


1772 


1835 




1839 


1717 


1791 




1839 


1798 




1683 


1750 


1796 




1775 


1836 


17S2 


1816 


1759 








'I 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



679 



KATlOir. 

Fr. 

EPS. 
Erl. 

Gi-r 

Eng. 
Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 



Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian 

Mills, Charles, historian .... 

Milner, .Joseph, aiiihor of Church History 

Miltiades, an illustrious Athenian general 

Milton, .John, the Homer of Britain 

Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, a celebrated character in the 
tion, and author ..... 

Span. Miranda, Francis, a revolutionary general 
Amcr. Mitchell, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist 
Eng. Mitchell, Thomas, classical scholar and critic . 
Eng. Mitlord, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist 
Eng. Mitford, William, an historian and philologist . 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, a warrior 
Ger. Mitscherlich, E., chemist .... 
Sar. Mohammed Ben Abd Al Wahab, Shiek, founder of the sect of Wahabites, 
Turk. Mohammed Ali, Pacha of Egypt ..... 
Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist 

Fr. Mole, M. L. comte. statesman .... 

Fr. Molevilie, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, an historian 

Fr. Moliere, .John Baptist, a celebrated dramatist 

Fr. Mouse, Gaspar, an eminent geometrician 

Eng. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer . 
Amer. Monroe, James, a statesman, 5th president of the United States 
Fr Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, a chronicler 

Eng. Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, an elegant writer 
Fr. Montaigne, Michael de, an eminent essayist 
Fr. jMontebello, John Laimes, duke of, marshal 

Ger. Montecuculi, Raymond, a warrior 
Fr. Montesquieu, Charles, baron de, an able writer . 

Amer. Montgomery, Richard, an intrepid military officer . 
Eng. Montgomery, James, poet . . . ^ 

Fr. Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon 
Ital. ' Monti, Vincent, a poet .... 

Fr. Montmorenci, Anne de, marshal 

Fr. Montpensier, Madame, author of Memoirs, &c. 

Scotch. Moore, Sir John, general .... 

Eng. More, Sir Thomas, chancellor, 
Irish. Moore, Thomas, poet, biographer, and historian 
Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist, and moralist 
Fr. Moreau, John Victor, a celebrated geneial 

Irish. Morp:an, lady Charles, author of novels, travels, &c. 
Eng. Morier, James novelist, " Hajji Baba," &c. 

Amer. Morris, Robert, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and a financier 1703 
Amer. Morris, Gouverneur, a distinguished statesman . . 1752 

Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 
Amer. Morse, Jedediah, a geographer and statistical writer 
Fr. Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi 

Gr. Moschus, a bucolic poet .... 

Ger. Mosheim, John Laurence, an ecclesiastical historian 
Scot. Motherwell, William, poet .... 

Mouradgea, D'Ohason, an Armenian historian . 
Ger. Mozart, John C. V/. T., an eminent composer 
Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c, 
Swiss. Muller, John Von, a celebrated historian 
Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archeeologist, classic 
Fr. Murat, Joachim, an intrepid marshal, and king of Naples 

Ital. Maratori, I^ouis Anthony, an historian 

Irish. Murphy, Arthur, a dramatist and ti'anslator . . 

Amer. Murray, Lindley, a grammarian 
Scotch. Murray, Alexander, a self-taught linguist . . 

Amer. Murray, William Vans, a statesman , . . 

Eng. Murray, John (the elder), eminent publisher . . 

Gr. Musteus, an Athenian poet . . . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


17--d6 


1785 


178S 


18:^-6 


1744 


1797 


. 


B.C. -^89 


1608 


1674 


Revolu- 




1749 


1791 


\7bO 


1816 


1763 


1831 


1783 


1845 


. ' 1734 


1827 


B.C. 123 


B. c. 64 


1794 




ibites, f. 1650 




1769 




1774 


1839 


1781 




1754 


1817 


1622 


1673 


1746 


1818 


1608 


16/J 


1759 


1831 


1390 


1453 


1690 


1762 


1533 


1592 


1769 


1809 


1609 


1681 


1689 


1755 


1737 


1775 


1771 




JL783 




17.53 


1828 


1493 


1567 


1627 


1693 


1761 


1809 


1480 


1535 


178r 




174.1 


1833 


1763 


1813 


1780 




financier 1703 


1806 


1752 


1816 




1834 


1761 


1827 


1768 


1835 


f. B. c. 160 




1695 


1755 


1740 


1807 


1756 


1792 


1777 


1842 


1752 


1809 


1797 


1840 


1771 


1815 


1672 


1750 


1727 


1805 


1745 


18-26 


1775 


1813 


1761 


1803 


1778 


1843 


. f. B. C. 1243 





Pere. Nadir Shah, or Thamas KouU Khan, a warrior and king 
Scotch. Napier, John, baron, inventor of logarithms 
Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte,) . . . , 

Pers. Narses, a warrior, in the service of Justinian I., the erapercr 
Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, an able general 



1688 1747 
1550 1617 
1769 1821 
567 
1567 1625 



680 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pers. Nassir Eddyii, a celebrated astronomer 

En°-. Neal, Daniel, author of History of the Puritans, &c. 

Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian 

Fr. Necker, James, an eminent financier anu statesman 

Eli''. Neele, Henry, a poet and miscellaneous writer . 

Eng! Nelson, Horatio, viscount, a celebrated admiral 

Rom. Nepos, Cornelius, an historian . • . • 

Russ Nesselrode, count Charles R., statesman and diplomatist ^ . 

Ger Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller m North America, «Sz;c 

Eng. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers 

En°- Newton, Thomas, a learned prelate 

Eng Newton, .John, a Calvinistic divine and writer 

Fr Ney, Michael, marshal, "the bravest of the brave" . , 

Eno- Nicholson, William, a writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 

En^ Nicholson, Peter, architect and practical mechanic 

Arner. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., a bookseller and author 

Ger. Niebuhr, Garsten, a celebrated traveller 

Ger. Niebuhr, B. G., a statesman and historian 

Pol. Niemcewicz Julius U., mil. com. and author . 

Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist 

Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist . . ' , . . ' 

Eng Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman 

En^. North, Frederick, lord, prime minister of Geo. III. 

Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer 

Eng. Nott, John, a poet and translator 





BORN. 


DIED. 




1201 


1274 




1678 


1743 


, 


1789 


1850 




1732 


1804 


, 


1798 


1828 




.758 


1805 
B.C. 30 




1755 






1782 






1642 


1727 


, 


1704 


1782 




1725 


1807 




1769 


1S15 


^ ' 


1753 


18!5 




1785 


V^Z 




1733 


1811 




1723 


1815 




1776 


1830 




1756 


1841 




1787 






1783 






1797 






1732 


2792 




1746 


1837 




1751 


1826 



En''. Gates, Titus, the infamous pretender of the " Popish Plot" . 

Eng. Ockley, Simon, an orientalist ^ . „ • , . 

Arab Odenatus, a warrior, the husband of Zenobia 

Fr Odillon-Barrot C. H., statesman 

Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist , . . • • 

Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer . . 

Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education 

Dutch Orange,' William of Nassau, prince of, the founder of the Dutch 

Span.' Orfila, M.J. B., chemist and toxicologist 

Dutch. Oi-igen, one of the fathers of the church 

En'' Orme, Robert, an historian . . . • 

En^ Ormond, James Butler, duke of, a statesman , • „ ' 

Gr°' Orpheus, a poet, sometimes styled " the father of poetry" _ 

Port Osorio, Jerome, a philosopher, historian, and theological writer 

Ame'r Otis, James, a patriot and statesman . 

Araer Otis, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist 

En" Otway, Thomas, a celebrated dramatist 

Fr'' Oudinot, Charles N., marshal ol France . ... 

Rom. Ovid, Publius Naso, a poet ... 

En". Owen, John, an eminent divine 



1619 


1705 


1678 


1720 




267 


. * 1791 




. 1758 






1840 


1771 




f. 150 




epublic 1533 


1584 


1787 




185 


253 


1728 


1801 


1610 


1688 


1505 


1580 


1725 


1772 


1767 


1848 


1651 


1685 


. 1767 




. B.C. 43 


17 


1765 


1822 



Ell" Paine, Thomas, a political and deistical writer . 

Ven paez, military commander, and president of Venezuela 

Ital ' Pa^anini, Nicolo, a famous violinist 

Eng. Paley, William, an eminent divine and author 

Fr Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, a satirist _ . 

Pruss Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist 
Paoli, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and general 

Can. Papineau, L. J., politician and " patriot" 

Rom. Papinian, ^milius, a civil lawyer 

Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., an alchemist 

En". Paris, Matthew, an historian 

Scotch. Park, Mungo, a celebrated traveller 

En". Parkes, Samuel, a chemist and author 

Itaf Parma, Alexander Farnese, duke of, a warrior 

Eng Parry, captain Edward, arctic navigator . 

Fr Pascal, Blaize, eniinent as a geometrician and writer 

Pruss Paskewitch, Ivan F., prince and military commander 



1787 




1784 


1835 


1745 


1805 


1730 


1815 


1741 


1811 


1726 


1807 


1789 




145 


212 


1493 


1541 




1259 


1771 


1804 


1759 


1825 




i5s; 


1790 




16t23 


166a 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



681 



VATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Pasquier, Elienne D., counjt, chancellor of France 
Ger. Passow, Francis L. C', F., philologist and lexicographer 
Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velleius, an historian 
Gr. Pausanias, a topographical writer 
Port. Pedro, don, claimant of the throne of Portugal . 
Eng. Peel, sir Robert, statesman . ... 

Brit. Pelagius, a monk, lounderof a sect 
Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot . 
Gr. Pelopidas, an illustrious Theban general 
Eng. Penn, William, the founder and legislator of Pennsylvania 
Fr. Perelixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . 

Gr. Pericles, an able Athenian orator and statesman 
Fr Perrier, M. Casimir, a statesman 

Fr. Perfuse, John F. Galaup, de la, a navigator 

Roin, Peisius Flaccus, Aulus, a satirist 

Swiss Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 
Fr. Peter the Hermit, the first mover of the Crusades 

Russ Peer I., the Great, a warrior and statesman 
Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, a warrior 
Petiun, Alexander, a mulatto, president of Hayti 
Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 
Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Cliarles X. and historian 
Phsedrus, a fabulist .... 
PhiKp II., king of Macedon, a warrior 
Phillips, sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . 
Pluloposmen, a celebrated general 
Phocion, an eminent Athenian 
Phoiius, a learned patriarch of Constantinople 
Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . 
Picard, Louis Benedict, a dramatist and novelist 
Pichegru, Charles, an eminent general 
Pickering, Timothy, a distinguished statesman 
Pickering, John, philologist . 
Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets 
Scotch. Pinkerton, .John, a fertile and eccentric author • 
Amer. Pinckney, William, a distinguished orator and diplomatist 
Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, a navigator, discovered Brazil 
Piron, Alexis, a poet, dramatist, and wit . . 

Pisistraius, sovereign of Athens . . 

Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician . 

Pitt, Christopher, a poet and translator 
Pitt, William, a celebrated statesman 
Pitiacus, of Mityleue, one of the seven sages 
Pizarro Francis, the conqueror of Peru 
Plato, an illustrious philosopher — founder of the academic 
Plauius, ti comic poet ..... 
Scotch. Playfair, John, an eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 
Rom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of Natural History 
Pliny, the younger, a warrior and author . 
Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher 
Plutarch, a celebrated biographer 
Poisson, D. S., mathematician 
Pole, Reginald, a cardinal and statesman . 
Polignac Melchior de, a cardinal and statesman 
Poiignac, ^ A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. 
Polk, James K., president of the United States 
Polo, Mark, a celebrated Venetian traveller 
Polybius, an eminent historian 
Pompey, Cneus, a statesman and warrior . 
Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, an able ^'eneral 
Pool, Matthew, an able divine and author . . 

Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet . , 

Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher 
Porson, Richard, an eminent hellenist and critic 
Porta, John Baptist, a natural philosopher 
Porter, Anna Maria, novelist . 

Porter, sir Robert Ker, author of travels, «&c. . 

Porter, Jane, novelist 
Porteus, Beilby, an eminent prelate 
Potter, Robert, a divine, poet, and translator 
Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist 
Prideaux, Humphry, a learned divine 

2S* 



Ital. 

Fr. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

A mer. 

Gr. 



Span 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Amer 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Gr. 

Rom. 



Rom. 

Egypt. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Pol. 

Eng. 

Eng, 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Eng. 



BORN. 

1767 

1786 

about B.C. 20 

f. about 120 



1788 

354 

1789 

1644 
1605 
B. c. 490 
1777 
1741 
34 
1745 

1672 
1658 
1770 
1304 
1778 
f. 30 
B. c. 383 

B. c. 253 
B. c. 400 

1768 
1769 
1761 
1746 
1772 
B.C. 522 
1758 
1765 
f. 1500 
16S9 

1765 

1699 

1759 

B.C. 6.50 

1475 

B. c. 430 

B.C. 227 

1749 

23 

61 

203 

50 

1781 

1500 

1611 

1780 

1795 

1250 

205 

. 106 

1763 

1624 

1688 

233 

1759 

1540 



1833 



1834 

1850 



B. C 
B. C 



B. c. 364 

1718 
1670 
B. c. 429 
1832 
178S 
62 
1827 
Ilia 
1725 
1735 
J818 
1374 



? G. 336 

B.C. 183 
B. c. 3ie 

891 
1837 
1824 
1804 
1829 
1846 

442 
1826 
1822 



B C. 



B. C. 



1773 

'27 

1847 

1748 

1806 

B. c. 570 

1541 

B. c. 347 

B.C. 184 

1819 

79 

115 

270 

120 



1780 
1776 
1731 
1721 
1768 
1648 



1558 
1741 

1849 

1523 

B.C. 123 

B. c. 48 

1814 

1379 

1744 

304 

1803 

1616 

18:32 

1842 
1850 
1808 
1804 
1842 
1724 



682 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Priestley, .Topeph, an eminent philosopher and writer . 

Eng. Prior, J^latlllew, a poet and statesman . . . 

Gr. Procliis, a Platonic pliilosopher . . . . 

Gr. Procopiiis, an historian .... 

Rom. Propertius. Sextus Aurelius. a poet . . . 

Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, an eminent astronomer and geographer 

Ger. PuckierMuskau, II. L. H., prince of, author ol' travels, &c., 

Ger. Puffcndorl', Samuel, a publicist and historian 

Ital. Pulci, Louis, a poet ..... 

Amer. Putnam, Israel, a distinguished officer in the revolution 

Gr. Pyrrho, a philosopher, founder of the Skeptic sect . . 

Gr. Pythagoras, a celebrated philosopher . 





BORN. 




DIBD. 


. 


1733 




1804 




1664 




1721 


, 


410 




4S7 




410 




487 


B 


c. &2 

70 

1785 


B 


c. 12 




1632 




1694 


, 


Ui2 




U-7 




1718 




17i;0 


f. B 


c. :joo 






B. 


0. 5S6 


B. 


c. 497 



d 

Fr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist. 

Be!g. Queielet, L. A., mathematician and statistician 

Span. Quevedo l)e Villegas, Francis, a poet 

Fr. Quinault, Philip, a lyrical dramatist , , 

Fr. Quiiiet, Edgar, liierateur . . 

Span. Quintana, M. J. poet . . . 

Rom. Quintiiian, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated .>rator 



1782 




:'?96 




1580 


1645 


1635 


1668 


18a3 




42 


122 



R 



Fr. Racine, John, an eminent dramatist . . . 

Eng. RadcliHe, Anne, a celebrated romance writer . . 

Dan. Ralii. C. C, historian and antiquary . . . 

Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist 

Eng. Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, " a man illustrious in arms and literature" 

Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist 

Scotch. Ramsay, Allan, a poet ..... 

Amer. Ramsay, David, an historian .... 

Amer. Randolph, Peyton, first president of Congress . . 

Amer. Randolph, .John, eccentric statesman . . . 

Pruss. Ranke, Leopold, historian .... 

Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archceolngist and traveller • . 

Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer . . . 

Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman . • 

Pruss. Rauch, metaphysician ..... 

Pruss. Raumer, Frederick Von, historian and traveller 

Amer. Rawie, William, jurist ..... 

Eng. Ray, John, a naturalist and author 

Fr. Raynal. William Thomas Francis, an liistorian and philosopher 

Eng. Reed, Isaac, a critic and editor 

Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia, &c. 

Eng. Reeve, Clara, a novelist .... 

Fr. Regnard, John Francis, a comic writer 

Scotch. Reid. Thomas, a celebrated metaphysician 

Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist . 

Eng. Rennie. John, an eminent engineer 

Fr. Retz, John F. P. de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. 

Eng. Ricaut, sir Paul, a traveller and historian 

Eng. Richardson, Samuel, an eminent novelist . 

Fr. Richelieu, A. J. du Plessis, cardinal and duke, a statesman 

Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, a novelist, &c. 

Span. Riego Y Nunez, Raphael de, a patriot . . 

Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, a political reformer . 

Amer. Rittenhouse, David, a philosopher and astronomer 

Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., history of philosophy 

Ger. Ritter, Charles, Geographer .... 

Eng. Robertson, William, a celebrated historian 

Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. I., the •' terrorist" of the Revolution 

Fr. Rochefjucauld, I,iancourt, F. A. F , duke de la 

Fr. Rochej iquelin, H. de la, a royalist leader 

Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore in the American navy 

Eng. Rodney, George Brydges, lord, an able admiral 

Eng. Rogers, Samuel, poet ..... 

Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., a revolutionist and author . 

Fr. Rollin, Charles, a celebrated historian 



16b9 


1699 


1764 


1823 


1795 




1784 


1842 


1552 


161.8 


1776 


1833 


1685 


1758 


1749 


1812 


1723 


1775 


1773 


1333 


1795 




1790 




1784 


1832 


1794 




1759 


1836 


1628 


1705 


1713 


1796 


1742 


1807 


1743 


1825 


1723 


1803 


1647 


1709 


1710 


1796 


1788 


1832 


1761 


1821 


1614 


1679 




1700 


1689 


1761 


1585 




1763 


1825 


1783 


1825 




1354 


1731 


1796 


1791 




1779 




1721 


1793 


1759 


1794 


1747 


1827 


1773 


1794 


1771 


1838 


1717 


1792 


1733 


1793 


1601 


1741 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



683 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Romaine, William, a divine and author 

IJcm, Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome 

Eng. Rooke, sir George, an admiral 

Rom. Roscius, Quintus, an actor uf proverbial talent 

Eng. Roscne, William, a biographer and mist'ellaneoug writer 

Ital. Rosellini, Ippolito, author of " Monuments of Egypt," &c. 

Ger. Rosenmiiller, E.F.C., orientalist, 

Fr. Rosseau, John Baptist, a poet 

Fr. Rosseau, .lohp James, an eloquent and paradoxical writer 

Ital. Rossini, musical composer 

Ger. Rotteck, historian ..... 

Eng, Rowe. Nicholas, a poet and dramatist .... 

Amer. Rumford Benjamin Thompson, count, an officer (in foreign service) and 

philosopher ..... 

Ger. Rupert, prince, a warrior .... 

Amer. Rush, Benjamin, an eminent physician and author . 

Eng. Riissel, lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty 

Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of the last), author of '^ Letters" 

Eng. Russell, William, an historian . . . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1714 


1795 


. 


B. c. 716 


1650 


1703 


, , 


B.C. 61 


1751 


1831 


1800 




1768 


1835 


1670 


1741 


1712 


1778 


1792 




1775 


1840 


. 1G73 


1713 


service) and 




1753 


1814 


1(319 


1682 


1745 


1813 


1641 


i683 


. , 


1723 


1746 


1794 



s 

Fr, Sacy, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . . 

Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, a poet .... 

Ital. Saint Real, Caesar Vichard, abbe de, an historian 

Eng. Saint Vincent, John Jervis, ear! of, admiral , 

Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, a celebrated warrior 

Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, a statesman 

Rom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, an historian . . . 

Fr. Salmasius, Claudius, a scholar and author 

Fr. S ilvandy, N. A., comte de. statesman . 

Fr. Salverte, miscellaneous writer 

Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist 

Amer. Sanderson, John, iilerateur . . . 

Amer. Sands, R. C, poet and liierateur 

Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, ear! of, naval officer 

Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, a geographer and engineer 

Gr. Sappho, a poetess .... 

Ital. Sarpi, Peter, known as father Paul, a patriot and historian 

Fr. Saurin, James, a divine and sermon writer 

Ger. Sivigny, Tred. C. von, historian of Roman law . 

Pruss. Saxe, M uirice, count de, a celebrated general in the French service 

Ger. Sixe- Weimar, Bernard, duke of, a warrior 

Amer. Say, Thomas, naturalist .... 

Ital. Scaliger, Julius Caesar, a learned critic 

Scantlonberg (real name George Castriot), an Albanian prince and 

Ger. Scapula, John, a lexicographer 

Swe. Scheele, Charles William, an eminent chemist . 

Ger. Schelling, F. W. J. von, metaphysician 

Pruss. Schili, Ferdinand Von, an intrepid and patriotic officer . 

Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C, an eminent historian and dramatist 

Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist 

Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian . 

Ger. Schlosser, M. S. F.. historian 

Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, an historian 

Ger. Scholl, historian ..... 

Dutch. Schomberg, Armand Frederick, a warrior , 

Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F , novelist . . , 

Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, a lexicographer . . , 

Ger. Schnlembourg, John Matthias, a warrior 

Ger. Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... 

Ger. Schiitz, C. G., critic and literateur . . , 

Amer. Schuyler, Philip, an officer in the revolution 

Ger. Scioppius, Caspar, a philologist and grammarian 

Rom. Scipio, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, an able warrior 

Rom. Scipio, ^milianus Publius, an able warrior . , 

Scotch. Scott, Michael, a philosopher — supposed magician . 

En^. Scott, Thomas, a divine, and biblical commentator 

Scotch. Scott, sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous, and pop^Ur wii 

ters of moder'.i times .... 

Fr. Scrite, A. E., dramatist .... 





1758 


1838 


• 




1296 




639 


1693 


• 


1734 


1823 




1137 


1193 


, 


15.50 


1612 


f.B. 


c. 86 


B. c. .35 


• 


1588 
1795 


1653 


• 


1771 

1804 


1839 


, 


1785 


1844 




1790 


1&32 


, 


1623 


1672 




1600 


1667 


* f.B. 


0. 606 






1.552 


1623 


, 


1677 


1730 




1779 






1695 


1750 


, 


1600 


1639 




1737 


1834 


, 


1484 


1558 


[warrior 1404 


1467 


, 




1600 




1742 


1786 


, 


1775 






1773 


1809 


, 


1759 


1805 




1767 


1845 


, 


1768 


18.34 




1776 




. 


1736 


1794 




1765 


18.33 


, 


1619 


1690 




1770 


18:38 


• 


1615 


1667 




1661 


1747 


• 


1780 
1747 




, 


1731 


1301 




1.576 


1649 


• 




B c. 189 

:j. 0. 128 

J291 




1747 


1S21 


ar wri' 








1771 


1832 


. 


1791 





684 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. MID. 

Fr. Sebastian!, marshal of France, statesman . . 1775 

Eng. Seeker, Tho^mas, an eminent prelate .... 1693 1768 

Amer. Sedgwick, Theodore, statesman and political economist . . 1780 1S39 

Fr. Segur, count l.ouis de, a diplomatist and writer . . . 1753 1830 

Fr. Segur, P. P. de, historian ..... 

Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, a celebrated philosopher, statesman, and moralist, B. c. 2 65 

Ger. Sennel'elder, inventor of jithogi-aphy .... 1834 

Span. Sepulveda, .John Ginez de, an historian . . . 1490 1572 

Rom. Sertorius, Quintus, a warrior . . . . B. C. 73 

Fr. Sevigne, Mary de, marchioness of, an epistolary writer . . 1627 1696 

Eng. Shafresbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, a statesman . . 1621 1683 

Eng. Shakspeare, William, the greatest of dramatic poets . . 1564 1616 

Eng. Sharpe, Granville, a philanthropist .... 1734 1813 

Eng Shaw, George, a naturalist ..... 1751 1813 

Eng. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. an eminent poet and atheist . . . 1792 1822 

En'j. Shensione, William, a' poet ..... 1714 1763 

En^. Sheridan, Thomas, an actor and author .... 1721 1788 

Eng. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, a dramatist and orator . . 1751 1816 

Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, a prelate ..... 1678 1761 

Amcr. Sherman, Roger, a patriot and self-taught statesman . . 1721 1793 

Eng. Shovel, sir Cloudesley, an able naval officer . . . 16.50 1705 

Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses . . 17-55 1831 

Eng. Sidmouth, viscount (H. Addington), statesman . . . 1757 1814 

Eng. Sidney, sir Philip, an accomplished officer and author . . 1.554 158G 

Eng. Sidney, Algernon, a martyr of liberty and an author . . 1620 16S3 

Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, botanist and naturalist . . . 1796 

Eng. Simpson, Thomas, a mathematician .... 1710 1761 

Eng. Simpson, Robert, mathematician . . . . . 1687 1768 

Hind. S'ing, M. rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashemire . . 1779 1839 

Swiss, Sisiiiondi, .1. C. L, historian ..... 1773 1842 

Ger. Sleidan, John Philipson. an historian . . . . 1506 1556 

Eng. Sloane, sir Hans, an eminent naturalist . . . 1660 1752 

Eng. Smai-t,Christopher, a poet and translator . . . 1722 1770 

Eng. Smeaton, .John, an eminent civil engineer .... 1724 1792 

Scotch. Smellie, William, a naturalist .... 1740 1795 

Eng. Smith, William, a divine and translator .... 1711 1787 

Scotch. Smith, Adam, a celebrated writer on morals and political economy 1723 1790 

Eng. Smith, Charlotte, a poetess . . . " . . 1749 1806 

Eng. Smith, sir James E., botanist and naturalist . . . 175'9 1828 

Amer. Smith, general Samuel, military commander and statesman . . 1752 1839 

Eng. Smith, rev. Sidney, essayist, critic, and moralist . . 1768 1845 

Eng. Smith, sir William Sydney, military commander . . . 1764 1840 

Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, United States 1835 

Eng. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, a novelist and historian . . . 1721 1771 

Pol. Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, a warrior . . . 1629 1696 

Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect . . . 1539 1594 

Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers . . b. c. 470 b.o. 400 

Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . f b. c. 598 

Gr. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet . . . . b. c. 495 404 

Fr. Soulie, M. F., novelist ...... 1800 

Fr. Soult, marshal of France, and statesman . . . 1769 

Eng. South, Robert, an eminent divine . . . ... 1638 

Amer. Southard, Samuel L., secretary of the navy and senator of U.S., N.J. 1787 1842 

Eng. Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic (her sect not yet extinct) . . 1750 1814 

Eng. Southey, Robert, poet, historian, biographer . . . 1775 1843 

Eng. Spenser, Edmund, an eminent poet .... 1553 1598 

Eng. Spencer, earl of, statesman ..... 1758 1835 

Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief justice of New York . . • 1765 1848 

Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, a warrior . . . 1571 1630 

Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., a celebrated phrenologist (died at Boston) . . 1776 1832 

Fr. Stael, Madame de, a talented writer .... 1693 1750 

Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, a diVine and author .... 1680 1752 

Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, an authoress . . 1766 1817 

Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, a politician and inventor . . . 1753 1816 

Eng. StaRhope. lady Hester, eccentric traveller . . . 1776 1839 

Amer. Stark, John, a distinguished officer in the revolution . . 1728 1822 

Ii-ish. Steel, sir Richard, an essayist and dramatist . . . 1671 1729 

Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, a miscellaneous writer .... 1713 1768 

Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A., baron, who generously aided the American cause 1704 

Scotch. Stewart, Dugald, an eminent philosopher and writer . . 1753 1828 

Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of" Six Nations," " Brandt," and " Redjacket" 1793 1844 

Rubs. Storch, Henry F. , political economist . . . . 176fi 183S 





BORN. 


DIED. 




1779 


I&IS 


• 


1746 
19 


1836 


, 


1593 


1641 




1808 




. 


1713 


1783 




1742 


1786 


, 


1772 


182G 




1804 




• 


f. 100 

37 




, 


1728 


1793 


f. about 1000 




, 


1560 


1641 




1515 


1547 


warrio 


r 11,30 


1800 




1689 


1772 


. 


1667 


1745 




1793 


1841 


B. 


c. 137 


B.C. 78 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 685 

KATION. NAMS AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence 

Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist .... 

Gr. Strabo, an eminent geographer 

Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, a statesman . 

Ger. Strauss, David F., author of skeptical " Life of Christ" . 

Eng. Stuart, .James, an architect and author . . 

Scotch. Stuart, Gilbert, an historian .... 

Fr. Suchet, Louis Gabriel, a celebrated marshal . 

Fr. Sue, Eugene, novelist . . . , 

Rom. Suetonius, Tranquilius Caius, an historian . 

Rom. Suetonius, Paulinus, a warrior 

Dan. Suhin, Peter Frederick, an eminent historian 

Suidas, a Greek lexicographer 

Fr. Sully, Maximilian de Betiiune, a warrior and statesman 

Eng. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, a poet 

Russ. Suvaroff, or Suwarrow, prince Alexander, a celebrated and cruel warrior liso 

Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect 

Irish. Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated satirist 

Eng. Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, governor-general of Canada, &c 

Rom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, a warrior, and a brutal usurper 

Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, an eminent historian . . .56 135 

Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman and diplomatist . . 1754 1838 

Fr. Talma, Francis .Joseph, one of the greatest of actors . . 1763 1826 

Tamerlane, Timur Beg, or Timour, a celebrated Tartar prince and ccxnqueror 1336 1405 

Ital. Tasso, Bernardo, a poet— author of Amadis de Gaul . . 1493 1569 

Ital. Tasso, Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets . . 1544 1595 

Ger. Tauchnitz, Karl, an eminent publisher at Leipsic . . . 1836 

Eng. Taylor, Jeremy, a prelate and eloquent writer . . . 1613 1667 

Eng. Taylor, Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . , . 1758 1835 

Amer. Taylor, Zachary, maj.-gen. U. S. army, victor in Mexico, president of U. S. 1784 1850 

Eng. Telford, Thomas, civil engineer .... 1757 1834 

Swiss Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty . . 1354 

Eng. Temple, sir William, a statesman and writer ... . 1628 1698 

Eng. Tenterden, Charles Abbott, lord, jurist, chief justice," K. B. . . 1762 18^2 

Eng. Tennyson, AUVed, poet ..... 

Rom. Terence, or Terrentius, a comic writer . . . b. c. 192 

Tertullian, Q,. S. F., one of the most learned of the fathers of the church 160 245 

Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .... 1752 1828 

Gr. Thales, one of the seven sages— founder of the Ionic school of philosophy, b. c. 639 b. c. 543 

Gr. Themistocles, an illustrious Athenian . . . . b. c. 535 b. c. 470 

Fr. Thenard, chemist and statesman ..... 

Gr. Theocritus, a pastoral poet . . . . . f. b. c. 285 

Rom. Theodosius, Flavius, a Roman emperor and warrior . . 346 395 

Gr. Theophrastus, a celebrated philosopher . . . B. c. 371 

Gr. Thespis, a poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . . B. c. 576 

Fr. Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian .... 

Fr. Thierry, Jacques N. A., historian .... 1795 

Fr. Thiers, Adojphe, hisi jjian and statesman . . . 1797 

Ger. Thiersch, F. W., GreeK philologist, &c. . . . . 1784 

Eng. Thomson, James, a popular poet . . , . 170O 1748 

Scotch. Thomson, Dr. Thomas, chemist ..... 

Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor .... 1771 1844 

Gr. Thucydides, an histoi-ian . . . , b. c. 469 b. c. 400 

Rom. Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, a warrior and emperor » B. c. 34 37 

Rom. Tibullus, Aulus Albius, an elegiac poet . . . f. b. c. 30 

Ger. Tieck, Louis, a poet and novelist .... 1773 

Eng. Tillotson, John, an eminent prelate .... 1630 1694 

Hind. Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, India, a warrior . . 1739 1799 

Rom. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, an emperor, the father of his people 40 81 

Eng. Tomline, George, a prelate and writer .... 1750 1787 

Amer. Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-president of th« United States . 1774 1825 

l^ng. Tooke, John Home, a politician and philologist . . . 1736 1812 

Eu5. Tooke, William, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1744 1820 

Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., an eminent divine .... 1740 1778 

Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . . 1783 1840 

W. Ind. Toussaint rOuvertiu-e, negro president of Hayti . . . 1745 1803 

Fr. Tracy, A. L. C. D., cortite de, Writer on education and philosophy 1754 1836 

Rom. Trajan, Marcus U. C, an able emperor and warrior . . 53 117 



686 



THE world's progress 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pruss. Trenck, Frederick, baron de, celebrated for his adventures 

Dutch. Tromp, Manin JI., a celebrated admiral 

Amer. Trumbull, . Jonathan, a statesman 

Amer. Trumbull, John, a poet ; born in Connecticut . . 

Amer Trumbull, col. John, statesman and historical painter . ^ 

Eng. Tucker, Abraham, a metaphysical writer 

Fr. Turenne, Viscount de, an eminent warrior 

Fr. Turgot, Anne Robert James, a statesman . 

Eng. Tyrrell, James, an historian .... 

Gr. Tyrtseus, a poet . . . . 

Scotch. TytJer, William, an historical and miscellaneous writer 

Scotch. Tytler, Alexander Fraser, an historical and miscellaneous writer 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1726 


1794 


1597 


1653 




mm 


1750 


1831 


175C 


1843 


1705 


1774 


1611 


1675 


1727 


1781 


1642 


1718 


1711 


1792 


1747 


1813 



u 



Span. 
Irish. 



Ulioa, don Anthony de, a navigator and author 
Usher, James, a learned divine and historian 



1716 
1580 



179? 
1656 



Fr. Vaillant, Sebastian, an eminent botanist 

Dutch. Vaick-enaer, Louis Gaspar, an able philologist and critic 

Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses, f. in 12th century. 

Rom. Valerius Maximus, an historian 

Ital. Valla, Laurence, an eminent philologist . . 

Eng. Vancouver. George, a navigator 

Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, an advocate of republicanism 

Rom. Varro, Marcus T., "the most learned of the Romans" 

Ger. Vater, John Severinus, an eminent philologi-st 

Fr. Vauban, S- le P. de, marshal, a military engineer 

Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, a warrior 

Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter 

Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral 

Fr. Vertot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, an historian 

Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, a warrior and emperor 

Ital. Vespucius Americus, a navigator whose name was unjustly given to the 

new world .... 

Eng. Victoria Aiexandrina, queen of Great Britain 

Ital. Vida. Mark Jerome, a Latin poet 

Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, an able general 

Fr. Villemain, minister of public instruction, and historian 

Eng. Vince, Samuel, an eminent mathematician 

Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of the Roman poets 

Fr. Volney, count de, a celebrated writer 

Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet de, a celebrated poet, philos., and historian 1694 



1669 


1722 


1715 


1785 


f. 30 




1406 


14.57 


17.'50 


1708 


1612 


1662 


c. 116 B.C. 27 


1771 


1826 


16.33 


1707 


16.54 


1712 


1789 




1684 


1759 


1655 


1735 




79 


1451 


1516 


1819 




1490 


1566 


1653 


1734 


1791 






1821 


c. 70 B a. 19 


1757 


1820 


n 1694 


1778 



w 

Eng. Wakefield, Gi'-.jert, a scholar and critic 

Eng. Walker, .John, a lexicographer .... 

Scotch. Wallace, William, a patriot and hero . . • 

Ger. Wallenstein, A. V. E., a celebrated general . . . 

Eng. Waller, sir William, a parliamentary general 

Eng. Waller, Edmund, an elegant poet .... 

Eng. Walpole, Robert, earl of Oi ford, a statesman . . 

Eng. Walpole, Horace, carl of Orford, an author . . . 

Eng. Walsingham, sir Francis, a statesman . . , 

Eng. Walton Izaak, an angler and biographer . . . 

Eng. Walton, Brian, a divine and orientalist . . . 

Eng. Warburton, William, an eminent prelate and writer 

Amer. Ward, Artemtis, an officer in the revolution . . . 

Eng. Warren, sir John Borlase, a naval oiTicer 

Eng. Warton. .Joseph, a poet and critic .... 

Eng. Warton, Thomas, poet and critic .... 

Amer. Wai=liington. George, the father of his country 

Amer. Washington, BushVod, justice of Supreme Court of the United States 

Scotch. Watson, Robert, an historian . . . 

Eng. Watson, Richard, an eminent prelate and writer 

Scotch. Watt, James, a celebrated natural philosopher and engineer 



1756 


1801 


1732 


1807 


1276 


1305 


1583 


1634 


1597 


1668 


1603 


1087 


1676 


1745 


1718 


1797 


1536 


1590 


1593 


lfsS3 


1600 


1661 


1698 


1779 


1748 


18(X) 


17.54 


1822 


1722 


isan 


1728 


1790 


1732 


1799 


1759 


1829 


1730 


1780 


1737 


1816 


1736 


1813 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



687 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Scotch. Watt, Robert, a bibliographer .... 
Eng. Watts, Dr. Isaac, a divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer 
Ger. Weber, Carl Maria Von, an eminent composer 
Amer. Webster, Noah, author of English Dictionary- 
Irish. Wellesley, marquis of, gov.-gen. of India and lord lieutenant of Ireland 
Irish. Wellington, duke of, military commander and statesman . 
Eng. Wells, Edward, a theologian and scholar . 
Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, a mineralogist . 
Ger. Werner, Fred. L. Z., a poet and dramatist . 
Eng. Wesley, .John, the founder of the Methodist Society 
Eng. Westa 11, Richard, historical painter 

Amer Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator 

Eng. Whiston. William, a divine, mathematician, and translator . 

Eng. Whiiby, David, a learned divine .... 

Eng. White, Henry Kirke, a poet .... 

Aniec White, William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church in U 

Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvinistic Methodists 

Eng. Wickliffe, or Wiclif, John, the morning star of the reformation 

6er. Wieland, Christopher M.. an able. and fertile writer 

Eng. Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian .... 

Eng. Wilberforce, William, statesman and philanthropist 

Amer. Wilde, Richard Henry, a poet and literateur 

Eng. Wilkes, John, a celebrated political character 

Scotch. Wilkie, sir David, historical painter .... 

Eng. Wilkins, sir Charles, oriental philologist 

Eng. Wilkinson, sir J. G., historian of Egypt and archaeologist 

Eng. Williams, Helen Maria, a miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of North Carolina 

Amer. Wilson, Alexander, a celebrated naturalist 

Eng. Windham, William, a statesman . . . . 

Amer. Wiit, William, attorney-general of the United Slates, and biographer 

Amer. Wisiar,^Caspar, an eminent physician and anatomist 

Amer. Withers'poon, John, an able divine and patriot 

Amer. Wolcott, Oliver, a patriot— signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindai% a poet 

Eng. Wolfe, James, a distinguished general 

Ger. Wolff, John Christian, a philosopher and mathematician 

Eng. Wollaston. William Hyde, an experimental philosopher 

Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, a celebrated statesman . 

Eng. Wordsworth, William, poet ..... 

Amer. Worth, W. J. major-general, United States army 

Eng. Wren, sir Christopher, a celebrated architect 

Aust. Wurmser, D. S., field-marshal, Austrian army 

Eng. Wyatt, sir Thomas, poet and statesman 

Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet 

Eng. Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanthropist 

Amer. Wythe, George, an eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1774 


1819 


1674 


1748 


1736 


1826 


1758 


1843 


3 1760 


1812 


1769 




1663 


1727 


1750 


1817 


1763 


1823 


1703 


1791 


1765 


1837 


1785 


1843 


1667 


1752 


1638 


1726 


1785 


1306 


.S. 1747 


1836 


1714 


1770 


1324 


1384 


1733 


1813 


1792 


1836 


1750 


1830 


1789 


1847 


1717 


1797 


1785 


1841 




1836 


17'J2 


1827 


1735 


1819 


1766 


1813 


1750 


1810 


1772 


1835 


1761 


1818 


1722 


1794 


1727 


1797 


1738 


1818 


1726 


1759 


1679 


1754 


1766 


1828 


1471 


1530 


1770 


1850 


1794 


1849 


1632 


1723 


1717 


1797 


1503 


1540 


1640 


1715 


1324 


1404 




1806 



Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, " Apostle to the Indies" 

Gr. Xenocrates, a philosopher .... 

Gr. Xenophenes, a philosopher — founder of the Eleatics 

Gr. Xenophon, a celebrated philosopher, historian, and general 

Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, an eminent statesman . 



1506 


1552 


B.C. 406 


B. c. 314 


. f. 




B. c. 446 


B.C. 360 


1457 


1517 



Eng. Young, Edward, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Young, Arthur, an agricultural writer . . , 

Eng. Young, Thomas, a physician and philosopher 

Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, a leader in the modem Greek revolution 
Span, Yriarte, don Thomas de, an eminent poet . 



1681 


1765 


1741 


1820 


1774 


1829 


1792 


1828 


1750 


1790 



z 

ItaL Zaccaria, Francis A., a voluminous writer 

Gr. Zeno, of Elea, a philosopher . 

Gr. Zeno, the founder of the sect of Stoics 



1714 1795 

B.C. 463 
B. c. 362 B. 0. 264 



688 



THE world's progress. 



NATION. 

Ital. 

Swiss. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Swiss. 

Swiss. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIBD. 

Zeno, Apostolo, an eminent writer .... 1668 175G 

Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, a conqueror, and patroness of the arts 300 

Zimmerman, John George, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1728 1795 

Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . . . 1743 1815 

Zinzendorf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians . . . J700 1760 

Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . • • 1730 
Zoroaster, a famous Eastern philosopher .... 

Zuinglius, Uiric, an enlightened reformer .• * « 1484 1531 



PAINTERS, ENGRAYERS, SCULPTORS, ETC. 

THE MOST EMINENT IN THEIR DEPARTMENTS. 



NATION, 

Gr, 

Gr. 
Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Flem, 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Do. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Agatharcus, the inventor of perspective scenery 
in theatres .... Painter 

Ageldas - - - - Sculptor 

Agesander (sculptor of " Laocoon and his Chil- 
dren ") - - - • Sculptor 

Albano, Francis ("the painter of the Graces ")Pam?er 



B. C. 

f. B. c. 5th cent. 



480 



Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine 

Albertineili, Mariotto - 

Alcamenes (pupil of Phidias) 

Allan. Sir William - - - • 

AUston, Washington 

Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent 

Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) 



Pa. Sc. 4* Archit. 

Painter 

Sculptor f. B. 

Painfer - 

Poet (5" Histor. Painter 

Pa. Sc. Sf Architect 

Pairiter 



Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters Painter 



ApoUodorus, an Athenian 
Appiani, of Milan 
Aristides, of Thebes 
Audran, Gerard, a celebrated 
Baccio, Delia Porta (known as San Marco) 
Bacon, .John - . . - 

Balen, Henry Van ... 
Bandinelli, Baccio ... 
Banks, Thomas ... 
Barry. James - - . - 

Barlolini 

Bartolomeo, Fra, di St. Marco • 
Baioni, Pompey • . - 

Beechy. Sir Wm. ... 

Bella, Stepha.-o Delia, a Florentine 
Berchem, Nicolas ... 
Bird, Edward 
Blake, William, - 
Both, JohL) and Andrew 
Bourdon, Sebastian 

Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London) 
Boydell, John (a printseller, and lord mayo 
London) 



Ital. Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L. (1st of St. Peter's 



Church) 
Dutch. Brontel, Francis 
Dutch. Brill, Mauhew 
Flenn.. Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck 
Ital. Buonarotti, see Angelo. 
Eng. Burnett, James 
Ital. Cagliari, Paul (known as Paul Veronese), a cele 

brated - - - - 

Ital Cagliari, Benedict, Carletto, and Gabriel, 

tliers and sons of Paul. 
Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. - 
Gr. Callimachus - . • 

Ital. Oambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese 



Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Hisior. Engraver 

Painter 

Sculptor . 

Painter 

Sculptor . 

Sculptor 

Painter 

Engraver 

Painter 

Painter 

Landscape Painter 

Engra.ver 

Engraver 

Painter 

Painter Sf Engraver 

Painters 

Painter Sf Engraver 

Painter 



f.B. 
f. B. 



f.B. 



of 



Engraver 



Architect 
Painter - 
Painter 
Painter 

Landscape Painter 

Painter • 



. c. 5th 
1578 
1400 

c. 4.50 
1781 
1779 
1474 
1.569 

c. 330 

0. 408 
1754 

C. 240 
1640 
1469 
1740 
1.560 
1487 
1745 
1741 

1469 
1703 
1753 
1610 
1624 
1772 
1757 
1610 
1616 
1756 

1719 

1444 

f, 1635 

1550 

1370 

1788 

1532 



cent. 

1660 
1490 
1520 

1850 
1843 
1563 
1609 



Landscape Painter 1779 

Sculptor if Architect {.B.C. 540 
Painter • 1527 



1517 

1703 
1517 
1799 
1632 
1.559 
1805 
1805 

1517 
17S7 
1893 
1684 
1689 
1819 
1826 
1650 & 56 
1671 
1811 

1804 

1514 

1584 
1441 

1816 

1588 

1844 
158f 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



689 



NATION. 

Ital. 
Itak 
l!a[. 
Iial. 
Iial. 
Ital. 
Ital. 



Fr. 

Span 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Flem 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Anver. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Hal. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Du«:h. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 
Gr. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 
Swiss. 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Eng 
Ital 
Hal. 
Ital. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
tal. 
ttal 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 



Landscape Painter 
Sculptor 

Painter 
Painter 
Painter 



Canaletto, Anthony, a Venetian - 

Canova, Antonio, 

Caravaggio, see Angelo. 

Caracci Lodovico ... 

• Agostino 

Annibale ... 

Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing 
in Chiaro-oscuro— with three plates — to imi- 
tate drawings - - - - 

Oasas, Louis Francis - 

Castillo Y Saavedra, Anthony 

Cavendone, James ... 

Cellini, Benvenuto, a Florentine 

Champagne, Philip de - 

Chares - - - 

Cosway, Richard 

Chantry, sir Francis 

Chaudet, Anthony Denis 

Cimabue, Giovanni, a Florentine 

Claude Gele — called Claude Lorraine 

Cleomenes, an Athenian (The Medicean Venus) Sculptor 

Clevenger - - - - Sculptor 

Cole, Thomas - - - Land. <5' Hist. Paijiter 

Collins, William - - • - Land. Sf Fain. Life Pa. 

Constable, John ... Painter 

Cooper, Samuel ... - Miniature Painter - 

Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) - Painter 

Corregio, Ant. (founder of the Lombard school) Painter 



BOEN. 

1697 
1757 

1555 
15S8 
1560 



About 1700 
1846 



Painter 4* Architect • 

Painter • 

Fresco Painter 

Engraver 4* Sculptor 

Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Sculptor 

Painter 

Painter 

Painter 



Cortona, Pietro da, a Tuscan 

Courtois, James (known as 11 Borgognone) 

Couston Nicholas (also his brother William) 

Cuyp, Jacob G., - 

Cuyp, Albert (son of above) 

Cuyp, Benjamin - - • - 

Daniel, Thomas ... 

Dannecker, John Henry — (Adriadne, &c.) 

David, James Louis, a celebrated 

David (Founder of recent French school) 

Delaroche, Paul 

D6nner, Balthaser 

Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexan- 
dria, &c.) .... 

Dolci, Carlo - - . - 

Domenichino (excelled in expression) 

Donatello, or Donato, a Florentine 

Douw. Gerard .... 

Dubuffe - . . - 

Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonso 

Dunlap, William 

Durer, Albert (and author) 

Eberhardt 

Eginton, Francis (r(;storer of the art of paint- 
ing on glass) .... 

Etty, William 

E u pom pus (founder of school at Sicy on) _ - 

Eyck, John Van (said to have invented paint- 
ing in oil) .... 
Flaxman, John 

Fuseli, Henry (resided in England) - 
Gainsborough, Thomas 

Ghiberti, Laurence, a Florentine 

Gibson - - ... 

Giordani, Luke (The Proteus of painting) 

Giorgione, Barbarelli - 

Giotto (one of the earliest modern) • 
Giraldon, Francis 
Girodet — Trioson, Aime Louis 
Gougon. John (" The French Phidias ") - 
Guercino (real name Francis Barbieri) _ - 
Guido Reni (excelloJ in beauty of expression 
and grace) - > • • 



Painter 

Painter 

Sculptor 

Landscape 4" Cattle Pa. 

Landscape Sj" Cattle Pa. 

Historical Painter 

Landscape Painter 

Sculptor 

Painter 

Sculptor 

Historical Painter 

Portrait Painter 



1756 
1603 
1577 
1500 
1604 
f. B.C. 300 
1740 
1781 
1763 
1240 
1600 
f. B. c. 180 



1802 
1788 
1776 
1689 
1737 
1493 
1596 
1621 
1658 
1568 
1606 
1650 



1758 
1750 
1780 

1685 



Architect • f. b. c. 330 

Scripture Painter 1616 

Painter - - 1581 

Sculptor - 1383 

Familiar Life Painter 1613 
Historical Painter 
Painter 

Historical Painter - 176G 

Pa. Eng. Sc. ^ Arch. 1471 
Sculptor 

Painter • - 1737 

Historical Painter 1789 
Painter 

Painter - 1370 

Sculptor ' • 1755 

Painter - 1741 

Landscape Painter • 1727 

Sculptor - 1378 
Sculptor 

Painter • - 1629 

Painter - 1477 

Painter, Sculp. S; Arch. 1276 

Sculptor - - 1630 

Painter - 1767 
Sculptor 

Painter • 1590 

Painter • • 1674 



DIK1>. 

1718 

1822 

1619 
1601 
1609 



1827 
1667 
160S 
1570 
1674 

1826 
1841 
1810 
1300 
1682 

i.8-14 
1848 

1837 
1776 
1815 
1534 
1669 
1673 
1731 
1649 
1667 

1840 
1841 
1825 



1747 



1686 
1641 
1466 
1674 



J 528 



1805 
.'849 



1441 

1826 
1825 
1788 
.456 

1704 
1511 
1336 
1715 
1824 
1572 
16(.6 

1642 



690 



THE world's progress 



NATION 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Flem. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Flem. 

Dutct. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

.tal. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ensf. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Span. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Swiss. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital, 

Gr. 

Ital 

Dutch 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Gr, 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gr 



NAME AND PKOFESSION. 

Harlow, George Henry 

Ilayilon, R. B. - - - 

Ueuth, CliMi'les ... 

Hilton, William 

Ilobbema. Myiulerhout 

IlDgarth, William 

Holbein, Hans 

Hollar, Wenceslaus (executed 2400 plates) Engraver 

Hoaihorst, Gerard (called Gherarda dal Notte> Painter 



BOKM. 

1787 
1785 



Hiiubraken, .Jacob (60Q portraits) 
Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) 
Huuel, .John (Picturesque Travels, &c.) 
Inman, Ileni-y 

Huysum, ,Iohn Van (flowers and tVuit) 
Jones, Inigo - . . - 

Jordaens, Jacob .... 
Julio, Romano 

Kauffman, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) - 
Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) 
Landseer, Edwin - - - - 

Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) 
Landon. C. P. (more eminent as an author of 

works on the fine arts) 
Lawrence, sir Thomas 
Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV ) 
Leiy, sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Painter 
Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) - Painter 

Leyden, I,ucas. Dammesz - - - Painter 4* Engraver 

Liverseege, Henry - - - Painter 



Painter 

Historical Painter 
Engraver 

Historical Painter 1786 

Landscape Painter • 1611 
Painter - 1697 

Portrait ^ Historical Pa. 1493 
1607 
1592 
1698 
1746 
1736 
1801 
1682 
1572 
1595 
1492 
1747 
1648 



Engraver - 

Sculptor 

Painter Sj" Engraver 

Portrait Sj- Landsc. Pa. 

Painter 

Architect 

Painter 

Painter ^' Architect • 

Poetical Painter - 

Painter 

Animal fy Historical Pa. 

Painter 6f Engraver 



Painter 

Portrait Sf Hist. Painter 

Painter 



1640 



1769 
1619 
1618 
1617 
1494 
1803 



Scu'ptor 



f. B. c. 324 
1777 
1460 
1402 



Lysippus (made 60) statues) 

Malbone. Edward G. - - - Miniature Painter 

Matsys. Quintin - . . . Painter 

Masaccio - . . . - Painter 

Mayer ..... Sadptor 

Mazzuolo, Francis - - - Painter 

Mengs, Anthony R. (the Raphael of Germany) Painter 

Mignard, Peter - - - - ' 

Mind, Gottfried 

Moreland, George 

Murillo, Bartholomew S. 

Newton, Gilbert Stuart 

NoUekins, Joseph ... 

Northcote, James ... - 

Opie, John .... 

Ostade. Adrian Van (interiors) 

Ostade. I.«aac (winter scenci) 

Owen, William .... 

Pajou, Augusiin ... 

Palladio, Andrew 

Palomino de Castro Y Velasco, A. A. 

Parrhasius, of Epliesus - • 

Peale, Charlej W. - 

Perrault, Claudius (designed the Front of the 

Louvre) .... 
Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) 
Petitot, Jolin (excelled in enamel) 
Phidias (tlie most famous of ancieni sculptors) 
Picart, Bernard 

Pigalle, John Baptiste . - . 

Pifes, Roger de (an author and painter) - 
Piranesi, John Baptiste (16 vols, folio) 
Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) 
Ponlenone, Regillo da - 

Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) 
Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landsc. painting) Painter 
Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) landscape - Painter 

Praxiteles .... Sculptor - f. B. c 

Pratt, Matthew ... Painter 

Prudhon, of Cluny • - • Painter 

Puget, Peter .... Sculp. Pa. ^ Arch. 

Pythagoras ' ... ScuqUor 



Paiyiter 

Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Historical Painter 

Sculptor 

Painter 

Painter 

Familiar Life Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Sculptor 

Arcldtect 

Painter 

Painter • f . b 

Histor. Sf Portrait Pa. 



Architect 

Painter 

Painter 

Sculptor 

Engraver 

Sculptor 

Painter 

Engraver 

Sculptor 

Painter 

Painter 



1503 
1729 
1610 
1763 
1764 
1613- 
1785 
1737 
1746 
1761 
1610 
1617 
1769 
1730 
1518 
1653 
c. 420 
1741 

1613 

1446 
1607 

c. 498 
1663 
1714 
1635 
1707 

c. 430 
15S4 
1625 
1594 
1613 
350 
1734 
1760 
1622 



DIED 

1S19 
1S46 
1849 
1839 
1699 
1764 
1554 
1677 
1660 
1780 
18:^ 
1813 
1846 
1749 
1652 
1670 
1545 
1807 
1723 

1711 

1826 
18:30 
1690 
1680 
1655 
1533 
1S32 

1807 
1529 
1427 

1540 
1779 
1695 
1814 
1804 
1682 
1835 
1823 
1831 
1807 
1685 
1671 
1825 
1809 
1580 
1726 

1827 

1688 
1524 
1691 
c. 43! 
17.33 
1785 
1709 
1778 



1654 
1005 
1675 



18-23 
1694 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



691 



iTATION 

Ital. 

Ital. 

En?. 

Fr" 

Eng. 

l-al! 

Ens. 

Fleni. 

Scotch. 

Duich. 

Djtcli. 

Ell- 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Raphael O'eal name Sanzio) a pre-eminem Painter 

llf-mbranilt. Paul - - - Painter • 

Ileyiiolds. sic .Joshua - - - Pdinter 

Roland, Philip L. (Elomer ia the Louvre) Sculptor 

Romney, George ... - Painter 
Rosa, Sal '/ator (scenes of gloom) - Painter 

Ilowlanrlson, Th. (caricature — Dr. Syntax, &c.) Painter ^ Engraver 



Rubens, Peter Paul, a celebrated 

Riincimfin, Ale.xauder ... 

Riiysilael, .Jacob 

P>.uysdael, Sulomon ... 

Rysbrach, .John Michael (works in Westmin- 
ster Abbey) .... 
Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael 
Ital. S:irto, Andrea del— see Vanucchi 
Ital. Scamozzi, Vincent 
Ger. Schadow Rudolf 
Dutch. Schalk-en, Godfrey (candlelight scenes) 
Gr. Scopas .... 

Eng. Sharp, William .... 
Eng. Sherwin, .John Keyse - - . 

Amer. Smyliert. .John .... 
Fiem. Snyders, Francis (landscape and animal) 
Fr. Sonfilnt,.!. G. (church of St.Genevieve at Paris) 

Dutch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan (flower) 
Scotch. Stransre. Robert 



Eng. 
Eng. 

Amer. 

Flem. 

Flem. 

Dae. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Sic. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Am. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ens. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Dutch. 

Ens. 

Eng. 

Kal. 



Painter 
Painter 

Landscape Painter 
Painter 

Sculptor 
Architect 

Architect 

Sculptor 

Painter ' 

Sculptor 

Engraver 

Engraver 

Painter 

Painter 

Architect 

Painter 

Engraver 

Painter 

Architect 
Portrait Painter 
Painter 



Strutt, .Joseph (an author and painter) 
Stuart, .James (author of the " Antiquities of 
Athens") .... 

Stuart, Gilbert (pupil of Benjamin West) 
Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) 
Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) Painter 
Thorwaldsen Albert - - - Sculptor 

Tiraanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) Painter • , 
Tintoretto (a Venetian— pupil of Titian) - Painter 

Titian (the greatest painter of Venetian school) Painter 
Trumbull, John - - - - Historical Painter 

Vanbrush. sir. In. (Blenheim and Castle Hovtaxii) Architect 
Vandervelde, William (marine and battle) - Painter • 
Vandervelde, the younger - Painter 

Vandervelde, Adrian - - - Landscape Painter 

Vanrlerwerf, Adrian - - - Historical Painter 

Vandyke, sir Anthony (the greatest of portrait 



Portrait Painter 

Painter 

Architect 

Architect Sp Painter 

Engraver 

Painter 

Painter 

Historical Painter 

Landscape Painter 



painters) 
Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto 
Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan 
Vasari, George (a biographer of artists) 
Vasi, Jo.=:eph, a (ie-'^igner and - 
Velasquez, .James R. de Sylvia Y 
Vernet, .Joseph 
Vernet, Horace 

Ver Bryck C. - - - 

Verrochio, Andrew (inventor of the method of 

taking the features in a plaster mould) - Sculptor 

Veronese. Paul (see Cagliari) 

Vertue, Georse (500 plates) - - Engraver 

Vienola, .Tames (Caprarola palace and St. Peter's)^rc/i27ec^ 
Vinci, Leonardo da - - - Painter 

Vitruvius (temp. Augustus) • - - Architect 

Volpato. John .... Engraver 
Vouet, Simon, founder of Fr. sch.(temp. Chas. I.) Painter 
Wailly, Charles de - - - Architect 

Warren, Charles ( per fecter of engraving onsteel) Engraver 
West. Beniamin " 



Wilkie, David 

Wilson, Richard ... 

Woollet, William 

VVouvermans, Philip - 

Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) 

Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c.) 

Zablia, Nicholas 



Painter 

Familiar Life Painter 

Landscape Painter 

Engraver - 

Painter 

Architect 

Architect 

Architect 



BORN. 

1483 
1606 
1723 
1746 
1734 
1614 
17.56 
1577 
1736 
1636 
1616 

1694 

1484 

15G0 

1786 

1643 

c. 460 

1740 

1728 
1579 
1714 
1746 
1721 
1749 

1713 

1756 
15S2 
1610 
1772 
. c. 420 
1512 
W30 
17.56 
1672 
1610 
1633 
1639 
1654 

1598 
1488 
1700 
1512 
1710 
1599 
1714 

1813 

1422 

1684 
1507 
1452 
I. c. 30 
1733 
1582 
1729 

1738 
1785 
1713 
1735 
1620 
• 1632 
1743 
1674 



DIED. 

1520 
1647 
1792 
1BI6 
1802 
1673 
1827 
164C 
1785 
163-1 
1670 

1770 
1559 

1616 

1822 
1706 
B. c. 353 
1824 
1790 
1751 
1657 
1781 
1822 
1722 
1802 

1788 
1828 
1649 
1694 

1844 

1594 

1579 

184 

1726 

1693 

1707 

1672 

1718 

1641 
1530 
1773 
1574 

1782 
1660 
1789 

1844 

1488 

1756 
157S 
1519 

1802 
1649 
1798 
1S23 

182a 

1841 
1782 
1785 
1668 
1723 
1313 
17S0 



692 



THE world's progress. 



NATION , NAME AND PKOFESSION. _ 

Gr. Zeuxis, a celebrated ancient - ^ En^Zl Portrait Pa. 

Ger. Zincke - In j-i Vninler 

Ital. Zuccaro, or Ziicchero, Tadcleo - - f". J^ . 

Ital. Zuccaro. or Zucchero, Frederigo - i,«j.||j^ ^ 

ItAl Zuccaielli 



BORN, 

0. '190 
10S4 
1520 
ir-39 
1710 



DIED. 

c. 4(10 
1767 

1619 
I78d 



ADDENDA 



TO 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

1855. 



ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States.— (p. 152.) On the deatli of Pre- 
sident Taylor, July 9, 1850 — 

MiLLAKD Fillmore, of New-York (Vice-President) became President. lie appointed, 

soon after, tlie following Cabinet, viz. : — 
Daniel "Webster, Massachusetts, Secretary of State. 

Tliomas Corwin, Oliio, Secn-tary of 'I'reas'y. 

Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, Secretary of War. 

"William A. Graham, North Carolina, Sec'ry of tiie Xavy. 

A. 11. 11. Stewart, Virginia, Sec'ry of Interior. 

Nathan K. Hall, New-York, Post Master General. 

John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney General. 

"William li. King, Alabama, was elected Preset of the Senate, 

and became Acting Vice Pres't of U. S. 
Howell Cobb, Georgia (contimced in office), t c i * rr -o 

Linn Boyd, Kentucky, December, 18.51. J Speakers of IL Eeps, 

Omissions on page 152, ^^ World's Progress!* 

Hugh S. Legate, S.Carolina, May 9, c?iV7 June 20. 1S43, )-, ^ q. . 

John C. Calhoun, S. Carolina, March 6, 18 IJ, to Mar. 1, 1845, f^^cs. or state. 

Geo. M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1S45, Sec. of Treas. 

"Wm. Wilkins, Pennsylvania, Feb. 15, 1844, to .March 3, 1845, Sec. of War. 



Tiios. W. Gilmer, 

John Y. Mason, Virginia, 



Feb. 15,1844, died Feb. 28,1844, ) ^ f -k- 

March 14, 1344, to Mar. 3, ISA ^ ^*-'"- ^^ ^^^^• 



Franklin Pierce, of N. Hampshire, inaugurated Mar. 4, 1853, President, Salary, $2.5.000. 
Vice-President— vacant, by death of Hon. Wm, K. King, April IS, 18.53 — 8J000. 

THE CABIKET. 

William L. Marcy, of New-York, Secretary of State, Salary, %3000. 

James Guthrie, Kentucky, Secretary of Treasury, 8000. 

Eobert MCielland, Michigan, Secretary of Interior, 8000. 

James C. Dobbin, North Carolina, Secretary of Navy, 8000, 

Jctferson Davis, Mississippi, Secretary of AVar, 8(H)0. 

James Campbell, Pennsylvania, Post Master General, 8000. 

Caleb Cusliing, Massachusetts, Attorney General, 8000. 

THE JCDICIAET. — SCPEEMH COUET OF THE TTKITED STATES, 

Eoger B. Taney, of Maryland, Chief Justice, Salary, $5000. 

Jolin MLean, Ohio, Associate .Justice. 

James M. Wayne, Georgia, Associate .Justice. 

John Catron, Tennessee, A.ssociate Justice. 

Peter V. Daniel, Virginia, Associate .Justice. 

Samuel Nelson, New- York, Associate Justice. 

Kobert C. Grier, Pennsylvania, Associate .Justice. 

Benjamin R. Curtis, ilassachusetts. Associate Justice. 

John A. Campbell, Alabama, Associate Justice. 
Salary of Associate Justices, $1500. Meets December 4, at Washington. 

ADVERTISEMENTS. The number of advertisements in the 159 London 
papers, in 1850, was 891,650, the duty on which, at Is. 6d. each, amounted 
to £66,873 158. In the 222 provincial papers, 875,631 advertisements; ir 



694 THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. 

102 Irish papers, 236,128; and in the Scottish papers, 249,141. The Times 
supplement, January 23, 1843, contained 1706 advertisements, one page of 
■which, embracing six columns, yielded £108. 

APRICA. The British forces defeated with considerable loss in their engage- 
ment with the Caffres of South Africa, December 29, 1850. The Caffrea 
attack Fort White, Cape of Good Hope, January 3, 1851, but are repulsed, 
•with loss of twenty killed. January 7, the Caffres, in their attack on Fort 
Beaufort, are completely routed, and their chief, Hermanns, and his son, 
killed. Three thousand Caffres attack the colonists, near Fort Hare, January 
23, but are driven back, with loss of one hundred killed. February 23d — 
Colonel Somerset burns Fort Hamilton, which had been abandoned by the 
British, killing ninety Caffres, and taking two hundred and thirty prisoners. 
May 31, 1851, the Hottentots of the Theopolis Mission Station, Lower Alban}-, 
join in the insuri'ection. They are defeated in actions with the English troops 
on the 3d and 5th of June. February 10, 1853 — Sandili, and other Caffre 
chiefs, send in their submission to General Cathcart, thereby closing the war. 

The peace is concluded on the 9tli of March. 

J. G. Richardson, the Afi'iean traveler, dies atUngurta, six days' distance from 
Kouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4, 1851. 

After five years' unceasing and determined efforts, the grand attempt for 
discovering and laying open Inner Africa, known as the " Expedition to Cen- 
tral Africa," has been crowned with a fresh success — more important than 
all previous ones — by the return of the exploring steamer Pleiad, after a most 
successful voyage up the Eiver Chadda. The expedition has fully confirmed 
the importance of the discoveries made by Dr. Bath, in 1851. 

The Pleiad left England in the latter end of May last, under the most favorable 
auspices, and reached Fernando Po on the 28th of June. Here she was to re- 
ceive an augmentation to her force, in the person of Mr. Consul Becreft, as 
commander; but, owing to the lamented death of this experienced Afi-ican 
traveler, Dr. W. B. Baikie, R. IST., was appointed as the temporary leader of 
the expedition ; and subsequently assumed the entire charge, when, in tlie 
beginning of the voj^age, the sailing-master, in consequence of incapacity and 
apathy, was displaced. 

The Pleiad steamed up the Niger Delta in the beginning of July — ascended 
the Chadda, 250 miles above Allen and Oldfield's furthest point — and reached 

*to within about fifty miles of the confluence of the Benueh and Faro — the 
furthest ever reached by a European vessel on an African river. Thus it has 
been proved that the Chadda and Benueh are one and tlie same river, and that 
this river is navigable up to Yol*" je capital of Adamaua, visited by Dr. 
Bath. The longitude of the posi^, j*ns assigned by the latter to that region, 
is upward of one degree too far to the east, which corresponds with the dif- 
ference found by Dr. Yogel in the countries around Lake Tsad. Th-e river 
was in high flood and plenty of water, and the good-will and friendship of 
the natives were universally secured. On the 7th of November last, the 
Pleiad had returned to Fernando Po. 

But the most important point, and Avhich marks a new era in African geo- 
graphical discoveries, is, that very little sickness was experienced; and, what 
has never occurred befoi'e, that not a single life was lost, white or black — 
thus pi-oving the possibility of leading a party of Europeans into the interior, 
by these rivers, and bringing them back again in safety. The party was a 
mixed one ; some of the whites had never been in a tropical climate ; the 
majority had never been in Africa, Dr. Baikie himself included. Altogether 
tiie party nximbered sixty-six, including Kroomen and native interpreters 



ADDENDA. 695 

and they were 118 days in the river — twice as long as the great expedition 
of 1842, which ended in so fearful a loss of life. It must be interesting to 
learn that the safety of the members of the Chadda Expedition is attributed:—- 

First, To having entered the river at the proper season, viz., on the rising water. 

Second, To having induced all the Europeans to take quinine daily. 

Third, To carrying the green wood, used for fuel, in the iron canoes, and not 
stowing it in the bunkers. 

Fourth, To passing all the water used for cooking and drinking through the 
boiler of the " Expedition," scraping decks instead of washing them, using 
Sir William Burnett's solution of zinc freely, and pumping out the bilge- 
water daily. 

And last, though not least. To keeping up the spirits of the men by music, 
tfec, (fee. 

" Here, then, at last, the problem is solved, and Central Africa can be explored, 
in safety, by Europeans, through her natural channels, at a cost of a few 
thousand pounds per annum," 

It is much to be regretted that the expedition has not met with Dr. Barth or 
Dr. Vogel, nor brought any news of them beyond what is already known. 
Dr. Baikie heard of them, and showed the natives their likenesses — contained 
in the work published by me last year — when they recognized Dr. Vogel 
Probably, by not taking the direct route to Yola, but a circuitous one, in 
order to traverse unexplored regions, and to add to the amount of his re- 
searches, the latter traveler was delayed, and thus prevented meeting the 
Chadda Expedition. 

The Rev, David Livingston, English Missionary, set out from the Cape of Good 
Hope, in May, 1852, for the purpose of exploring the interior of the conti- 
nent of Africa, and, at the same time, entering into friendly relations with 
the native tribes, with a view to the future establishment of missionary sta- 
tions among them. Mr. Livingston, after a journey of about eight months 
from the Cape, and having passed Lake N'Gami to the westward, arrived on 
the banks of the Zambeze, where, between 14 and 18 degrees of south lati- 
tude, it flows north and south, in the center of the continent. In the country 
of the Zambeze, Mr. Livingston was received in the most friendly manner, 
by Sekeletu, the paramount chief, and he remained there about eight months, 
for the purpose of propagating the Gospel, and acquiring a knowledge of the 
country and its inhabitants. Sekeletu, desirous of following up the policy 
of his father, Sebitoani, to open iip commercial intercourse with Europeans, 
aflorded Mr. Livingston every facility for prosecuting his journe}' to the sea- 
coast on the westward; consequently, in November, 1853, he started from 
the capital of Sekeletu, on the Chobe, and ascended one of the branches of 
the Zambeze, which flows through a portion of Balonda country, the lord of 
which is Mateamvo, reported to be the most powerful chief in the interior 
of this part of Africa. The inhabitants of this country were disposed to 
treat Mr. Livingston in the most friendly manner. Mr. Livingston arrived 
at Cassange in April, 1854, having experienced considerable obstructions from 
the native tribes, with whom he came in contact as he approached the Por- 
tuguese territory, to the westward. As soon, however, as he entered within 
the limits of the province of Angola, he received every attention and facility 
from the several Portuguese authorities in the intei'ior. Notwithstanding 
the unfavorable season of the year, and the continuous heavy rains which 
Mr. Livingston experienced during his journey, many astronomical observa 
tions were taken, which will enable him to determine with accuracy the posi- 
tion of most of the important points on the route. Mr. Livingston arrive*^ 
at St. Paul de Loanda, May 31, 1864. 



Maryland 


21,950 


New Jersey 


24,504 


Delaware 


6,225 


Michigan - 


34,699 


Wisconsin 


22.062 


Iowa - 


15,500 ^ 


CN. France. 


United States. Ettssia. 


72,000,000 


118,000.000 243,000,000 


576,000.000 


100,000,000 1,400,000,000 


9,000,000 


*19,000.000 25,000,000 


2,818,000 


5,000,000 18,000,000 


32,00:),000 


22,000,000 50,000,000 


5,000,000 


80,000,000 12,000,000 


86,000,000 


23,000,000 68,000,000 



696 THE world's progress. 

AGRICULTURE, U. S., 1851. The following are the number of farms in several 
states, as reported iu the last census : — 

New York - - - 1T4.234 

Pennsylvania ... 127,733 

Oliio .... 146,821 

Indiana .... 101,973 

Virijiiiia = = - ~ 76,791 

Illinois .... 71,062 

Kentucky - - - 77,290 

Geeat Beitain. 
Acres of Land in Cultivation, 22,000,000 

Biusliels of Wheat, av. per annum, 336.000,000 
Number of Horned Cattle, 18,000,000 

TSTuuiber of Horses, 1,600,000 

Number of Sheep and Goats, 50,000,000 

Number of Swine, 19,000,000 

Population of each country, 27,000,000 

ALABAMA, November, 1851. The governor, in his message, recommends a 
discriminating tax on all articles from those states that continue slave agita- 
tion. The population of this state, 18*50, according to census returns, was: 
White, 426,515; free colored, 2,250 Total free, 428,765; slaves, 342,894. 
Fed. Rep. Pop., 634,501. 

ALFRED THE GREAT. A medal, commemorative of the 1000th anniversary 
of this monarch, was struck, in 1849, with the legend: "Alfred and his 
children, the British Empire, United States, and Anglo-Saxons every where !" 

ALMANACS. The almanac was canonized as Sf. Almachius, in the Roman 
Calendar. — H. Wharton's Life of Loyola^ 1688. Almanacs first pi'inted at 
Constantinople, September, 1806. Regiomontaniis supposed to be indebted for 
his formula, 1474, to the Persian almanacs. — E7icy. Metrop. The popular 
almanac in Shakspeare's time was that of Leonard Digges. — C. Knight. la 
1851, Dr. McGowan, laboring in China for the Missionary Union, prepai'ed 
a philosophical almanac in the language of that country, exhibiting to the 
Chinese the realities of science, and particularly detailing the principles of 
the Magnetic Telegraph. — See World's Progress, p. 162. 

ALMANACS AND ALMANAC-MAKERS. The word itself is of imsettled origi. 
Most antiquaries have supposed that the "^i," in this word, is derived froux 
the Arabic article, which signifies the; but then, some derive the remainder 
of the word from the Greek word, jj,avaKog — a lunary circle, or the course of 
months. Johnson takes it from the Greek, fzrjv — a month ; others from the 
Hebrew, Manach — to count — or mana — a reckoning ; others, again, from the 
Dutch, Maand, or German, Moand — the moon, or an account of every moon, 
&c. As the various rites and observances in most religions were regulated 
by the periods of the moon, none of these dei'ivations are improbable. It 
is certain that the word Calendar, which is used in connection with our 
almanacs, was derived from the Greek, Kaleo — / call — because a sacrifice 
was offered, at the appearance of the new moon, by the proclamation of the 
priest. It is singular that all should agree to take the first syllable, Al, from 
one language, and the two last from so many different ones. It is probable 
that Verstigan is more nearly right. He says that it is a Saxon word ; that 
the first of them were kept on carved sticks, which were called Al-ynon-aght — 
signifying, in old English, or Saxon, all-moon-heed, or the regard or observa- 
tion of all the moons, and hence the word Almanac. This latter seems, at 
least, to have been the more immediate derivation, and the former more 

♦ Nearly. 



ADDENDA. * gQ^ 

remote. The Egyptians computed time by instruments which were probably 
DO. so rustic as the carved sticks, which were the Runic Almanacs, used by 
the Danes, Swedes, and ]!^orwegians. These latter were called Reinstocks. 
Runstocks, Primstanes, Clogs, etc. The Egyptian Obelisks may yet prove to 
be almanacs or astrological calculations. The Egyptian priests called them 
hngers of the sun." ^ 

_ Sonie account of the principal Almanacs from the earliest times. 
l^eavmg the days of wooden almanacs, we find, as the first relic, "John Somer's 
Calendar, written at Oxford, in 1380 ; another in Lambeth palace, written in 

'^^'^^?Q P^'^^^^^e^ «°e was in 1472, by Martin Ilkus, at Buda, Poland ; and. 
in 1473, they were compiled, nearly in their present form, by John Muller 
otherwise Kegimontanus, a printer, at Nuremburg ' 

In 1497, Richard Pynson's, the first one, was printed in England. 

In 1533, Tybault — prognostications commenced. 

1784, Isaiah Thomas, one of the most noted of early printers of this country 
issued an almanac. These almanacs became a good advertising medium to 
booksellers. ° 

1793, "The Farmer's Almanac," by Robert B. Thomas. 

1806, first almanac printed at Constantinople, Turkey. 

1820, "The Ladies' and Gentlemen's Diary, or the United States Almanac and 
Repository of Science and Amusements," by M. Nash. 

1829, "American Almanac" commenced. 

We have thus detailed some of the principal of which the date of first pub= 
Jication has been found. Besides these, the following have been more or less 
noted: 'Goldsmith's Almanac," "Rider's Pocket Almanac," and "White's 
Ephemeris, or Celestial Atlas," "British Almanac and Companion." 

m tprmer times, the yearly almanac exercised a powerful influence on public 
opinion, and over public morals; and, in most cases, their use was perverted 
by the astrologers, to disseminate their ridiculous prophecies 

One of the most useful of late almanacs, is De Morgan's " Book of Almanacs " 
which IS good until A. D. 2000. 

AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776, the colors used in this country exhibited 
a snake with 13 rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white, by some 

. supposed in compliment to France, but, more recently, by others as repre- 
^f i'"^i -^ 1^. ^he armorial bearings of General Washington. A description 
ot this flag is given in a London paper, published in 1776. On the 14th June 
in the succeeding year, the American Congress resolved, "that the flag of the 
tliirteen United btates be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white ; that the 
union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field— representing * a new constel- 
lation. A new "star-spangled banner" made its appearance on the river 
Thames (London), October, 1851, showing five stars, emblematical of the 
British colonies of New South Wales, Victoria (Hong Kong), South Australia, 
Van Dieman's Land, and West Australia. 

AMERICAN LIFE. There is something in American life and climate which 
reduces the physical standard, aff^ectiug the complexion, hair, muscular form, 
leet and the bones. The jaws, so our dentists declare, are narrowed, and can 
contain but fourteen teeth in each jaw. Every parent should, therefore, 
conduct 'Young America," at an early age, to be deprived of two of his den- 
tals— tis a sacrifice to the Indian god, whose altars he has overthrown 

^^^^Pf ^^^^™^^'^^^^- The first English work written in America was 
5?^/^^ J^'^''*^^^'^'' ""f ^^'^ Metamorphoses; Dr. W. Yaughan's poem of the 
U-oldenJileece was written about the same time. Jocelya, who wrote the 



608 THE world's progress. 

/ 

New England Rarities, and his Two Voyages, brought ovei' a version of part o\ 
the Psalms, by Quarles, which, if approved by the Minister at Boston, was 
to have succeeded Sternhold and Hopkins in the IS'ew World. The first work 
printed was the FreetnaiC s Oath, Cambridge, 1639 ; the second, an Almanac, 
calculated for New England, by Pierce, a mariner ; and the third, The Psalms, 
newly turned into meter. — Dr. Holmes^ s American Annals. 

A3IUSEMENTS, London. The amount annually expended in London for sight- 
seeing, theaters, etc., is estimated at about four millions sterling. 

AMUSEMENTS, Public, New-York, April, 1851 :— 

Nine Theaters, with audiences nightly of ----- - 15,900 

Four Minstrel Concerts, " " . . - . . 2,300 

Three Panoramas, " " 600 

Nightly audiences at Public Amusements in New- York, - - 18,800 

The average nightly receipts, exclusive of Astor Opera House (not obtained,) 

amounted to $5,800. 
The Astor Opera House has since been purchased by the Mercantile Library 

Association, and its place supplied by the Academy of Music erected in 

Fourteenth street, by a company of stockholders. 
The receipts of theaters, public balls, and concerts, in Paris, during the month 

of March, 1855, were 1,283,000 francs, or 14,000 more than for the cox"res- 

ponding month of 1854. 

ANAESTHETICS. Chloroform is now generally regarded as dangerous; but it 
is said that there is no well-authenticated instance of loss of life by ether. 
A new anaesthetic has been discovered by Mr. Ai^nott, of London, w^hich is 
adapted to all the smaller operations, and even to many of the larger ones, 
and which can by no possibility ever destroy life. This is ice and salt, in 
the proportion of two parts to one, finely pounded, and applied directly to 
the skin where the incision is to be made, for a period of time varying from 
four to five minutes, by inclosing the mixture in a fine gauze bag. The pai*t 
will harden, whiten, and become completely benumbed, with the appearance 
of the thinnest icing on a cake, and cracking a little when pressed upon by 
the fingers. 

ANCHORS. — A series of experiments, made in England in 1852, give the fol- 
lowing results: — 



Anchors. 


Weight. 


Proof 
Strain. 


First 
Crack. 


Broke. 


Time in 
Breaking. 




Owt. qr. 


lbs. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Minutes. 


Lieutenant Eodgers's, 


19 


8 


191 


45 


73V 


21 


Mitcbeson's, 


21 





21f 


— 


— 


— 


Brown & Lennox's, 


20 3 


14 


21 


44.^ 


47 


7 


Isaac's, - - - 


21 


14 


21^ 


53 


63 


10 


Trotman's, 


21 1 


10 


2U 


51 


53.]- 


18 


Honiball's, - 


20 3 


7 


21 i 


54 


75.V 


42 


Admiralty's 


20 2 


6 


2U 


40 


561- 


26 


Aylen's, 


21 1 





2U 


44 


4T4 


6 



ANGLO-SAXONS. It may be assumed, on the most moderate data, that up- 
wards of 51,000,000 of the human race now speak the language of Shak- 
speare, Bacon, and Newton. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Dispatches received by British Government, Septem- 
ber, 1851, confirming the statement that traces of Sir J. Franklins party had 
been discovered, showing that they had passed their first winter, 1845-6, in 



ADDENDA. 699 

the bay bet-ween Beechey Island and Cape Riley, and that their depavture 
had been sudden. The vessels Advance and Rescue, nobly dispatched by Mr, 
Grinnell, in aid of this expedition, in May, 1850, were frequently in commu- 
nication with the British party, and returned to New York October, 1851. 

Dr, Kane, through the liberality of Mr. Henry Grinnell, of New York, started 
on his second expedition, in search of Sir John Franklin, May 31, 1853, in 
the Advance. The English ships, sent for the same pui-pose, have all returned 
or been abandoned by their crews ; but bring no tidings of Kane. The possi- 
bility of relieving Franklin has been put at rest by the melancholy tidings, 
communicated by Dr. Rae, of the discovery of the bones of this celebrated 
navigator. 

The public anxiety once felt for Franklin, is now turned towai^ds Kane. In- 
fluenced by this circumstance, the United States Government have fitted out 
an expedition, which sailed from New-York, June 1, 1855, for the relief of 
Kane and his party^ consisting of a bark and a propeller, under the com- 
mand of Lieutenant Hartstein, and thoroughly equipped and provided for 
the service. These vessels are provisioned for three years. 

ARMY (Standing), Austrian. The Austrian army, though managed up to 1849 
according to a cumbrous and old-fashioned system, was entirely remodeled 
in that year. The defeats in Hungary had as great a part in it as the victo- 
ries in Italy.' The administration was freed from old ti^aditional hindrances. 
The army, employed in a country where revolution in the capital, and civil 
war in the provinces, had only just been subdued, was organised on a regular 
war footing. The distribution of the army into permanent brigades, divisions, 
and corps, as it existed under Napoleon, and as it exists now in the Russian 
active army, was introduced with success. The seventy-seven regiments of 
infantry, besides riflemen, and forty regiments of cavalry, which had been 
split up during both the Italian and Hungarian campaigns — not onl}^ bat 
talions of the same regiment, but even companies of the same battalions, 
being employed partly in Hungary, and partly in Italy, at the same time- 
were now reunited and brigaded in such a manner as to prevent any similar 
disorder, and to insure the regular coui'se of regimental administration. 
According to this new plan, the Austrian force is divided into four armies, 
composed of twelve corps d'armee and two corps of cavalry. Every army 
is not only complete in the three arms, but provided with a perfectly inde- 
pendent administrative staff, and the material to insure its immediate readi- 
ness for action. The first army — first, second, and ninth arm\^-corps — gener- 
ally occupies the German provinces of the empire; the second army — fifth, 
sixth, seventh, and eighth ai'my-corps, and second cavalry-corps, and the third 
army — tenth, eleventh, and twelfth army-corps, and first cavalry-corps — 
generally occupy the Hungarian and Sclavonic provinces ; while the fourth 
army, consisting only of the fourth army-corps, occupies Italy. 

Every army-corps consists of from two to three divisions of infantry, one or 
two brigades of cavalry, four batteries of reserve-artiller}", and the necessary- 
detachments of pontonniers, train-commissariat, and medical officers. A 
cavalry-corps consists of two divisions, equal to four brigades, or eight 
regiments of cavalry, with a corresponding number of light batteries. An 
infantry-division consists of two brigades of five battalions, with one foot- 
battery each, and from two to four squadrons of cavalry. 

The whole force, thus distributed, consists, as we have stated above, of seventy- 
seven regiments of infantry, besides riflemen, forty regiments of cavalry, and 
fourteen regiments of field-artillery, besides garrison-artillery, engineers, 
sappers, etc. The infantry is composed of sixty-two regiments of the line, 
fourteen and a third regiments of frontier-infantry, and one regiment and 



700 THE world's progress. 

twenty-five battalions of riflemen. A regiment of the line consists of five 
active and one depot battalion, or of twenty-eight active and four depot- 
companies. The active company numbers 220 men, the depot-company 130. A 
regiment of the line, consequently, is expected to. number, in its five active 
battalions, 5,964 men; or, for sixty-two regiments, inclusive of depots, 
369,800 men. The frontier-infantiy, counting fourteen regiments, has two 
active and one reserve battalion to each regiment, equal to twelve active 
and four reserve companies. The active company has the strength of 242 
men, inclusive of twenty-two riflemen. A frontier-regiment, therefore, num- 
bers 8,850 men, and the whole of the fourteen regiments number 55,200. 
The rifle-force, or Jagers, consists of one regiment of seven battalions — thirt}-- 
two companies, inclusive of depot; and twenty-five battalions — 125 compa- 
nies, inclusive of depots; every company numbering 202 men, making the 
entire rifle-force 32,500. The total is thus 470,000 men. 

The Austrian cavalry consists of sixteen heavy regiments — eight cuirassiers 
and eight dragoons, — and twenty-four light regiments — twelve hussars and 
twelve lancers. In the arm of cavalry, the diff'erent nationalities composing 
the Austrian Empire have each been used, very properly, according to tiieir 
distinctive capabilities. The cuirassiers and dragoons are almost exclusively 
Germans and Bohemians ; the hussars are all Hungarians, and the lancers 
are all Poles. In the infantry, a similar distinction could h^rrdly be kept up 
with any profit. As a general rule, the Germans and Hungarians form the 
elite battalions of grenadiers, while theT3'rolese — German and Italian — and 
the Styrians generally furnish the riflemen ; and the great majority of the 
frontier-infantry is composed of Croats and Servians, who are equally well 
adapted to the duties of light infantry. 

The heavy cavalry counts six active squadrons and one depot-squadron to 
each regiment — the squadron numbering 194 men. The light cavalry counts 
eight active and one depot-squadron to each regiment, with 227 men to each 
squadron. The entire active cavalry force is 62,500, without depots, and 
67,000 men, including depots. 

The artillery consists of twelve field-regiments, one coast-i'egiment, and one 
rocket-regiment. The Austrians have no horse-artillerj^ In what ti^oy call 
cavalry-artillery, the men serving the guns are transported on tlie carriages. 
Every field-regiment has four cavalry-batteries — six-pounders — and seven 
foot-batteries — four six-pounders and three twelve-pounders — besides reserve 
companies. Every battery has eight guns. The coast regiment has no per- 
manent batteries, but is only divided into battalions and companies, and 
employed for garrisoning the coast defenses. The rocket-regiment has eighteen 
batteries, of eight tubes each. The total of Austrian artillery is thus seen to 
be 1,056 guns, and 144 rocket-tubes. The artillery has, besides, eight bat- 
talions of garrison artillery, of about 10,400 men, with technical detachments, 
consisting of 4,500 men. The engineering troops number about 16,700 men. 

Besides these active, reserve, and garrison troops, Austria possesses separate 
corps, organised for special service, who, although not available as active 
combatants, prevent a reduction of the active force, by those drafts of men 
which very often reduce battalions to companies, and regiments of cavalry 
to squadrons. There are three sanitary battalions, train-troops ; and with 
every army-corps, a detachment of cavalry to do duty as orderlies. The 
latter institution has just been introduced into the English army, by the 
formation of the mounted staif-corps. The whole Austrian army counts, 
altogether, something like 476,000 men, and 1,140 guns, of active ti'oops ; 
including depots, technical troops, staff", garrison, and police ti'oops — gens 
d'arraes — they count about 620,000. 



ADDENDA. 701 

Tlie Austrian soldier serves eight years, remaining for two years more in tlie 
reserve. By this arrangement, a reserve is kept available, which, in the case 
of war, can be called out to the strei)gth of about 120,000 men. On the 
military frontiei", every Grenzer has to serve from his tv.^entieth to his fiftieth 
3-ear. Thus the active force of 55,000 frontier infantry can be increased up 
to 150,000 or 200,000 men. During the year of 1849, there were at least 
150,000 of them under arms. But, at that time, the military frontier was so 
deserted that the women had to do all the woi-k of husbandr}^ 

The sum total of these details, shows, that the military organisation of Austria 
allows her to take the field, at once, with a force of 600,000 men, of whom 
300,000, at the ntmost, may be made available on any given point ; and, at 
the same time, a i-esei've of about 200,000 veteran soldiers may be called out, 
Avithout the necessity of any extra recruiting, or extra strain upon the pro- 
ductive forces of the country. 

The Russian army is organised upon a footing which allows of far greater 
numbers being admitted into its frame-work. Tiie population of Russia is 
60,000,000, to Austria's 40,000,000 ; yet, we have seen that Au.'^tria, by merely 
calling in the reserves, can increase her army beyond 800,000 ; while Russia, 
in order to attain the same number, has been obliged not only to call in the 
reserves, but also to recruit fresh troops, at a ratio equal to four years' regu- 
lar con.scriptiou. 

ARMY (Stantding), English. Instead of one corps, to which all the military stafi: 
business is assigned, the English army has two principal militar}- staff de- 
partments — the adjutant general's and the quartermaster general's. The 
chief ofilcers of these are generals of the army, appointed temporarily on 
the staff; the inferior are appointed, in like manner, from the regiments. 
Neither class gain rank by these appointments. 

The adjutant general's is the department of military orders and regulations 
of the recruiting of the army, and of all correspondence connected with the 
discipline and equipment of the troops. 

The duties of the quartermaster general's department relate to the marching, 
embarking, transportation, billeting, encamping, and cantoning of the troops, 
and the distribution of their quarters. It is the office of all correspondence 
relating to military science and topography, maps, and plans. 

Besides these military departments of the staff, is the ordnance, which, though 
not stricUy a staff department, and having many important functions not of 
the staff, yet provides many supplies for the army, and is charged with much 
of that part of its staff business. 

The peace establishment, which has been gradually increased from the year 
1835 to 1852, averaged about 108,000. The establishment, however, previous 
to the present war, ranged as high as 113,000: — 

Home. Colonies. Total. 

PwCgularArmv, ..... 59,59S 39,116 98,714 

Ordnance, 8,588 5,612 14,2U0 

Totals, 68,186 44,T28 112,914 

This number was further increased to about 174,000, hy the addition of 18,054 
enrolled pensioners — home, 16,554; colonies, 1,950 — and about 14.626 volun- 
teer cor[)S, with 713 officers. To these might be added the 11,000 marines, 
and about 60,000 volunteer militia, making a land force for peace purposes 
of about 245,000 effective men. 

ARMY (Standing), French. The French staff is divided into two branches — a 
military and a civil. The military has charge of all that relates to ordei's. 



702 THE world's progress. 

movements, and military operations ; the civil furnishes all the supplies of 
the army. 

The officers who furnish the supplies have no rank. The military staff have 
rank, and succeed ordinai'ily to command by virtue of it. This military 
staff is composed of two classes of officers; the highest positions in it are 
filled by selection from the general officers of the army, so as to secure the 
best capacity and experience in the service. For the subordinate and more 
routine duties, they have a special corps ; but the functions of this corps are 
of much importance, and, to supply it with fit officers, they have provided a 
special military school, and a complete system of instruction in all its duties. 

The civil machinery of the French staff is now censured, b}^ some of their able 
military critics, as too expensive and too much removed from military con- 
trol. In these respects, it is contrasted with the Prussian system, where every 
branch of the army administration is brought under military supervision and 
direction ; to which are attributed that admirable efficiency, and economy, 
which enable Prussia to maintain so large an army in proportion to her 
revenue. In lieu of this control, the French system substitutes, as a ma- 
chinery of paper checks, a mass of writings, and an amount of bureau labor, 
which has been justly condemned as hardly possible in war, and as really 
affording no efficient security for the fidelity and economy of the expendi- 
tures. In a comparison of the relative expense of the two systems, the 
French is stated at more than $1,020,000 a year in salaries, and the Prussian 
at $19,000. 

Total of French army: Infantr}^, 371,214; cavalry, 71,031 ; artillery, 58,972; 
engineei's, 9322 — or of all arms, 510,539. A recent estimate raises it to 
700,000. 
A.RMY (Standing), Prussian. Active army, including the landwehr of the first 
band, 410,000. Landwehr of the second band, 115,000. Total, on a war 
footing, 525,000. 

A.RMY (Standing), Russian. The Russian army consists, as nearly as can be 
stated, of the following bodies: 1. The grand active army — Two corps of 
elite, guards and grenadiers, containing 76 battalions, 92 squadrons — 228 
guns; six corps of the line, 3,900 battalions, 192 squadrons — 672 guns; three 

cavalry coi-ps, , 176 squadrons — 96 guns. Total, 376 battalions, 460 

squadrons — 996 guns. 2. Special corps — Finland corps, 12 battalions; 
Orenburg corps, 10 battalions; Siberian corps, 15 battalions; Caucasian 
corps, 55 battalions, 10 squadrons — 180 guns; reserve Caucasian corps, 36 
battalions, 2 squadrons; Caucasian line, 47 battalions. Total, 175 bat- 
talions, 12 squadrons — 180 guns. 3. Cossacks and other irregulars — About 
700 squadrons, 32 battalions, and 224 guns. 4. Reserves— First, about 50 
battalions of interior guards; besides invalids, penal companies, 77. Second, 
reserve of the grand army; or fourth, fifth, and sixth battalions of guards 
and grenadiers, fifth and six battalions of the line, viz. : three battalions 
for twenty-four regiments, and two battalions each for seventy-two regi- 
ments ; or, in all, 216 battalions. As all the reserves are called in and fully 
organised, so far that the formation of the seventh and eighth battalions of each 
regiment has been commenced out of the lately decreed lev}' of 300,000 men, 
the above 216 battalions may be comprised in the grand total, which would 
give 726 battalions, 472 squadrons of regular, 700 squadrons of irregular 
cavalr^^ and considerably above 1000 guns. The organisation of the reserves 
for cavalry and artillerj'-, not being well known out of Russia, they are not 
included in the above. From this we must deduct, to arrive at the number 
of troops actually available for a European war, the Siberian corps, the 
internal guard, and at least one half of the Cossacks ; thus leaving available 



ADDENDA. 703 

about 650 battalions, 472 squadrons of regular and 350 squadrons of irregu- 
lar cavalry, Avith about 1200 guns. These troops may be estimated, at a very 
low figure, at 520,000 infantry, 62,000 cavahy, and 30,000 Cossacks; or 
rather more than 600,000 together, spread on the long line from the Caspian, 
along the Black Sea and the Baltic, to the White !Sea. According to tlie 
Almanac of Gotha, 799,000. 

ARMY (Standing), U. S. A, For military purposes, the territory of the United 
States is divided into five geographical commands : 1. The Department of 
the East, embracing all the country east of the Mississippi river. This de- 
partment has 2800 miles of seaboard, 1800 miles of foreign, and about 200 
miles of Indian frontier. Of the fifty permanent fortifications and barracks, 
on the Lake, Atlantic, and Gulf coasts, now completed or nearly so, and 
requiring garrisons to protect the posts, cities, and national establishments 
which they cover, only eleven are now garrisoned, leaving the remainder 
exposed to a sudden or unexpected attack from any naval power. The total 
force in this department, at the date of the last returns, was onl-y 1574 
officers and men ; and of this number, 500 are employed on the *^Indian 
frontier of Florida. 2. The Department of the West includes the country 
between the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains, except the depart- 
ments of Texas and New Mexico. It has a seaboard, foreign and Indian 
frontier of 2400 miles, 2000 miles of routes through the Indian country, 
constantly traversed by emigrants on their way to Utah, New Mexico, and 
our possessions on the Pacific, and an Indian population of 180,000, a large 
proportion of whom are, in feeling, hostile to us, and many of them at this 
time actively so. The total force in the department, at the date of the last 
returns, was 1855 officers and men. 3. The Department of Texas. Nearly 
the whole of that state has a seaboard frontier, not yet protected by forti- 
fications, of 400 miles, a foreign and Indian frontier of nearly 2000 miles, 
and communications through the Indian countrj^ of more than 1200 miles. 
The Indian population is estimated at 30,000, nearly all of whom are 
.nomadic and predatory; and the western and northern frontiers of the 
state are exposed to constant inroads from the Indians of Mexico and tlie 
plains. The force in that department, at the date of the last returns, was 
2886 officers and men. 4. The Department of New Mexico. This depart- 
ment has an Indian and foreign frontier of 1500 miles, communications 
through the Indian country of more than 1000 miles, and an Indian popu- 
lation of 50,000, a great proportion of whom are bands who do not 
acknowledge the authority of the United States. The force in this depart- 
ment, at the date of the last returns, was 1654 officers and men. 5. The 
Department of the Pacific, embracing the state of California, and the terri- 
tories of Oregon, Washington, and Utah, and a part of the territory of New 
Mexico. This depax-tment has a seaboard frontier of 1500 miles, entirely 
unprotected by fortifications, except the works in progress at San Francisco, 
an Indian and foreign frontier of sixteen hundred miles, and more than 
two thousand miles of communications through the Indian country, an 
Indian population of 134,000, who are becoming formidable from concen- 
tration, from the acquisition of fire-arms, and a knowledge of their use. 
The force in this department is only 1365 officers and men ; but, as hereto- 
fore mentioned, they will be increased by an additional regiment ordered 
there. To recapitulate : We have a seaboard and foreign frontier of more 
than 10,000 miles, an Indian frontier, and routes through the Indian country, 
requiring constant protection, of moi-e than 8000 miles, and an Indian 
population of more than 400,000, of whom, probably, one half, or 40,000 
warriors, are inimical, and only wait the opportunity to become activo 



704 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



enemies. If onr army sliould be expanded to .its greatest limit, it would 
have a force of 14,731 officei's and men ; but, as a large allowance must 
always be made for absentees, invalids, etc., the effective force would proba- 
bly never exceed 11,000. Total expenditure of the War Department for the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1854, was $11,733,629.48. The entire military 
establishment of the Roman empire did not exceed 450,000 men. 

ARSJENALS. 



Posts. 


State or Territory. 


Post Office. 


Permanent Commanders. 


llegiment 
and Corps. 


Kennebec, 


Maine, 


Augusta, 


Bvt.Capt.r.D. Callender, 


Ordnance. 


Watertown, 


Massachusetts, 


Watertuwn, 


Bvt.Lt.Col,J. W. Eipley, 


Ordnance. 


Watervliet, 


New-York, 


West Troy, 


Major John Symington, 


Ordnance. 


New-York, 


New-York, 


New-York, 


Capt. K. 11. K. Whitfly, 


Ordnance. 


Alletrlieny, 


Pennsylvania, 


Pittsburg, 


Bvt. Major A. Mordecai, 


Old nance. 


P'rankford, 


;; 


Bridesburg, 


Bvt. Miij. P. V. Ilagner, 


Ordnance. 


Pikesville, 


Maryland, 


Pikesville, 


Bvt. Colonel B. Hugor, 


Ordnance. 


Wftsliington, 


Dist. of Columbia, 


Washington, 


Major W. IT. Bell, 


Ordnance. 


Fort Monroe, 


Virginia, 


Old Pt. ^Comfort, 


Bvt. Maj. G. I), liamsaj'. 


Ordnance. 


St. Louis, 


Missouri, 


St. Louis, 


Major Edward Harding, 


Ordnance. 


Baton Konge, 


Louisiana, 


I5aton Konge, 


1st Lieut. T. J. Rodman, 


Ordnance. 


Mount Veruon, 


Alabama, 


Mount Vernon, 


1st Lieut. Josiah Gorgas, 


Ordnance. 


Detroit, 


Michigan, 


Dearbonville, 


IstLt. R. A. Wainrlght, 


Ordnance. 


Nortli Carolina, 


North Carolina, 


Fayetteville, 


Bvt. Maj.T. T. S. Laidlcv, 


Ordnance. 


Charleston, 


South Carolina, 


Charleston, 


IstLt. C.P. Kingsbury,' 


Ordnance. 


Little Hock, 


Arkansas, 


Little liock, 


Bvt. Capt. A. B. Dyer, 


Ordnance. 


San Antonio, 


Texas, 


San Antonio, 


1st Lt. John McNutt, 


Ordnance. 


Benicia, 


California, 


Benicia, 


Bvt. Capt. C. P. Stone, 


Ordnance. 



There is a national armory at Springfield, Massachusetts, James S. Whitney, 

Civil Superintendent, and one at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, , Civil 

Superintendent. The Champlain Arsenal and Ordnance Depot at Vergennes, 
Vermont; the Rome, at Rome, New-York; the Augusta, at Augusta, Georgia; 
the Apalachicola, at Chattahoochee, Florida; the St. Augustine, at St. Augus- 
tine, Florida; and the Santa Fe, at Santa Fe, New Mexico, are under charge 
of military store-keepers. Tlie Bellona Arsenal is not used at present : an 
ordnance sergeant is at the post in charge of the buildings and grounds, 

ASTOR LIBRARY. The Astor Library was founded by the late John Jacob 
Astor, who left, by will, four hundred thousand dollars "for the establish- 
ment of a public library in New-York," "which should be open at all i-eason- 
able hours, free of expense, to persons resorting thereto." The building is 
located in Lafayette Place, near Astor Place, between Fourth and Eighth 
streets. Over eighty thousand volumes, carefully selected, in the various 
departments of learning, are already in the library, which was opened to 
the public January 9th, 1854; and provision is made, by the liberality of the 
founder, for constant addition to their number. 

ASTRONOMY. The planet Uranus was discovered through observation of the 
perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn ; and similar movements in Uranus led 
M. Leverrier to determine by calculation the existence of a new planet. 
This remarkable theoretic conclusion was verified on the night of September 
23d, 1846, by M. Galle, at Berlin, the new planet, Neptune, being iomul in 
the position, and with the diameter announced by Leverrier ; one of the 
noblest achievements of modern times. M, Arago calculates the distance oi 
this planet from the sun at 1,250,000,000 leagues, or about 3,125,000,000 
miles! Periodic time nearly 166 years. Its volume is about two hundred 
and thirty times that of the earth. Thus, during the year 1846, the bounds 
of our solar system have been nearly doubled. The discovery of " Neptune'' 



ADDENDA. 



705 



marks, in singular manner, the maturity of astronomical science. Le- 
verrier, the astronomer, in a paper v/hich he recently read before the Paris 
Academy of Sciences, suggests that we may expect the discovery of a prodi- 
gious number of small planets within the solar s^ystem. The numerous 
discoveries of such bodies, within the last few years, give plausibility to his 
conjecture. Discoveries of an important and most interesting kind, have 
lately been made as to the planet Saturn, by the new monster-telescope of 
Mr. Craig : namely, that the supposed rings are not rings, but arches, of tlie 
most perfect geometrical formation ; not of equal thickness, nor cliamfered, 
but rather with terrace-like mouldings. And hence the appeai-ance of the 
outward ring, consisting of several concentric rings. From this appearance, 
it is now supposed that none of the rings are in the same plane. The fol- 
lowing table may be regarded as a correct view of the solar system, brought 
down to 1853 : — 

TABLE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 



The Sun 

Mercury 

Venus 

The Earth 

Mard 

Thalia "] .. 

Flora I .. 

Uterpe | . . 

Melpomene j . . 

Clio I . . 

Thetis I .. 

Urania | . . 

Vesta i . . 

Massui ia . . . I . . 
Phocoea. ... | .. 

Iris 1 .. 

Metis I . . 

Eunomia. . | ; 

Hebe I : 

Fortuna . .. j H 
Partheuope | ~. 
Aniphitrite I ;> 

Ireiia ( S- 

Egeria | 2 

Astriea ... j 2. 
Proserpine j ^ 
Lutelia. ... | .. 
Juno ..... I . . 

Geres | . . 

Pallas 1 .. 

Bellana.... I .. 
Psyche .... | .. 
Calliope — I . . 
Eupiirosyne I .. 
Hygoia .... j . . 
Themis. ... | - . 
Pomona ... | . . 
Polymnia . J .. 

Jupiter 

Saturn 

Uranus 

Neptune 



S w 



V - 

3 5 



b83,246 
8,-i24 

7,6ST 
7,912 
4,169 



1,241 



1,481 



89,170 
79,043 
35,112 
3o,000 



37,00(),OJ() 
68,0OU.Oi)O 
95,000,000 
142,000,000 
155,135,000 
209.160,265 
214,706,65,J 
21S,oSit.(JO0 
221,813,220 
2i2,6ju,i'00 
224,041,350 
224,3 .2,695 
225.700,1100 
225,739,000 
226.159,281 
2:6.632.665 
227.946,8 
23 >,449,670 
232,:-;60,!i0j 
232,829.135 
241.893,5 
242.46S,7o5 
243,2a6,65!» 
244,818,565 
249,204.0jo 
249.456,000 
253.72S,615 
262,964,845 
263,421,510 
264.85:),5j0 
278.630.000 
279,423,500 
280,060.000 
299,255.7;)0 
345, 752,5 JO 



485,000,000 

89:1,000.000 
1,8:);>.000.000 
3,6)0.000,000 



5 = - w ^ 



0.3S7u98 
0.723331 
1.000000 
1.523692 



2.201687 



2.334376 



2.301081 



2 330624 
2.3S56J7 
2.399«o 

2.425786 



2.45 J833 

2..%23'.3 
2.560 <7o 

2.577047 



2.670837 
2.768 151 
2.772858 



>• - „; 

.2 5 _. 



87 
224 
365 
686 



1,193 



1,270 
1,3.3 
1,310 



1,325 
1,33^ 

' 1,341 
1,345 
1,357 
1,379 
1,397 
l,4ul 

1,51*8 
1,492 
1,511 



3.150060 



1,594 
1,662 
l,6ci6 



1,835 



1,042 



When 
disttovered. 



5.202776 4.332 

9 5387.-'6 10,759 

19.182390 30.686 

30.03630 1 6 »,128 



Dec. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

June 

Sept. 

April 

July 

March 

Sept. 

.Vpril 

Aug. 

April 

July 

July 

A ug. 

May 

.March 

May 

Nov. 

Dec. 

May 

Nov. 

Sept. 

Jan. 

March 

.March 

March 

Nov. 

Sept. 

April 

April 

Oct. 

Oct. 



1852 
1847 
1853 
1852 
185 , 
1852 



By whom 
discovered. 



Hind... 
Hind... 
Hind.. 
Hind... 
Hind... 
Lutlier 



Where 

ilibcovei'ed. 



1854 Hind. 

I8.»7 
1852 
1853 
1847 

18-4S 



1851 ( 



1847 

1352 
1351) 
1854 
1850 
135.i 
1 S45 
1853 



Olbers 

Cluicoiiac 

Ciiaconac — 

Hind 

Gialiam 

xasparis 



llencke 

Hitul 

Gasparis. . . 

Marth 

Hind 

Ca'^paris. . . 

lien eke 

Luther.. . . . 
1852i(j-old.schmit 
1304|llarding ... 

18 iljl'iazzi 

lS.2'01bers 

1854'Lutlier 

1 8-"'2 Gasi)aris . . . 

1352, Hind 

1354 Fer^'uson... 
1849(iasi)aris.. . 
I8>3 Gaspari.s . . 
1854Gold.schmit 
1854 Chacoiuic 



London. 

London. 

London. 

l^onilon. 

London. 

Bilk. Ger. 

London. 

J3remen. 

Mar.-^eilles, 

.Marseilk'S, 
.iL.'udoi;. 
.iMarkrec. 
.|Na|)les. 
. Drie.-^sen. 
. {London. 
. I Naples 
. 'London. 
. |London. 
.lNaplf«. 
. Drie.-^seii. 
.|j}iik. Ger. 
.'I'aris. 
. Lilienthal 
. Palermo. 
. ]]rt^men. 
. Bilk. G<T. 
.Naples. 
. Lond(;n. 
. Wasirgtn. 
. Naples. 
. Naples. 
. I aris. 
. Marseilles. 



March 13, 1781 Hersciiel .. 
Sept. 23, 1846 Galle 



Slo;i-li. 
Berlin. 



ATTORNEY-GENERAL, U. S. 
the members of the Cabinet. 
80* 



Appointed by the President, and is one of 
He is the legal adviser of the executive gov- 



706 THE world's progress. 

ernment. The first attorney-general of the United States was William Brad- 
ford, appointed by "Washington, 1789. (See Admimstratlona.) There are 
also District Attorneys for the United States, appointed by the President^ 
for the several districts in each state of the Union. In each state there is 
also an attorney-general of the state : in some states appointed by the gov- 
ernor and legislature, in others elected by the people. 

AUDITOR, U, S. The number of accounts examined, adjusted, and settled in 
the office of the sixth auditor, during the yeai', (1854,) was 153,319. The 
settlement of these accounts involved the receipt of 122,653 letters, and the 
preparation and transmission of 70,785 letters and packages, the issuing of 
65,187 collective orders and 13,092 error accounts to postmasters, besides 
making reports and answering calls in obedience to resolutions of Congress. 
This amount of business has been effected by a foi'ce of 110 clerks. The 
auditor asks for five additional clerks, six assistant messengers, and further 
accommodation for his clerks and for the filing and safe-keeping of the ac- 
counts of the office. 

BAKERS. Bakers were not known in Rome till 580 from the building of the city. 

BALLOONS. Mr. Green and theDuke of Brunswick in April, 1851, crossed the 
British channel from Hastings, and in 5 liours landed safely near Boulogne ; 
greatest altitude mid-channel was 4000 feet. Mr. Green ascended on horse- 
back from Vauxhall, July, 1850; since then M. Poitevin has made several 
ascents en cheval, and in a carriage and pair, (July, 1851), sometimes accom- 
panied by his wife, etc. In one ascent he can'ied up a live ostrich. Lt. Gale 
(the Mazeppa of the Bowery Theater) left Bordeaux with his balloon, Sept., 
1850, and was found dead the next morning in a field, dreadfully mutilated. 
Several hazardous ascensions have since been made in France, one by an 
aeronaut with his head downwards. On the 17th and 26th of August, 1852, 
ascents wei'e made by Mr. John Welsh, for scientific purposes, under the 
superintendence of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science. About one hundred observations were taken of 
the dry and wet bulb hygrometer during the first ascent, and about 160 
during the ascent of the 26th. On the second occasion a considerable num- 
ber of dew-point observations were obtained, which were generally confir- 
matory of the indications of the wet bulb hygrometer. On both occasions 
Mr. Welsh had been ably assisted in the observations by Mr. Nicklin : — the 
balloon being managed by Mr. Green. Specimens of air at great heights 
were brought down and supplied to Dr. Miller, of King's College, for analy- 
sis. The observations during both ascents had been partially reduced, and 
the resulting values of temperature and tension of vapor for different heights 
had been projected; these curves were exhibited to the Association. The 
principal features noticed in each were : — 1st, that the tension of vapors 
decreased at a regular rate for some distances from the surface of the earth, 
and then very abruptly diminished by a lai^ge amount, being in fact reduced 
to nearly the lowest value attained during the remainder of the ascent. The 
height at which this sudden reduction in the quantity of aqueous vapor 
occui-red, was different on the two days — on the 17th it was about 5,000 
feet, and on the 26th nearly 8,000. 2d, it was also noticed that at the same 
elevation at which the great reduction of vapor took place, the gradual 
diminution of teuaperature was foi- some distance arrested — showing a rela- 
tive 7'ise in the temperature where the quantity of aqueous vapor /e//. This 
fact was distinctly shown in both the ascents. On Aug. 17th, the greatest 
height attained was 19,500 feet: the lowest temi>erature was 8° F.ih. ; the 
temperature at the earth being 72° ; the rate of decrease of temperature 



ADDENDA. 



707 



was 1° Fcah. for 305 feet. On the 26th, the greatest height attained was 
19,000 feet; the lowest temperature was again 8° Fah. ; the temperature at 
the earth being 63° ; and the rate of decrease of temperature 1° Fah. for 
345 feet. On the 17th the greatest height was reached at 4h. 45m., p. m., 
and on the 26th at 7 p. m. Sir David Brewster asked Mr. Welsh whether 
he experienced the oppression and difficulty of breathing Avhich others 
had described as the result of such a rapid change of atmospheric pres- 
sure. Mr. Welsh replied that he had not felt the slightest inconvenience 
or difficulty; but that Mr. Nicklin had told him he had experienced a 
sense of fulness about the temples and slight headache. He also wished to 
add, that in his own case his assertion was only applicable to his state of 
feelings when he remained perfectly still ; for he observed when, at a high 
elevation, he had occasion to work the bellows of the aspirator, miiscular 
exertion was accompanied by much greater fatigue than under ordinary 
pressure. Various other ascents have since been made. The greatest 
elevation ever attained by means of a balloon was during an ascent made 
by Mr. Green in 1838 ; the height exceeded 27,000 feet. 

BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES. 



Number of banks, 

Number of branches, 



Number of banks and branches. 



Capital paid in, 



Kesources : — 
Loans and discounts, 525,115,702 



1837. 



634 

154 



788 



290,772,091 



1843. 



577 
114 



691 



1S48. 



622 
129 



751 



228,8131,948 204,838,175 



Stocks, 

lieal Estate, 

Other investments, . . 
Due by other banks, . 
Notes of other banks, 

Specie fund, 

Specie, 

Liabilities : — 

Circulation, 

Deposits, 

Due to other banks,. . 
Other liabilities, 



Aggregate of current credits, i. e., of 
circulation and deposits, 

Aggregate of immediate liabilities, i. 
e., of circulation, deposits, and dues 
to other banks, 

Aggregate of immediate means, i. e., 
of specie, specific funds, notes of 
otiier banks, and sums due from 
other banks, 

Gold and silver in United States trea- 
sury depositories, 

Total specie in banks and treasury 
depositories, 



12,407,112 
19,064.451 
10,423,630 
59,663,910 
36,533,.o27 
5,366, oOO 
37,915,340 



149,1 8-.,89() 

127,3:)7,185 

62,421,118 

36,56U,289 



276,583,075 



254. 

23: 

22, 
1-3, 
20, 
13, 
6, 
33, 



,544 
,330. 
826, 
313, 
666. 
306, 
578, 
515 



,937 

050 
8117 
599 
264 
617 
3 "5 
8tJ.-i 



,563, 
,163. 
.4.56, 



608 
628 



58, 
56, 
21. 
7,357,033 



344,476,582 
26,498,054 
20,580,955 

8,229,632 
SS.9:)4,52, 
16,427,716 
10.489,822 
46,369,765 



1851. 



731 
143 



879 



227,807,553 



413,756.799 

22,333,939 
20,219,724 
8.935. ii72 
50,718,015 
17,196,033 
15,341,196 
48,671,043 



1854. 



1,0.59 
149 



1,028 



301,376,071 



607,287,428 
44,350,330 
•J2. 367,472 
6,841,429 
.5.5,516,085 
22.659,066 
2.5.579, V53 
59,410,253 



128,506,091 1 55, 1 65,251 204.639.207 

103,226,177 128,957,712 1.38,133,744 



39,414,371 
5,501,401 



46,41(5,928 50,322,162 
6,438,327 13,439,576 



114,732,236 231,732,268 284,122,963 



339,004,193 136,188,754 271,146,639 330,539,891 



139,479,277 



74,067,062 



392,877,951 
143,200,113 



112,191,828131,926,342163,164,657 

8,101,3531 ll,164,727j 2.5,136,252 

I 
54.471,118' 59,835,775! 84,545,505 



NoTK. — In January, 1837, the inilation of paper credits, consequent on the deposit bank svstem 
and other causes, had nearlv reached its height. The revulsion that followed was most severely 
felt in the latter part of 1842 and the beginniug of 1843. In 1848 the first deposits of California 



708 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



BANKS IN" THE UNITED STATED.— continued. 



Sections. 



1. E. States, 

2. M. States, 

a S. States, 

4. S. W. States, . . 

5. W. States, 



Banks and Branches. 



1850-51. 



313 

316 

90 

S3 
77 



879 



1853-54. 



397 
451 
116 
92 
152 



1.208 



Capital paid in. 



1850-51. 



60,299,185 
79,716,950 
40,309,024 
29.917,056 
11,565,338 
227.807.553 



Loans and Discounts. 



1853-54. I 1850-51. 



84,556,433 
114,884,179 
46,646,211 
88,384,368 
16.954,880 



108,504.955 

170,886,640 

60,487,459 

51,153,748 

22,773,997 



301.3,6,071 413,756,799 



1853-54. 



149,143.789 

283,602,631 

73.213,195 

72,751,6'i9 

28,576,184 



607,287,428 



Stocks. 



1850-51. 18:3-54 



191,777 

15,419.701 

2,957,874 

1,198,225 

2,621,412 



883,501 

24,4.18,149 

7,292,894 

2,653,822 

9,062,464 



22,388,989 44,350,3-30 



Eeal Estate. 



1850-51. 1853-54. 



1,912.134 
5,249 J74' 

8,425,580i 
3.594,784| 
1,037,4521 



2,01.5,838 
6,993.606 
9.490,007 

3,078,778 
789,243 



20,219,7241 22,367,472 



Other Investments. 



1850-51. 1853-54. 



$ 

409,496 
2,152 420 
2,903,203 
2,836,593 

634,260 



8,935,972 



757,883 
1,056.988 
2,108,791 
2,695,859 

222,408 



6,841,429 



Due by other Banlcs. 



1850-51. 1853-54 



9,661,775 13,082,448 

17.728.833; 19,870,777 

ll,13S,910j 7,899,880 

7.565,472! 7,748,566 

4,623,02.-1 7,469,414 



50,718,015 55,516,085 



Sections, 



Notes of other Banks. 



1850-51. 1853-54. 



5,238,147 
6,6o4,315 
2,382,588 
1,381,440 
l.r)29..593 



17,196,083 



7,336,184 
7,536,523 
8,164,870 
1,974.371 
2,647,318 



22,659,066 



Specie Fund. 



1850-51. 



105,990 

13,493,342 

448,209 

1,200,000 

93,655 



1853-54. 



202,204 
23,860,024 
521,024 
670,-68 
325,133 



Specie. 



1850-51. 1853-54 



4,663,774 
17.865,0.51 

8,903,871 
18,164,213 

4,074,139 



15,341,196 i 25,579,2-33 I 48,671,048 



6.570,360 

22.845,551 

8,776,876 

16,117.957 

_5,099,509 

T9;410,253 



Circulation. 



1850-51. 



32,220,921 
45,619,089 
36,176,977 
25,768,805 
15,379,509 
155,165,251 



1853-54. 



Deposits. 



1850-51. 



49,39 M 07 17,397.742 

61,116.263 78,012,354 

40,854,139 11,906,342 

83,258,965 15,284,247 

20,063,783: 6,357,027 



1853-5^. 



24,898,038 
116,917,925 
14,597,101 
20,064,818 
11,710,862 



Due to other Banks. 



1850-51. 



1853-54. 



Other Liabilities. 



1850-51. 1853-54. 



204,689,207128,957,712188,188,744 



7,750,247; 10,546,638 6-58,103 

30,199.2001 27,811,364' 3,151,500 

3,888,838 3,422,446; 1,480,206 

3,118,040! 5,832,246' 670,732 

1,460,603| 2,709,468 482,786 



46,416,928; 50,322,162 6,4.38,327 



1,765.563 
5,956,919 
1,80.%636 
2,897,091 
1,514,067 



13,439,276 



1. Eastern States.— Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- 
acticnt. 

2. Middle Stai-a,— New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland. 
8. Southern States.— "Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. 

4. Southwestern States.— Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri. 

5. Western States.— Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin. 



old were made at the United States Mint. The statement for 1851 in this and the succeeding 
ibles. is not taken from that printed in Executive Document No. 132, 32d Congress, 1st session, 
ut from a report that was prepared with more care, and presented to the House of Represpata- 
ives in February, 1851, but not ordered to be printed. 



ADDENDA. 709 

BATsTKS, PENNY. These were first instituted at G-reenock, in Scotland. Of 5,000 
deposits, the aggregate amount of nearly £1, 100 gives an average of about 4s. 
6d. each. In London and the provincial towns they are becomins; very popu- 
lar. In Whitechapel, 8,000 deposits in nine months showed an accumulation 
of nearly £2,000, or about 5s. each. 

BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal benevolent 
societies of New-York, for the year ending April 30th, 1855, vv^ere: — 

American Tract Society, $413,173.81) 

Bible " 346,811.57 

" B. C. For. Miss,, nine months, 21.3,683.00 

" Home Missionary Society, 18:t,t36.69 

" Sunday Scliool Union, 248,604.00 

" and Foreign Cliristian Union, 63,867.28 

" and Foreign Bible Society — increase over any previous year — 15,000.00 

" Bap't Home Miss. Society, 64,346.00 

" Seaman's Friend Society, 22,845.00 

" Society for Melior. condition of Jews, .... 25,000.00 

New- York State Colonization Society, 17,371.00 

" Cliildren's Aid Society, 10,399.86 

$1,021,238.26 
BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some Roman 
Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. — Chambers's Ed. Jl. The British and 
Foreign Bible Society has distributed, during the forty-five years ending 
January 1, 1851, more than twenty-three millions of copies, in one hundred and 
forty different languages. 

BISHOPRICS (British). 

No. Incomes. • 

English Colonial, 27 £ 39,283 

English, 26 128,565 

"■ Archbishoprics, 2 25,000 

Irish, , 10 

" Archbishoprics, 2 

BLACK SEA. To Russia, the Black Sea is what canals and the southern waiters 
are to England. The Euxine is the chief outlet of Russian activity. There 
is Odessa, one of the commercial celebrities of Europe ; and into the Black 
Sea empty the principal Russian rivers — the Dneister, the Dneiper, and the 
Don. On the Euxine depend the harbors of the Sea of Azoff, and the security 
of the Russian possessions beyond the Caucasus. 

BOOKS, U. S, The number of volumes published during the year ending June 
30th, 1851, is estimated to have been 1,261, forming 1,176 distinct works, 
which were : — 

Novels and Tales, 249 

Tlieological and Keligious, . . . 170 

Histories and Travels, 121- 

Biographical, 96 ; Poetry and Hymns, 80 ; 176 

Science, Natural History, etc., 83 

Classics, Education, etc., 84 

Law, 43; Medicine, 47; Agriculture, 20 ; . HO 

Practical Mechanics, 18 

Arts, Music, and Architecture, 57 

Political Economy, Commerce, and Miscellaneous, .... 193 

Total, 1261 

Books imported into the United States for the year ending June 30, 1853 '."— 

In Latin and Greek, 1,342 

In English, 549,916 

In other languages, 146,033 

Periodicals and .illustrated Newspapers, ...... 22,328 

Periodicals and other v^orks in the course of publication, . . , 3,597 



710 THE world's progress. 

Books and Maps exported during the same period to the amonnt of Sl42,604, 
It is a remarkable fact, that, in a year after the first printing press was estab- 
lished in Cambridge, Mass., or in 1640, an American book was issued from 
it — being the first published in what are now called the United States — which 
was soon after reprinted in England, where it passed through no less than 
eighteen editions, the last being issued in 1764; thus maintaining a hold on 
English popularity for 114 years! This was the "Bay Psalm Book." It 
passed through twenty-two editions in Scotland, where it was extensively 
known, the last bearing date 1759 ; and, as it was reprinted without the 
compiler enjoying pecuniary benefit from its sale, we have irrefutable proof 
that England pirated the first American book, being, in reality, the original 
aggressor in this line. This first American woi'k enjoyed a more lasting 
reputation, and had a wider circulation than any volume since of American 
origin, having passed, in all, through seventy editions — a very remarkable 
number for the age in which it flourished. Success attended the colonial 
press; and, in 1663, the first Bible printed in America was published at 
Cambridge. It was unlawful to print an English version of the Scriptures, 
that right being a monopoly enjoyed by privilege and patent in England, 
The one printed in Massachusetts, was Eliot's famous " Indian Bible ;" and. 
although fifteen hundred copies were struck ofi^, they are now quite rare, and 
"sealed books," as the tongue in which they are written is literally a "dead 
language ;" the tribe, and all who had a knowledge of the dialect, being 
long extinct. Eliot's work is unique ; being, at once, a monument to his 
piety, perseverance, and learning. Its literary successor was " Newman's 
Concordance of the Scriptures." This was compiled by the light of pine- 
kflots, in a log-cabin, in one of the frontier settlements of Massachusetts. It 
was the first of its kind, and, for more than a century, was admitted to be 
the most perfect, holding its place in public esteem until superseded by 
Cruden's, which it suggested. 

BOOKS, German. From the Easter Fair, at Leipsic, 1851, up to JSTorember, of 
the same year, not less than 3,860 new books had been published, and 1150 
were then in preparation for issue. 

BOOKS, London. In 1850, about 4,400 were published, of which the papal 
question furnished 180 in one tnonth; fiction, 500; law, 250; and travels, 
200; the remainder, miscellaneous. 
The whole number of American books republished in London, from January, 
1848, to December 16, 1852, was 295. 

BRAIN. — In man, the brain forms one thirtieth part of the human body ; in 
the Newfoundland dog, one seventieth ; in the bull-dog, one three hundredth. 

BRITISH MUSEUM (Library). The British Museum owes its establishment to 
a suggestion in the will of Sir Hans Sloane, a London ph^'sician of eminence, 
who died in the year 1753. During a long and busy life. Sir Hans had col- 
lected a large library of books and manuscripts, together with an immense 
number of miscellaneous antiquities, works of art, and objects of natural 
history. Anxious that his collection should form the nucleus of a national 
museum, the aged physician directed, by his will, that it should be ofi'ered 
for sale to the British Parliament, after his death, for the sum of £20,000, 
which was £30,000 less than it had cost himself. Should Parliament refuse 
to make the purchase, it was further directed that the collection should be 
offered for the same sum to certain foreign societies that were named in the 
will; and if these societies should not embrace the offer, then it was to be 
gold at public auction. The British Parliament accepted this offer, by an act 
passed ia the year 1753, and by the same act directed that the Cottonian 



ADDENDA. 711 

Library, a collection of valuable historical manuscripts which had been made 
by Sir Robert Cotton, of Connington, during the reign of Elizabeth and James 
I., and which had been acquired b}^ government in the reign of Queen Anne, 
should be added to the Sloane collection, together with a library of about 
2000 printed volumes, called Major Arthur Edwards's Library, that had 
existed as an appendage to the Cottonian Library since 1738, in which year 
it had been bequeathed to the trustees by its proprietor. Thus, a consider- 
able addition was made to the book department of the Sloane collection. 
But this department was ordered to be still further increased by the purchase, 
for £10,000, of the Harleian Library of manuscripts, a splendid collection of 
about 760-0 volumes of rolls, charters, and other historical documents, which 
had been accumulated by Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, and his son and 
successor, Edward. In 1757, King George IL made a gift to the Museum, 
of the Library of the Kings of England, a collection embracing an immense 
number of printed volumes, from the reign of Henry VII., downward. To 
this gift was annexed the important privilege, which the Royal Library had 
acquired in the reign of Queen Anne, of being supplied with a copy of every 
new publication entered at Stationer's Hall. It was thus only necessary to 
seek for contributions in the earlier literature of the country, and in that of 
foreign nations. And such contributions were rapidly made. In 1763, George 
III. made a present to the Museum of a voluminous collection of pamphlets, 
etc., relating to the civil wars of England between 1640 and 1660; and, 
among subsequent additions, may be enumerated the musical libraries of Sir 
John Hawkins and Dr. Charles Burney ; a collection of old English plays, 
by David Garrick; Dr. Bentley's collection of the Classics, annotated by his 
own hand ; the Law Library of Francis Hargrave, Esq. ; a colleetTion of works 
on natural history, made by Sir Joseph Banks, and a large mass of tracts and 
pamphlets relating to the French Revolution, purchased by the trustees at 
different times, and of very great value. Another large addition was made 
in 1823, when George IV. presented to the public a splendid library that had 
been collected by his father during his long reign, at an expense of little less 
tlian £200,000. It was ordered that this library, which contains many rare 
books, should be attached to the Museum, but ke^^t apart from other collec- 
tions, under the name of "The King's Library.'' The librai-y was still fur- 
ther increased, in 1847, by the collection of books bequeathed to it by the 
Rt. Hon. Thomas Grenville, amounting to 20,210 volumes, obtained by him 
at an expense of £54,000. The whole number of books in the British Mu- 
seum Library now amounts to 490,000 volumes, of which at least one third 
have been presented. From 1846-50, it increased at the rate of 27,000 
volumes annually, about 10,000 of which were received by copyright or as 
donations. The number of books purchased depends entirely upon the 
annual appropriations of Parliament, which, during the above-mentioned 
years, averaged £7,200. 

BRIDGES. N^iAGARA Railroad Suspension Bridge. — This great work cost only 
$400,000. The same structure in England (if it could possibly have been 
built there) would have cost $4,000,000. Engineer, John A. Roebling. 

Length of bridge from center to center of tower, . , . . . 821 feet 4 inches. 

Length of floor between towers, 800 " 

Number of wire cables, 4 

Diameter of each, 10 inches. 

Solid wire section of each cable, . 60.40 sq. inches. 

Aggregate section of the four cables, ....... 241.60 " " 

Aggregate section of anchor chains, lowest links, 276.00 " " 

Aggregate upper links, 372.00 " " 

ultimate strength of chains, 11,904 tuna. 

Aggregate number of wires in cables, . .... 14^560 



71^ THE world's progress. 

Average strength of one wire, 1,648 pounds. 

Ultimate strength of four cables, 12,000 tuns. 

Pcrrnanent weight supported by cables, 1,000 '• 

Tension resulting, 1,810 " 

Length of anchor chains, . . . • 66 feet. 

Length of upper cables, 1,261 " 

Length of lower cables, ■ 1,193 " 

Deflections of upper cables at medium temperature, .... 54 " 

Deflections of lower cables at medium temperature, .... ft4 " 

Average deflection, 59 " 

Number of saspenders, . , 624 

Aggregate ultimate strength of suspenders, 19,720 tuns. 

Number of overfloor stays, 46 

Aggregate strength of stays, 1,929 tuns. 

Number of river slays, 56 

Aggregate strength of stays, 1,680 tnns. 

Elevation of rail-road track above middle stage of river, .... 245 feet. 

"The Britannia Tubular Bridge," over the Menai Straits, between Caernarvon 
and the Isle of Anglesea, completed October, 1850, Mr. Stephenson, engineer, 
at an outlay of nearly £600,000. A suspension bridge over the Ohio, at 
Wheeling, span 1010 feet, being 152 feet longer than the Friburg bridge, 
Switzerland, was completed by Mr. Ellet, 1850. Remington's bridge, at 
Montgomery, Alabama, on the same plan as that he exhibited in London, 
proved a failure. The floating bridge, for passage of railroad cars across 
Lake Cham plain, went into operation 1st September, 1851. 

BUILDING (Benefit) SOCIETIES. First established at Kircudbright, Scotland, 
1815; after 1830, they increased rapidly. — Scratchlei/s Treatif^e on B. B. 
Societies. Several have been in successful operation in New-York since 
1848. 

CALCULATING MACHINE. A very superior one exhibited in the Crystal 
Palace, 1851, hj J. A. Staffel, of Wai*saw. This extraordinary machine was 
the effect of ten years' undiminished study and application ; by it, any 
errors may be corrected, and the operator warned of an}^ surplus calcula- 
tion. 

CALIFORNIA LAND CLAIMS. The whole number of claims presented up to 
1855, is 813. Of these 72 were adjudicated b}' the old board, which was con- 
stituted in September, 1851, and 325 by the new board, appointed in Api-il, 1853. 
Of the 397 claims thus adjudicated, 297 were confirmed for 736 square leagues 
of land, and 103, covering 383 square leagues, rejected. Transcripts have been 
forwarded to the Attorney General in 295 cases, and duplicate transcrij)ts in 
202 cases to the proper courts, as required bylaw. The recorded depositions 
of witnesses, decisions of the board, original Spanish documents, translations, 
and the daily proceedings of the board, cover, in all, 6,749 pages, equal to 
about 41,492 folios. It is estimated that there is at least as much more of 
this kind of clerical work to be done. 

CALIFORNIA, State of, U. S. A. Constitution ratified by the people, Nov. 13, 

1849. The State admitted into the Union by vote of tlie Ujiited States 
Senate, August 13, 1850, and on September 9, 1850. the California Senators, 
Dr. Wm. M. Gwin and Col. J. C. Fremont, took their seats. The number oif 
emigrants to California, passing Fort Laramie, and registered to June 20, 

1850, are: men, 32,740; women, 494; children, 591. The number of mules, 
6,725; oxen, 21,418; cows, 3,185; horses, 28,798; and wagons, 7,586. The 
census returns for 1850, indicate a white population of 165,000 and 1,800 
colored, making the fractional representative enumeration 74,000, and thus 
securing a second Representative in Congress. The receipts and expenditnres 
of the State, under the following heads, for four years, from 1850 to 1853, 
were as follows : — 



ADDENDA. 



713 



CALIFORNIA, State of, U. S. A.—continuecL 



Tear. 


Eeceipts. 


1 
Expenditures. 


Legislature. 


Executive. 


Judiciary. 


1850 

1851 

1852 

18.53.. . 


$ 3,156.27 
330,796.45 
366,825.07 
434,150.00 
1,134,927.79 
283,731.94 


$ 820,144.46 
375,929.23 
409.008.82 
389,619.48 


$ 26,568.30 

65,870.00 

94.600.00 

102,607.04 


$ 26,996.50 
135,915.00 
142,000.00 
126,697.09 
431,508.59 
107,877.14 




Totals .... 


1,494,701.69 


289,645.34 
72,411.33 


Average.. 


373,675.42 



Total expenditure, as above, in the four yc:irs, was $2,215,855.62 averaging $55-3,96.3.90. 

The taxable property in the State, and the taxes thereon for the 3'ear 1852, 
-were as follows: Number of acres of land, 6,719,442. Value, $1*0,763,010; 
improvements thereon, $2,976,219. Value of city and town lots, $11,977,069 ; 
improvements thereon, .§10,163,631. Value of personal property, $21,102,391. 
Total taxable property, $56,982,320 ; total State taxes on same, being 30 cents 
on each $100, $170,946.96. Poll taxes for 1852, $60,744.28. Total taxes, 
$238,397.39. 

CANADA. A memorial for annexation to the United States received, in five 
hours, the signatures of three hundred merchants, land-owners, and profes- 
sional men, in Montreal, October 10, 1850. 

CANALS (State of New-Yokk). The tolls received for a series of years, com- 
mencing in 1830, "when they first reached a million of dollars, have been as 
follows : — 



1830, 
1831, 
1832, 
1833, 
1834, 
188.5, 
1836, 
1837. 
1838,' 
1839, 
1840, 
1841, 



$1,056,922.12 
1,233,801.98 
1,220,483.47 
1,46-3,820.90 
1, -341.329.96 
1,584,986.48 
1,614,336.43 
1,292,623.33 
1,597,911.03 
1,616,382.02 
1,775.757.57 
2,0-34,882.82 



1842, . 


. $1,749,197.52 


184-3, 


. 2,081,590.17 


1844, . 


2,446,374.52 


1845, 


. 2,656,640.31 


1846, . 


2,779,-324.42 


1847, 


. 3,674.322 89 


1848, . 


3,3.56,047.27 


1849, 


. 3,396,760.16 


1850, . 


3.410,324.15 


1851, 


. 3,492,.541.S1 


1852, . 


.3,118,244.-39 



The sums collected from 1845 to 1851, inclusive, 
embrace nearly $600,000 of railroad tolls. 



CARPETS IN New-York. Prior to 1760 they were not known ; but, in the 
papers of that date, Matthew Wilders advertises a variety imported from 
Scotland. "The Bay State Mills," Mass., have recently produced a new style 
of carpet, viz. : a felt-cloth carpet, printed in block work, and designed, "ac- 
cording to weight, either as a floor-cloth or drugget. The threads of wool 
are not spun nor woven, but drawn out and laid together, the wliole mass 
being felted like a hat-body. Within a few months, fabrics have been put 
together in this way, showing a different color on either side, and designed 
for coats, to be made up without lining. "The Bay State Mills" make this 
cloth with a white ground, about forty inches wide, weighing from four to 
twenty-four ounces per yard ; they print it in elegant carpet designs, showing 
the richest combination of brilliant colors, and furnish it at seventy-five to 
ninety cents per yard. 



714 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



CEN'SUS OF GREAT BRITAIN. Houses and population of England and Wales, 
of Scotland, and of the Islands in the British seas, Mai'ch 31, 1851 : — 





Houses. 


Population.* 


Inhabited. 


[Jninhabd. 


Building. 


Persons. 


Males. 


Females. 


England and Wales 

Scotland 


3,280,951 

366,650 

21,826 


152,898 

11,956 

1.077 


26,534 

2,378 
202 


17,922,768 

2.870,784 

142,916 


8,762,588 

1,363,622 

66,511 


9,160,180 

1,507,162 

76,405 


Islands in the British Seas. 
Total 


3,669,437 i lfi5.9;^1 


29,114 


20,936,468 


10,192,721 


10,743,747 






' 



Great Britain, and Islands in the British seas, and Scotland. Population, in- 
crease, and rates of increase, in the fifty years from 1801 to 1851 : — 



Gt. Britain and Islands in 

the British Seas 

Increase in the intervals 

of the Censuses 

Decennial rates of increase 

per cent 

Actual increase in 50 yrs. 
Increase per ct. in 50 " 
Annual " " " 

Scotland 

Increase in the intervals 

of the Censuses 

Decennial rates of increase 

per cent 

Actual increase in 50 3'rs. 
Increase per ct. in 50 " 
Annual " " " 



Persons. 



1801. 



10,267,893 



1,608,420 



Males in Great Jiritain 
and Islands in the British 
Seas 

Males in Scotland 

Females in Great Britain 
and Islands in the British 
Seas 

Females in Scotland 



5,025,035 
739,091 



5,542,856 
869,329 



1811. 



12,047,455 

1,479,562 

14 



1,805,864 

197,444 

12 



5,735,957 
826,296 



6,311,498 
979,568 



1821. 



15,180,351 
2,182,896 

18 



2,091,521 

285,657 

16 



6,873,671 
982,623 



7,306,590 
1,108,898 



1831. 



16,364,893 

2,184,542 

15 



2,864,386 

272,865 

13 



7,934,201 
1,114,456 



8,430,692 
1 249,930 



1841. 



18,658,372 

2,260,749 

14 



2,620,184 

255,798 

11 



9,077,004 
1,241,862 



9,581,368 

1,378,322 



1851. 



20,936,468 

2,227,438 

12 

10,317,917 

98 

1.37 

2,870,784 

245,237 

10 

2,865,121 

• 78 

1.16 



10,192,171 
1,363,622 



10,743,747 
1,507,162 



England and "Wales. Houses — Comparative statement of, in the fifty 3'ears 
from 1801 to 1851 :— 



Houses. 


1801. 


1811. 


1821. 


1831. 


1841. 


1851. 

3,280,961 
162,898 
26.534 1 


England | Inhabited 

and VUninhabited .. 
Wales. ) Building 


1,575,923 
67,476 


1,797,504 
61,020 
16,207 


2,088,156 
67,707 
19,274 


2,481,544 

119,915 

24,759 


2.943,935 

173,247 

27,444 



There are in the tables no returns of houses published for Scotland and tlie 
islands in the British seas, except for 1851. The French census of 1851 shows 
a total population of 35,500,000. TJie number of foreigners domiciled, of nil 
nations, exceeds 1,000,000, of which 75,000 are British, or about one half the 
British residents previous to the revolution of 1848. 

* Exclusive of part of the army, navy, and merchant seamen, belonging to Great Britain, but 
out of the country when the census was taken, estimated (from returns) at 167,604 persons. 



ADDENDA, 



715 



CENSUS OF GREAT BniTAm—cojifimied. 

Abstracts of the Census of Ireland of 1841 and 1851 : — 



1841. 
Provinces. 


Houses. 


Inhabited. 


Uninhabited. 


Total. 


1851. 
Inhabited. 


Uninhabited. 


Total. 


Building. 


Built. 


Building 


Built. 
682 
513 
606 
312 

2,113 


Leinster 

Munster 

Ulster 

Con naught . 
Total'. . . . 


306,459 
364,637 
414,551 
243,192 


12,320 

12,005 

21,590 

6,293 


1,272 

1,023 

626 

392 


320,051 
377.665 
486,787 
249,877 


259,252 
266,9.36 
851,973 
169,574 


17,588 
19,277 
20,580 
7,714 ^ 


277,522 
286.726 
878,159 
177,600 
1,115,007 


1,328,839 


52,208 1 3,313 j 1,384,360 


1,047,735 1 65,159 



1841. 
Provinces. 


.. . 1 
Families, Pkksons, axd Skxks. 


Families. 


Persons. 


Mule. 


Female. < Total. | 


Leinster 

M unster 


362,134 
415,154 
439,805 
255;694 


963,747 
1,186,190 
1,161,797 

707,842 

4,019,576 

811,623 
89.3,491 
974,235 
497,373 


1,009,984 
1,209,971 
1,224,576 
711,017 
4,155,548 

856,158 
938,326 

1.030,054 
514,.539 

3,339,067 


1,973,731 
2.396,161 
2,386,373 
1,418,859 
8,175,124 

1,667,771 
1,831,817 
2,004,289 
1,011.917 
6,515,794 


Ulster 

Connaught 

Total 

1851. 

Leinster 

Munster 


1,472,787 

321,991 
820,250 
380,731 
184,030 


Ulster 

Connaught 

Total 


1,207,002 


3,176,727 



The decrease per cent, from 1841 to 1851, of Leinster, was 15.5 ; of Munster, 23.5 ; of Ulster, 
16 ; of Connaught, 28.6. Total, 20.9. 

The date of the census of 1851 being sixty-eight days earlier than that of the 
preceding one, 5,481 pei'sons should be added to the gross population of 1841, 
that being the number of harvest laborers who, as was ascertained, left Ire- 
land previous to the 7th of June in that year. The abstracts for either years 
do not include the army serving in Ireland, The total decrease of persons 
from 1841 to 1851, exclusive of 5841 harvest laborers above mentioned, was 
1,659,330. The highest per cent, of decrease was in Roscommon, where it 
was 31 per cent. The number of persons enumerated in 1821, was 6,801,827 ; 
in 1831, 7,767,401; in 1841, 8,175,124; in 1851, 6,515,794; being 286,033 less 
than in 1821, thirty yeai's before. 

CENSUS OF THE U. S. The States, in 1850, contained 23,191,176 inhabitants, 
being only 4,319,571 less than the united population of Great Britain and 
Ireland. Of the above, 3.204,313 are slaves. The number of children at- 
tending school was 4,089,507. There were, in the free population, adults, 
upward of twenty years of age, 1,053,420 who could not read nor write. Of 
"libraries, other than private," there were 15,615, containing 4,636,411 
volumes. Of newspapers and periodicals, there were 2,526, issuing annually 
426,409,978 copies : of these, 254 were daily papers, with an average circu- 
lation of nearly 1,000,000 copies each per annum. In round numbers, the 
States contained 27,000 clergymen, 24,000 lawyers, and 41,000 physicians 
and surgeons. The live stock included 4,336,719 horses, and 6,385,094 
milch cows. 



716 



THE world's progress. 



CENSUS OF THE U. ^.—continued. 

rc'pulation of the United States, according to -the Seventh Census, and Ecprescntatrves in 

Congress.* 



States. 



Maine 

New Hampshire . 

Vermont 

Massachusetts . . . 

Ehode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania . . . 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

Nort,ii Carolina . . 
South Carolina. . . 

Georgia 

Florida /. 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Missouri 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

California 

Total 

Dist. of Columbia 

Minnesota 

New Mexico . . . . 

Oregon 

Utah 

Total 



White 
Popula- 
tion. 



581,813 
317,456 
813,402 

' 985,450 
14.3,875 
863,(i99 

3,048,325 
465,513 

2,258.463 
71.169 
417,943 
894,80 ) 
553.028 
274,5!i7 
521.572 
47,211 
426 486 
295.718 
255,491 
154,034 
162,189 
766.753 
761,417 
592.004 

1,955,108 
895.097 
977,628 
846,035 
304,758 
191,879 
91,632 



19,423,915 

88,027 
6,038 
61,530 
13,088 
11,330 



19,553,928 



Free 
Colored 
Popu- 
lation. 



1,856 

520 

718 

9,(64 

8,670 

7,693 

49,069 

23,820 

53.8i3 

18.073 

74,723 

54.333 

27,463 

8.956 

2,931 

924 

2,293 

930 

17,462 

397 

608 

6,401 

10,007 

2,618 

25,319 

2,557 

10,788 

5,435 

633 

335 

965 

423,384 

9,973 

39 

17 

206 

24 

438,643 



Total 
Free. 



583,169 
817,976 
314,120 
994,514 
147-545 
370,792 

8,(97.394 
489,333 

2,311.786 
89.242 
•^92.666 
949,133 
58(1,491 
283.523 
524.5C8 
48,135 
428,779 
296.648 
272,953 
154.431 
162,797 
763.154 
771,424 
594.622 

1,980,427 
897.654 
988,416 
851,470 
805,391 
192,214 
92,597 



19,847,301 

48,000 
6,077 
61.547 
18,294 
11,354 



19.987,573 



Slaves. 



222 

'2.290 

90,368 
472.528 
288,548 
38!, 984 
381.682 

89,309 
342,892 
3 9,878 
244,8(9 

58,161 

47,100 
239,400 
210,981 

87,422 



Federal 
Represen- 
tative 
Popula- 
tion. 



583,169 
317,976 
314.120 
994.514 
147,545 
870.792 

3,097,394 
4S9.466 

2,311.786 

90,616 

546.886 

1,232,649 
753,6 i 9 
514.513 
753.512 
71.720 
634,514 
482.574 
419,838 
189,327 
191,057 
906,830 
898,012 
647,075 

l,98f».427 
897,654 
938,416 
851,470 
305,891 
192,214 
92.597 



8,200,634 21,767,673 
3,687 



® k 


. c »■; 


Ph 5 . 




c 5^ > 


- ^ 




oj 


6 


—1 


3 


—1 


8 


—1 


11 


+1 


2 




4 




83 


—1 


5 




25 


+J 


1 




6 




13 


_2 


8 


—1 


6 


—1 


S 




1 




7 




5 


+1 


4 




2 




2 


+1 


10 


—1 


10 




7 


4-2 


21 




4 


+1 


11 


+1 


9 


+2 


3 




2 




t2 




234 





Frac- 
tions 
over. 



22.631 
37,707 
33,851 
60.284 
54,122 
90,523 
14,455 
22,351 
69,634 

79,771 

If. 150 
6.235 

47.398 
6,128 

73,976 

15.495 

46,146 

2,481 

4.211 

6(\023 

57.205 

86.537 

18.544 

23.962 

54.186 

10,663 

25,122 

5,368 



KECAPITIJLATION. 



Divisions. 


Total Free 
Pop. in 

1840. 


Slaves 
in 1840. 


Total Free ci „„ 
i> • Slaves 

Pop. m . ,^f-n 

1850. ^'^ ^^"^^• 


Eepresen- 

tativePop. 

in 1850. 


Pep. 

in 
1850. 


Gain 
or 

loss. 


Free States 


9,6.54,865 

7,290,719 

117,769 

17,063,.363 


1102 1.^4.=!4 7QS! 000 


1.3,436.931 

8,330,743 


143 
90 


+1 

—1 


Slaveholding States . . . 
Districts and Territories 

Total 


2,481,532 
4,721 


6,412,503! 8,200,412 
140,272 3,713 


2,487,355 


19,987,573 8,204.347 


21 767 673 '>^'A 













* The aggregate represent.itive population (21,767,673) divided bv 233— the number of re- 
presentatives established by law— gives 93,423 .as the ratio of apportionment among the seve- 
ral States. But this gives only 220 members, leaving 13 to be assigned to the States having 
the largest re.siduary fractions. 

+ By the act of July 80, 1852, an additional Representative is assigned to California, making 
the whole number of Representatives 2-34. The ratio of rei)resentation remains unchanged. 
The last published census tables differ slightly from the above, but as the apportionment of 
representation wa.s made by the above table, we continue it 



ADDENDA. 717 

CHOLERA appeared on the island of Jamaica, "West Indies, in the antnmn of 
1850, and, before the 1st December, more than 6,000 persons Iiad fallen 
victims. It also appeared in California, October 22. 1850. In the city of 
Mexico, 2700 persons died of cholera in fonr M^eeks, May and June, 1850. 
This fi'ightful scourge has since made annual ravages both in Europe and 
Americii, still baffling, in a remarkable degree, the skill of phj'sicians, though 
those of the homoeopathic school claim to have been singularly successful in 
tlieir treatment of it. 

TIURCHES. The most interesting church in St. Petersburg is that dedicated 
to St. Peter and St. Paul, otherwise called the "'Fortress Church," as it 
stands within the citadel of t!ie city. Its slender spire, precisely resembling 
that of the Admiralty, rises far above all others to the hight of 840 feet, 
and its gilded surface shines dazzlingly in the sun. It is said that 12,000 
ducats have already been expended in the gilding of this spire. But within 
the Fortress Church rest the remains of all the Czars since Peter the Great. 
ISTo European monarchs rest so unostentatiousl}", and no others are bu'/ied 
within the walls of a fortress. To each Emperor there is erected merely a 
sarcophagus, with frequently his initial letters engraved upon it. Each of 
these sarcophagi is covered with a pall of cloth of gold, embroidered with 
a double headed eagle. Upon the Grand-Duke Constantine's tomb lie tlie 
ke3's of some Polish fortresses, while Alexander's bears a small militaiy 
medal with his portrait. Each tomb is surrounded by a neat ii-oii ivailing, 
and the part of the nave devoted to the tomb.s is again separated from the 
body of the church. 

CIGARS. The value of the cigars imported into the United States in the fiscal 
year 1853, was $3,311',935, and of unmanufactured tobacco about $1,000,000 
more in value was imported. And the tobacco and cigars which pass 
through the Custom House is but a small proportion indeed, of the quantity 
consumed in this country. The value of the liquors imported during. thJe 
same year was $7,188,820. 

CLAY FOR FUEL. Letters patent have just been issued at Washington to 
Messrs. Hooker & Beaumont, of New Orleans, La., on the much-talked of 
new fuel, consisting of 140 parts of any kind of earth, tliirty parts of com- 
mon lime, twenty parts of the refuse or dust of coal, two parts of clinkers 
or iron dust, three parts of common rosin or pitch, two parts of carbonate 
of ammonia, eight parts of sawdust or chips. In mixing the above, water 
can be used so as to soften the materials to about the consistency of clay 
mortar fi-om which bricks are made. 

CLOCKS. Clock Manufacturers in Kew-Haven. — By far the greatest nimiber 
of clocks now in use throughout the world come from the progressive little 
state of Connecticut. New-Haven furnishes one-half of the number, and the 
towns of Bristol and Plymouth supply, each, one-fourth. It is thought tliat 
the capital yearly invested is now $300,000, and that the annual business 
amounts to $1,000,000, while it has been estimated that this business, in its 
various departments, gives support to between two and three thousand me- 
chanics, with their families. The most extensive manufactory of clocks in 
New-Haven is that founded by Chauncey Jerome, the present Mayor of that 
cit}', 1844. The Jerome Ciock-Manuiacturing company is a joint-stock 
compan}-, formed in 1850, with a capital of $80,000. The business of the 
first year amounted to $150,000. Its capital at present is $150,000, and the 
yearly value of its business $500,000. They employ 300 hands in New- 
Haven, mostly men with families, partially boys and girls, and 200 in Bris- 
tol where their elock-movements are made. In addition to this, they carry 



718 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



on a factory at Ansonia, where 25 or 30 hands are emplo^yecl. The monthly 
earnings of these hands amount to $20,000. The average number of hour^ 
of hxbor per day is ten. The number of clocks made yearly is 200,000 — 800 
per day — embracing 50 distinct varieties. The highest wholesale price per 
dozen is $100 — the lowest $10. To produce this, they annually consume 
the following raw material : 



Pine lumber (feet) - - - 2,500,000 

Mahog-any and rosewood (feet) 1,000,000 

Lookiii2;-glass plates - - 50,000 

Boxes of glass - - - 4,000 

Casks of nails - - - 1,500 



Iron (tuns) 

Glue (bbls.) - 

Rolled and cast brass (tuns) 

Varnish (bbls.) 

Tin (tuns) 



600 
500 
150 
100 
35 



Their lumber is obtained directly from Maine and Western ISTew York. 
The other materials are supplied by ]N"ew York city. There are many other 
factories in the state, equal in extent with tliat of the Jerome Company. An 
astronomical clock exhibited in Crystal Palace by Dr. Henderson of Liver- 
pool, requires winding up but once in a century. It was commenced in 

1844, and finished for the Great Exhibition, 

COALS. Comparative view of the areas of coal lands, and the production, in 

1845, of the six principal producing countries. 



Countries. 


Square Miles 
of Coal Forma- 
tion. 


Tuns of Fuel 

produced in 

1845. 


Relative 

parts of 

1,000. 


Official estimated Value at the 
Places of Production. 


American Dol- 
lars. 


Pounds Ster- 
ling. ■ 


Great Britain. . 
Belgium 

United States . 

France 

Prussian States 
Austrian States 

Total 


11,859 

518 

133,132 

1,719 

not defined. 


31,500,000 
4,960,077 
4,400,000 
4,141,617 
8,500.000 
659,340 


642 
101 
89 
84 
70 
14 


45,738,000 
7,689.900 
6,650,000 
7,668,000 
4,122,945 
800,000 


• 9.450,000 
1,660,000 
1,873,963 
1,603,106 

856,370 
165,290 




49,161.034 


1,000 


72,663,845 


15,108,729 



COAL FIELDS, 1851. East of the Mississippi, 124,735 square miles; west of 
ditto, 8,379 square miles. Ttiis is all bituminous. The anthracite of Penn- 
sylvania is about 437 square miles. In Europe and British America we 
find: — 



Great Britain and Ireland, anthracite, 

" " bituminous, 

British America, " 

Spain, " 

France, " 

Belgium, " 



3,720 sq. miles. 
8,139 
18,000 
3,408 

1,719 '• 
518 " 

— Scientific American. 



The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its employment 
in the manufacture of iron and in the production of steam and gas, have, ol 
late 3^ears, given an amazing impulse to the trade in this article. Coal was 
discovered in Mansfield, Massachusetts, about 1835, but the efforts to render 
the same available were only efficiently applied by the Mansfield Mining 
Co., in 1848, which establishment it is expected will work the mine to raucli 
public advantage. The main shaft is 171 feet from the surface, and four 
other shafts lead from this, making the entire length 1,100 feet. — BoHon 
Traveller. The amount of Pennsylvania anthracite coal sent to mai-ket iu 



ADDENDA. 



719 



1850 was 3,127,083 tuns. Coal-field found at Port Philip, V. D. Land June 
ISol, surpassing any of those in the sister colonies. 

ANTHRACriE COAL TRADE OF THE UXITED STATES. 
-^^r/°!inTK?n' exliibits tlje quantity of Anthracite Coal sent to market from the different 
^^i^ri^^il^;/'^^!,^^^^^''^^^^' «f the Trade, iu 1820, to 1854, iStiv"! 



Years. 



1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

]825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1S31 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1S42 

1843 

1844 



Sfhiivlkil 



LeLigh. 



Lacka'na. 



6,500 
16,767 
81,360 
47,284 
79,973 
89,984 
81.854 
209,271 
252,971 
226,692 
339,5(18 
432,045 
523,152 
433,875 
442.608 
452.291 
684,692 
540.892 
()77,295 
839,934 
JS45 1,08.3,796 
JS46 l,237.(>n2 
1847 1,583,374 
1S48 1.652.835 

1849 1,605.126 

1850 1,712.007 

1851 2,184,240 

1852 2,452.026 

1853 2,470,9 !8,1,0S0,544 

1854 2,895,208,1,246,418 



365 
1,078 
2,240 
5,823 
9,541 
28,393 
31.280 
82,074 
30,232 
25,110 
41,750 
40,966 
70,000 
123,00(1 
106,244 
131,250 
148,211 
223,902 
213,615 
221,025 
225,318 
143,037 
272.516 
267,793 
377,002 
429,453 
523,002 
643,973 
680,746 
801,246 
722,622 
989,296 
1,114,026 



Pittsfon. 



Otlier 
RKgions, 



7,000 

48,000 

51.000 

84,600 

111,777 

43.700 

90,000 

108,861 

115,387 

78.207 

122,800 

14S.470 

192.270 

205,253 

227,605 

251,005 

278,485 

320,000 

388,200 

437,500 

454,240' 



365 

1.073 

2,240 

5,823 

9,541 

34,893 

48,047 

63,434 

77,516 

112,083 

174,734 

176,820 

363,871 

487,748 



Annual 
Increase. 



Aggregate 
in eacli pe- 
riod of 5 
yeare. 



Av. annuaj 

delivery 
for eaol"i 
period. 



25,352 
13,154 
15,837 

14,082 

34,567 

62,651 

2,086 

187,051 

123,877 



876,636] decrease 
5c)0,758 184,122 
682,428 121,670 
881,476 199,048 
739,2931 decrease 
819,3271 80,0.34 
865.414 46.087 



19,042 



835,973 




3,809 



1,579,809 



67,194 



13,488 



9.58,899; 



3,683,282 



6,827,552 



93,485 
149.102 
1.55,538 
368,130 
391,783 
320.940 
688 317 
106,9291 
153,403:18,681,1.32 

11.780 



315,961 



736,656 



1,165,504 



COAL. 



11,930 
15,506 
21.463 

57,.346 1,108^001 
(38,000 1 1,263,.539 
j27,993:i,631,669 
188,401:2,02.3,052 
205,075 2,3 ,'.3,992 
299,-302 1 2 9S2,303 
256,627 3,089.238 
30.3,736 3 242.,541 
432,339: 111,014| 276.-339 3,254,321 
472,478, 816,0171 415,099,4.377,130 1,122',S(^9 
497,839, 426,1G4| 439..542,4,925,695| 648,565 
494,.S27i 512,659, 556,018 5,114,491 1SS,796 
438,406, 496,648' 676,689 6,753,3691 633,878 2-3,425 006|4 685 001 



49,758 



84,139 



86,769 



2,786,226 



814,144 



889,765 



The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its emplov- 
ment m tlie manufacture of iron, and in tlie production of steam and ffas 
-have of late years given an amazing impulse to the trade in this article! 
iUirty years ago the coal trade in this country was limited to 365 tuns of 
anthracite, brought from the Lehigh mines to Philadelphia; now, the annual 
production.of anthracite greatly exceeds three millions of tuns This rapid 
increase is not confined to the United States. In the twenty years from 1825 
to 1845,_the exports of coal from Great Britain increased llS per dent • the 
production of coal in France, 181 per cent.; in Belgium, 111 per cent • in 
Prussia, 124 per cent. In the distribution of coal - ^^ •■ '^^'P^' cent- , in 



f J T- 'i • .r^ —, the United States are hiffhlv 

favored. Exclusive of Texas, Few Mexico, California, and Oregon, all of which 
are known to contain coal, the area of coal formations in the United States 



IS estimated by Mr. laylor to be 133,132 square miles, while the total area 
of these formations in Great Britain, Ireland, and the British Provinces of 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick Cape Breton, and Newfoundland, is, according 
to the same authority, less than thirty thousand square miles. Nearly thl 



720 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



■whole of this vast area is occupied by bitiiminons coal. The total area of. 

the anthracite region of Pennsylvania is estimated at less than four hundred 
square miles ; 3'et more tuns of fuel are now annually produced, from this 
small area, than from the almost boundless fields of bituminous coal scattered 
over twelve states. The railroads and canals, built to develop the wealth 
of this region, had cost, in 1847, about $40,000,000. Anthracite seems, indeed, 
to have sxiperseded bituminous coal on nearly the whole of our Atlantic sea- 
board. The freedom from smoke of anthracite is alone sufficient to account 
for the preference given to it for domestic purposes. In steam navigation, 
it admits of much closer stowage, and is not liable to spontaneous combustion, 
as is the case with bituminous coal. In war-steamers, there is this additional 
advantage, that no smoke betrays the motions of steamers bui-ning anthracite, 
whereas steamers burning fat, bituminous coal, can be " tracked" seventy tniles, 
before their hulls become visible, by the black smoke trailing along the horizon. 
The preference given to anthracite may be illustrated by a comparison of the 
importations of coal into Boston, in the years 1840 and 1847, which stand 
thus : — 



Pennsylvania anthracite, 
American bituminous coal, 
Foreign " " 



1840. 1847. 

. 73.847 tuns. 258.093 tuns. 

3.299 " 4,554 " 

. 49,997 " 65,203 " 



Thus, while in 1840 the excess of anthracite was but 20,651 tuns, in 1847 it 
was 188,336 tuns. 

TABLE I. 

Comparative view of tlie areas of coal lands, and the production in 1845 of the six principal 

producing countries : 



Countries. 


Square Miles 
of Coal For- 
mations. 


Tuns of Fuel 

produced in 

1845. 


Eelative 

Parts of 

1000. 


Official estimated Value at 
the Places of Production. 


American 
Dollars. 

~45r73S;000~ 
7,689,900 
6,650,000 
7,663,000 
4,122,945 
800,000 
72,663,845 


Pounds 
Sterling. 


Great Britain 

Belgium 


11,859 

519 

133,132 

1,719 

not deiBned. 


31,500,000 
4,960,077 
4,400.000 
4,141,617 
3,500,000 
659,340 


642 
101 
89 
84 
70 
14 
1000 


9,450,000 
1,660,000 
1,373,963 
1,603,106 
856,370 
165.290 


United States 

France 


Prussian States . . . 

Austrian States . . . 

Total 




49,161,034 


15,108,729 







As to the area of coal formations in France, it is to be remarked, that the area of the 
"concessions," or grants made for working, is all that is given. 

The difference in the amount of carbon, volatile matter, and ashes, is very 
striking between the bituminous coals and anthracite. Anthracite has now 
been successfully introduced in the manufacture of iron in Penns^dvania and 
in South Wales. In 1842, but four furnaces used this coal in Pennsylvania. 
In 1846, nearly one third of all the iron manufactured in that state was made 
by anthracite, as may be seen by the following statement: — 





Number. 


Tuns made annually 


rnaces employing charcoal, 


274 


248.569 


" " anthracite, 


43 


119,487 



In Swansea Vallej', South Wales, there were, in 1847, twenty -three furnaces 
using anthracite, producing annually 59,800 tuns, while ten years befor« 
there were but three or four furnaces. 



ADDENDA. 



721 



'0 AL — coK tinned. 



TABLE II. 



The importations of coal from Great Britain, British America, and all other places into the 

United States : 



Year. 


Total Impor- 


Av'agc Value per Tun 


Year. 


Total Impor- 


Av'age Value per Tun 


tation in Tuns. 


at the Shipping Ports. 


tation in Tuns. 


at the Sliipping Ports. 


1830.. 


5^,5»2 


$3.49 


1840.. 


163,510 


$ 2.37 


1831.. 


86,509 




1841.. 


155,394 


2.37 


1832.. 


83,144 




1842.. 


141,521 


2.63 


1833.. 


92,432 


2.61 


1843.. 


41,163 


2.83 


1834.. 


91,632 


2.18 


1844.. 


87.073 


2.72 


1835.. 


59,972 


2.39 


1845.. 


85,776 


2.60 


1836.. 


108,432 


2.27 


1846.. 


156,853 


2.41 


1837.. 


153,450 


2.36 


1847.. 


148,021 


2.50 


1H38 . . 


129,083 


2.40 


1848.. 


196,251 


2.76 


1839.. 


181,551 


2.29 


1849. 







TABLE IIL 

Production of Pennsylvania anthracite from the beginning of the trade in 1820 to 1S49; 



Years. 


Lehigh. 


Schuylkill. 


Lackawanna. 


Shamokin. 


"Wyoming. 


Total. 


1820 


865 

1,073 

2,440 

5,823 

9,541 

28,396 

31,280 

82,074 

80,232 

25,110 

41,750 

40.966 

75.000 

123,000 

106,244 

131,250 

146,522 

225,937 

214,211 

222,042 

225,591 

142,807 

271,913 

267,125 

376,363 

430,993 

522,518 

643,568 

680,193 

801,246 










365 

1,073 

2.440 

5,823 

9.541 

84;896 

48,047 

63,434 

77.516 

112,083 

17-},434 

176,820 

368.771 

487,748 

376,036 

575,103 

698,484 

887,632 

751,181 

823,479 

867,045 

964,255 

1,107,732 

1,262,532 

1,623,459 

2,002,877 

2,333,494 

2,970,597 

3,063,503 

3,242,641 


1821 











1822 










1823 










1824 










1825 


6,500 

16,767 

31,360 

47,284 

79,973 

89,984 

81,854 

209,271 

252,971 

226.692 

839,508 

432.045 

523,152 

433,875 

442,608 

452,291 

585.542 

54i;504 

677,313 

840,379 

1,086,068 

1,236,581 

1,572,794 

1,652,834 

1,683,425 








1826 








1827 








1823 








1829 


7,000 

42,700 

54,000 

84,500 

IJ 1.777 

43,700 

98,845 

104,500 

115,387 

76,321 

122,300 

148,470 

192,270 

205,253 

227,605 

251,005 

266,072 

318,400 

888,200 

434,267 

454,240 






1830 




1831 






1832 






1833 






1884 






1835 






1836 






1887 






1838 


4,104 
11,930 
15,928 
22,154 
10,093 

9,870 
13,087 
10,135 
12,646 
14,904 




1839 




1840 




1841 




1842 


47,346 

57,740 
114,906 
178,401 
188.003 
289,898 
237,271 
259,080 


1843 


1844 


18^5 


1846 


1847 


1848 


1849 


19,650 


Tuns, 


5,855,573 


13,542,575 


3,746,812 


144,506 


1,372,645 


25,113,641 



The column of totals, after the year 1834, includes, besides tlie product of the five locali- 
ties in the table, a considerable amount from Pine Grove and Lyken's Valley. 

Table IV. exhibits the retail prices of coal per tun in Philadelphia, New-York, 
and Boston. The tun, it ■will be seen, is different in Philadelphia from that 
of New-York and Boston : — 
81 



722 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



COAL — continuea. 









TABLE 


IV. 








Teaks. 


PlIILiLDKLPIIIA. 

Per Tun of 2,240 lbs. 


New-Tokk. 

Per Tun 
of 2,000 lbs. 


Boston. 
Per Tun of 2,000 lbs. 


Lehigh. 


Schuylkill 
White-ash. 


Schuylkill 
Eed-ash, 


Schuylkill. 


Lehigh. 


Schuylkill Schuylkill 
White-aah.l Red-ash. 


183S 


$5.50 




$ 6.00 

5.50 

4.25 

8.50 
3.75 

4.38 
4.62 
8.50 
4 00 
3.50 


$ 8.70 
8.58 
8.00 
8.45 
7.16 
5.96 
5.56 
6.50 
7.00 
6.50 








1839 










1840 


5.50 










' 1841 




$8.87 
7.21 
5.75 


$8.75 
6.96 


$ 9.21 
7.58 


1842 






1843 






1S44 










1845 






6.00 


6.25 


6.25 


]846 


.4.50 
5.00 
3.62 
8,75 
*8.62 




1847 




6.75 
6.50 

5.75 
5.50 


6.75 
5.00 
5.75 
5.00 


7.00 
5.50 
6.00 
5.25 


1848 


$ 3.25 
3.75 
3.25 


1849 


1850 



New-York price of coal :- 
Year 1850, 
" 1851, . 
" 1852, 
" 1853, . 
" 1854, 



$4.50 to $5.00 
5.00 to 5.50 
5.50 to 6.50 
6.50 to 7.00 
7.50 



COINAGE. It is lawful for any person or persons to bring to the Mint gold 
and silver bullion to be coined ; and the bullion so brought is there assayed 
and coined, as speedily as may be after the receipt thereof, and, if of the 
standard of the United States, free of expense to the person or persons by 
whom it has been brought. But the Treasurer of the Mint is not obliged to 
receive, for the purpose of refining and coining, any deposit of less value 
than one hundred dollars, nor any bullion so base as to be unsuitable for 
minting. And there must be retained from every deposit of bullion below 
the standard, such sum as shall be equivalent to the expense incurred in 
refining, toughening, and alloying the same ; an accurate account of which is 
kept, and of the sums retained on account of the same. 
Statement of the Coinage of the Mint of the United States and its Branches in the year 1853, 



Denominations. 


Pieces. 


Yalue. 


Denominations. 


Pieces. 


Value. 


Gold. 

Fine Bars, 

Double Eagles, . 

Eagles, 

Half-Eagles, . . . 
Quarter-Eagles, 
Dollars, 

Total Gold, . . 

Copper. 
Cents, 


4,576 
1,332,826 

252,253 

461,019 

1,407,836 

4,384,149 


$ 
15,885,998 
26,646,520 
2,522,530 
2,306,095 
3,519,615 
4,384,149 


Silver. 
Dollars, 


46,110 
4,860,708 
16.586,220 
13,273,010 
15,705.020 
11,400,000 


$ 

46.110 

2,430,854 

4,146,555 

1.326,801 

785,251 

342,000 


Half-Dollars 

Quarter-Dollars, . . 
Dinies, 


Half-Dimes, 

Three-cent Pieces, 

Total, 


7,842,169 

6,&41,13l 
129,694 


55,213,907 

66,411.31 

648.47 


61,871,068 


9,077,571 


Total Coinage, in- 
cluding Fine Bars, 


Half-Cents, .... 

Gold and Cop- 
per Coins, . . . 


14,612,994 


55,280,966.78 


76,484,062 


64,355,537.78 



* To September, 1850. 



ADDENDA. 



723 



COINAGE. — confintied. 

Coinage of the Mint of the United States, from 1792, including the Coinage of the Branch Mints, 
from the commencement of their operations in 1S38 : 



Years. 


Gold. 


SiLVEK. 


Copper. 


Whole Coinage. j 


Yalue. 


Value. 


Value. 


No. of Pieces. 
1,834,420 


"Value. 


1T93-95 


$71,485.00 


$370,683.80 


$11,378.00 


$453,541.80 


1796 


102,727.50 


79,077.50 


10,324.40 


1.219..S70 


192.129.40 


1797 


103,422.50 


12,591.45 


9,510.34 


1,095.165 


125,524.29 


1798 


205,610.00 


330,291.00 


9,797.00 


1,36S;241 


545 698.00 


1799 


213,285.00 


423,515.00 


9,106.68 


1,365,681 


64.5,906.63 


1800 


817,76;t.00 


224,296.00 


29,279.40 


8,337,972 


571,335.40 


1801 


422,570.00 


74,758.00 


13,628.37 


1,571,390 


510,956.87 


1802 


423,310.00 


58,343.00 


34,422.83 


8,615,809 


510,075.83 


1803 


258,377.50 


87,118.00 


25,203.03 


2,780,880 


370,69->.53 


1804 


258,642.50 


100,340.50 


12,844.94 


2,046,839 


371,827.94 


1805 


170,367.50 


149,388.50 


13,483.48 


2,260,361 


883.239.48 


1806 


324,505.00 


471.319.00 


5.260.00 


1,815,4(19 


8ol,(!84.00 


1807 


437,49.5.00 


597,448.75 


9,652.21 


2,731,345 


1,044,595.96 


18U8 


284,665.00 


684,300.00 


13,090.00 


2,935,888 


982,055.00 


1809 


169,375.00 


707,376.00 


8,001.53 


2,861,834 


884,7.52.53 


1810 


501,435.00 


638,773.50 


15,660.00 


3,056,418 


1,155.868.50 


1811 


497,905.00 


008,840.00 


2.495.95 


1,649,570 


1,108,740.95 


1812 


290,435.00 


814,029.50 


10,755.00 


2,761,646 


1,115,219.50 


1813 


477,140.00 


620,951 ..50 


4,180.00 


1,755.331 


1,102,27.5.50 


1814 


77,270.00 


561.687.50 


3,578.30 


1,833,859 


642.535.80 


1815 


3,175.00 


17,308.00 




69,867 


20,488.00 


1816 




28,575,75 


28,209.82 


2,888.135 


96.7S5.57 


1817 




607,783.50 


39,484.00 


5,163,967 


647,267..50 


1818 


242,940.00 


1,070,454.50 


31,670.00 


5,537,1184 


1,345,064.50 


1819 


258.615.00 


1,140.000,00 


26,710.00 


5,074,723 


1.42.%325.00 


1820 


1,319,030.00 


501,680.70 


44,075.50 


6,492,509 


1,8 4,786.20 


1821 


189.325.00 


825,762.45 


3,890.00 


3,139,240 


1,018,977.45 


1822 


88:980.00 


805,806.50 


20,723.39 


3,813.788 


9l5.5fi9.S9 


1823 


72,425.00 


895.550.00 




2.16r:,4S5 


967,97.5.00 


1824 


93.200.00 


1,752,477.00 


12,620.00 


4.780,894 


1,858.297.00 


1825 


156,385.00 


1.564,583.00 


14,926.00 


5.178,760 


1,735.894.00 


1826 


92,245.00 


2,002,090.00 


16,344.25 


5:774,431 


2,11(!,679.25 


1827 


131.565.00 


2.869,200.00 


23,557.32 


9,097,845 


8,024,842.32 


1828 


140,145.00 


1.575.600.00 


25,636.24 


0,196,853 


1,741.381.21 


1829 


295.7 17.50 


i;994,578.00 


16,580.00 


7,674„501 


2,306,875.60 


1830 


643,105.00 


2,495,400.00 


17,115.00 


8,857,191 


8,155.620.00 


1831 


714,270.00 


8.175,600.00 


33,603.60 


ll,792,-.'84 


8,923.473.60 


1832 


798,435.00 


2,.579,000.00 


23,620.00 


9,128,-387 


3,401,055.00 


1833 


978,550.00 


2,759,000.00 


28,160.00 


10,807,790 


3,765,710.00 


1834 


3,954,270.00 


8,415,002.00 


19,151.00 


11.637,643 


7.388,423.00 


18:55 


2,186,175.00 


8,443,003.00 


39,489.00 


15,9;i6,342 


5,068.667.00 


1836 


4,135,700.00 


8,606,100.00 


23,100.00 


13,719,-3.33 


7,764,900.00 


1837 


1,148,305.00 


2,096,010.00 


55,583.00 


13,(110,721 


3,299,898.00 


1838 


1,809,595.00 


2,333.243.00 


53,702.00 


15.780,811 


4.200,540.00 


1839 


1,355,885.00 


2,189,296.00 


31,286.61 


11,811,594 


3,576,467.61 


1840 


1,675,302.50 


1,726,703.00 


24,627.00 


10,558.240 


8,426,632.50 


1841 


1,('91,597.50 


1,182,750.00 


15,973.67 


8,811.968 


2,240,321.17 


1842 


1,834,170.50 


2.832,750.00 


23,833.90 


11,743,153 


4,190.754.40 


1S43 


8,108,797.50 


3,834,750.00 


24,283.20 


4,640,582 


11,967.880.70 


1844 


2,230.00 


2,235,550.00 


23,987.52 


9.051,834 


7.687,767.52 


1845 


3.75i),447.50 


1,873.200.00 


88,948.04 


1,S0(),196 


5,668,595 54 


1846 


4,034.177.00 


2.r58,5SO.0O 


41.208.00 


10,133,515 


6,633.965.00 


1847 


20,221.385.00 


2,374,450.00 


61.836.09 


15.392,344 


22,657.671.69 


1843 


3,775,512.50 


2,040,050.00 


64,157.99 


12,649.790 


5,879,720.49 


1849 


9,007,761 50 


2,114,950.00 


41.984.82 


12.666,659 


11,164.695.82 


1850 


31,981,733.50 


1.866.100.00 


44,467.50 


14,588.220 


83,892,3)1.00 


1851 


62,614,492.50 


'774.897.00 


99.635.43 


28.701.953 


6-3,488,524.93 


1852 


56,846,187.50 


1,309,555.00 


50,630.94 


82,964,019 


58,206,373-44 


1853* 


55,213,907.00 


9,077,571.00 


67,059.73 


76,484,062 


64,358,537.78 


1854 


66,302,388.86 


41,072,400.00 









* The vftlue of the Gold coinage for this year is given in the State of the Union, $46,998,945.60. 
Do, Silver do. do. do. 6,996,255.00. 



724 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



COIN AND BULLION. Statement exhibiting the amount of coin and bullion 
imported and exported annually, from 1821 to 1854 inclusive; and also the 
amount of importation over exportation, and of exportation over importation, 
during the same years. 



Years ending : 



Coin and Bullion, 



Imported. 



Exported. 



Excess of impor- 
tation over 
exportation. 



Excess of expor- 
tation over 
importation. 



September 30, 



9 months to June SO, . 
Year ending June SO, . 



, 1821 
1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 
182:i 
1827 
1828 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 

, 1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1849 
185(1 
1851 
1852 
1853 
1854 



$ 

8,064,890 

3,369,846 

5,097.896 

8,379;S35 

6,150.765 

6,880,966 

8,151,130 

7,489,741 

7,403,612 

8,155,964 

7,305,945 

5,907,504 

7,070,368 

17,911,632 

13.131,447 

13;400,8S1 

10,516,414 

17,747,116 

5,595,176 

8,882,?13 

4,988,633 

4,087,016 

22,390,559 

5,830,429 

4,070,242 

3,777,732 

24.121,289 

6,860,224 

6,651.240 

4,628,792 

5,453,592 

5,505,044 

4,201,382 

6,753,587 



10,478,059 

10,810,180 

6,372,987 

7,014,552 

8,935,031 

4,704,533 

8,014,850 

8,243,476 

4,924,020 

2,178,773 

9,014,931 

5,656.340 

2,611,701 

2,076,758 

6,477,775 

4,324,336 

5,976,249 

3,508,046 

8,776,743 

8,417,014 

10,033,332 

4,813,539 

1,520,791 

5,454,214 

8,606,495 

3,905,268 

1,907,024 

15,F41,616 

5,404,048 

7,522.994 

29,472,752 

42,674,135 

27,486.875 

41,197,300 



1,365,283 

"2,176,433' 
136,250 

' '2,479.592" 
5,977,191 

'2'5'l',i64" 
4.458,667 

15^834,874 
6,653,672 
9,076,545 
4,540,165 

14,239,070 

""465,799' 



20,869,768 
376,215 



22,214,265 
" 1,246,592' 



2,413,169 
7,440,334 
1,275,091 

'2,'78l',269' 



753,735 

'i,"70's',986' 



3,181,567 

'5,045,699' 
726,523 



4,536,253 
127,536 

' '9,'4'8'l',392' 

' '2,'8'9'4',262" 
24,019,160 
37,109,091 
23,285 493 
34,438,713 



Total,. 



285,438,702 



334,355,370 



112,361,545 



161,278,213 



COLORS MOST FKEQUENTLY HIT DuiiiNG "WAR. It would appear, from ntimerous 
observations, that soldiers are hit during battle according to the color of their 
dress, in the following order : red the most fatal color ; the least fatal, 
Austrian gray. The proportions are : red, twelve ; rifle green, seven ; 
brown, six ; Austrian bluish gray, five, 

COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES : 



Years. 


Export of food to 
Great Britain and Ireland. 


Elsewhere. 


1849-50 
1850-51 
1851-52 
1852-53 

Average, 


$11,717,000 

9,504,000 

11,701.000 

15,796,000 


$12,023,000 
12,552,000 
15,509,000 
15,910,000 


$12,180,000 


$14,600,000 



ADDENDA. 



725 



(COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES.— co7itmued. 

(ri-oss value of exports and imports from the beginning of the Government to the 3i"ith June, 1854 



Years ending: 




Exports. 












Imports — total. 




Domestic Produce. 


Foreign Mer- 
chandise. 


Total. 






$ 


$ 


$ 


$ 


Sept. 30, 1790 


19,066,000 


539,156 


20,20.5,156 


28,000,000 


1791 


18,500,000 


512,041 


19.012,041 


29,200,000 


1792 


19,000,000 


1,753,098 


20.753.098 


31.5011,000 


179? 


24.000,000 


2,109,572 


26.109,572 


31,100,0i)0 


1794 


26.500,000 


6,526,233 


33,026,2-33 


34,600,000 


1795 


39,500, i!00 


8,489,472 


47,989,472 


09,756,263 


179^5 


40,764.097 


26.300,000 


67,064,097 


81,4.36,164 


1797 


29.S50.2il6 


27,000,000 


56,850.206 


75,^79,406 


1793 


28,527,097 


83,000,000 


61,-527,097 


68.551,700 


1799 


33,142.522 


45,523,000 


78,665,522 


79.0i;9,148 


ISOO 


81.840 903 


39,130,877 


70,971,780 


91,252.768 


ISOI 


47.473,204 


46.642,721 


94,11.5,025 


lll,36>!.511 


1802 


86.708.189 


35.774,971 


72,483,100 


76,33-3,333 


1803 


42,205,961 


13,594,072 


65,800,0-33 


64,666,666 


1804 


41,467,477 


86,231. .597 


77,699,074 


S.5,0( (0,000 


1805 


42,387,002 


53,179,019 


95,566,021 


120,600,000 


1806 


41.253,727 


60,283.236 


101,536,963 


129.-1111,000 


1807 


48.690,592 


59,643,553 


108.-343,150 


133,500,000 


1808 


9.433,5! 6 


12,997,414 


22,430,960 


56.990,000 


1809 


81,405,702 


20,797,.53l 


52,203,233 


59,400,000 


1810 


42,366,675 


24. .39 1.295 - 


66.657.970 


85,40(1,000 


1811 


45,294,043 


16,022,790 


61.316,8-33 


53,400.000 


1812 


30,032,109 


8,495,127 


38,.o27,236 


77,030,000 


1813 


25,008,132 


2,847,865 


27,855,997 


22.005,000 


1S14 


6,782 272 


14,5.169 


6,927.441 


12,905,000 


1815 


45,974,403 


6,583.350 


52.557,i'53 


113,041,274 


1816 


64.781,896 


17,1.38,156 


81,920,452 


147,103,000 


1817 


68,313.500 


19 353,069 


87.671, .560 


99,1.50,000 


18^8 


73,854,437 


19.426,696 


93,281,1-33 


121.7.50,000 


1819 


50,976,8-38 


19.165.683 


70.142,521 


87,125.000 


1820 


51.683,640 


18,008,029 


69,691,669 


74,450.000 


1821 


43.671,894 


21,302.488 


64,974,382 


62,585,724 


1822 


49.874,079 


22,286.202 


72,160,231 


83,241,541 


1823 


47,155,408 


27.643.622 


74,699.030 


87,579,267 


1824 


50,()49.500 


25,-337,157 


75,986,657 


80.549.007 


1825 


66,944,745 


82.-590,643 


99,535.388 


96,-340,075 


1826 


53,055.710 


24,539,612 


77,-595,322 


84.974,477 


1827 


58,921,691 


2-3,403,136 


82,-324,327 


79,4S4;063 


1823 


50,669,669 


21,595,017 


72,264,686 


83,509,324 


1829 


55.7011,193 


16,658,478 


72,358,671 


74,492,527 


1880 


59,462,029 


14,387,478 


73,349,503 


70,876,920 


1831 


61,277,057 


20,0-33.596 


81,31 0,.5S3 


■ 10.3,191,124 


1832 


63,137,470 


24,039,473 


87,176.943 


101,029,266 


1833 


70 317,698 


19,822,735 


90,140,443 


108,118,311 


1834 


81,024,162 


23,312,311 


104,336,973 


126,521,-332 


1335 


101,189,082 


20,504,495 


121,693,577 


149.895,742 


1836 


106,916,680 


21,746,360 


123.663,040 


189,930,035 


1837 


95.564,414 


21,854,962 


117,419,-376 


140.989,217 


1838 


96,033,821 


12,4.52,795 


108,486,616 


113,717,404 


1S39 


103,5.33,891 


17,494.525 


121,02.8,416 


162,092,132 


1840 


113,895,634 


18,190,312 


132,035.946 


107.141,519 


1841 


106,382,722 


15.469,081 


121,.85I,803 


127,946.177 


1S42 


92.909,996 


11,721,.5.33 


104,691.534 


100,162.087 


1843 


77,793,783 


6.552,697 


84,346,430 


64,75.5,799 


1S44 


99,71.5.179 


11,484,867 


111.200,046 


108,435,035 


1845 


99,299,776 


15,-346.330 


114:646,606 


117.254.564 


1846 


102,141,893 


11,316,623 


11-3.438,516 


121.691.797 


1847 


150,637,464 


8,011,158 


158,648,632 


146,545,638 



726 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



COMMERCE OF THE UNITED ^TATE^.— continued. 



Years ending : 


Exports. 


— 1 

Imports— total. 


Domestic Produce. 


Foreign Mer- 
chandise. 


Total. 


Sept. 30, JS48 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1352 
1853 
1854 

Total, 


$ 
132.904,121 
182,666,955 
136,946,912 
196,6H9,718 
192,368,934 
213.417,697 
253,390,870 


$ 
21,128,010 
13,033,865 
14,951,803 
21,693,293 
17,239,382 
17,558.460 
24,850,194 


$ 
154,032,131 

145,755,820 
151,893,720 
213,338,011 
209,658.366 
23),976;i57 
278,241,064 


$ 
154,998,928 
147,857,439 
178,133,818 
216,224,932 
212,945,442 
267.978,647 
304,562,331 


4,573,714,067 


1,321,203,831 i 5,894,917,398 6,721,432.934 



Note. — Prior to 1821, the Treasury reports did not give the value of imports. To that period 
their value, and also tlie value of domestic and forc-ign exports, have been estimated from 
sources believed to be autlientic. From 1821 to 1854, inclusive, their value has been taken 
from official documents. 



Statement exhibiting a summary view of the exports of domestic produce, etc., of tne United 
States, during the years ending on the 30th June, 1347, 1343, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, tlie 
specie and buUioJi, and aggregate value in 1854: 



Produce of 



The sea. 



1847 3, 

1843 1. 

1349 2. 

1350 2, 

1851 3 

1852 2 

1853 3. 

1854 a 



468.033 
,930,963 
,547.654 

,324,818 
,294.691 
,'-'82,342 
,279 413 

,044,3^1 



The fo- 
rest. 



5,996, 

7.' 159, 
5,917, 
7,443, 
7,347, 
7,864, 
7,915, 
11,&46, 



Agricul- 
ture. 



073 68,43X383 
084137,781,446 
994'38,S58,2;)4 
5 :3'26,547,158 
■ i22]24,369,210 
22 i 23,378.872 
259 33,463,673 
57166,900,294 



Tobacco. 



7,242,086 

7,551,122 

5,804,2;j7 

9,951.023 

9,219,251 

10,(131,233 

11,319,319 

10,016,046 



Cotton. 



' Manufac- 
I tures. 



53,415, 
61,993, 
66,396, 
71,984 

112,315, 
87,975, 

lu9,456, 
93,596, 



84810.351. 
29412,774 
967 11,249. 
616 15,196, 
317 2),136. 
732 18.863. 
404 23,599, 
220126,179, 



364 

43 > 
877 
451 
967 
931 
93, 
503 



Eaw 
produce. 



Specie 

and 
bullion. 



2,102,838! 63. 
1,058,330' 2,700: 

935,1781 956. 

953,664' 2,046. 
1,437.893 18,069. 
1,545,767 37.4;37, 
1,335,264 23,548, 
3,6,i2,301.33,062. 



Total 
value. 



620 150,637,464 
412 132,904,121 
874132,666.955 
679 136,946;912 
530 196,439,713 
337 192,363,934 
535 213,417,697 
570 252,047,806 



Statement exhibiting the value of foreign merchandise and 

annually from 1821 to 1854 ; 



domestic produce, etc., exported 



Years ending : 


Value of exports exclusive of specie. 


Specie and 
bullion. 


Foreign merchandise. 


Domestic 
produce. 


Aggregate 
value of 
exports. 


Free of 
duty. 


Paying duty. 


Total. 


Sept. 30, 1821 
1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1826 
1837 
1838 
1S29 


$ 

236,698 

874,716 

1,823.762 

1,1 »0,53 ) 

1,.;88.785 

1,036.43 ) 

813,844 

877,.230 

919,943 


$ 
10,537,731 

il,i;i,3;6 

19,846,873 
1 7,232, ^-75 
22,7a4,8 18 
19.4 4,5 >4 
15.417.986 
13,167,339 
11,427,401 


$ 

10,824,429 
11,476,022 
21,17.1,635 
28.332,6 15 
23,793,583 
2'\44 1.934 
16,231.83) 
14,i;4i,578 
12,347,344 


$ 
43,671.894 

49,874,079 
47,155.408 
5:\ 649.500 
66,8 ;9.763 
52,449.3.55 
57.873,117 
49,976,632 
55,087,307 


54.496,328 
61.351,101 
68;326.043 
68,973,105 
90,6)3,354 
72,.89i.789 
74,1;. 9,947 
64,i 121,210 
67,434,651 


■ $ ' 
10,478,059 
10.810,180 
6,372.987 
7,014,552 
8,932, •j34 
4,7i>4.583 

s,(;4i,sso 

8,253,476 
4,924,020 



ADDENDA. 



727 



COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STAT:E8.~conti7iued. 

Statement exhibiting the value of foreign merchandise and domestic i)vo(lvice.—co7itimied. 



Years ending : 




Value of e 


sports exclus 


ive of specie. 




Specie and 


Foreign Merchandise. 














Domestic 


Aggregate 
value of 


bullion. 










Free of 

duty. 


Paying duty. 


Total. 


produce. 


exports. 






$ 


$ 


$ 


$ 


S 


$ 


Sept 30, 1830 


1,078,965 


12,067,162 


13,145.857 


58,524.878 


71,670,735 


2.178,773 


1831 


642,586 


12,434,483 


13,077,069 


59.218,583 


72;295,652 


9,014.931 


1832 


1,345,217 


18,448,857 


19,794.074 


61,726,529 


81,520,603 


5,656,340 


1833 


5,165,907 


12,411,969 


17,577,876 


69,9.50,856 


87,528,732 


2,611,701 


1834 


10,757,033 


10,879,520 


21,636,553 


80,624,662 


102,260.215 


2,076,758 


1835 


7,012,666 


7,748,655 


14,756,321 


100,459,481 


115,215,802 


6,477,775 


1836 


8,534,895 


9,232,867 


17,767,762 


106,570,942 


124,338.704 


4,324,3:3fi 


1837 


7,756,189 


9,406,043 


17,162,232 


94,280,895 


111,443,127 


5,976,249 


1838 


4,951,306 


4,466,384 


9,417,690 


95,560,880 


104,978,570 


3.508.046 


1839 


5.618.442 


5,007,698 


10,626,140 


101,625,533 


112,251,673 


8,776.743 


1840 


6,202,562 


5.805,809 


12,008,371 


111,660,561 


123,668,932 


8,417,014 


1841 


3,953,054 


4,228,181 


8,181,235 


1C8.686.236 


111,817,471 


10,034,332 


1842 


8,194,299 


4,884,454 


8,078,753 


91,799,242 


99,877,995 


4,813,539 


9ms.toJ'e 30,1843 


1,682,763 


3,4.56,572 


5,139,385 


77,686,854 


82,825,689 


1,520,791 


Y'r to J'e 30,1844 


2,251.550 


3,962,508 


6,214,058 


99,581.774 


105,745,882 


5,454,214 


1845 


2,413,050 


5,171,781 


7,584,781 


98,455,380 


106.040,111 


8,606.495 


1846 


2,342,629 


5,522,577 


7,865.206 


101.718,042 


109,583,248 


3,905,268 


1847 


1,812,847 


4,353.907 


6,166,754 


150,574,844 


156,741,598 


1,907,024 


1848 


1,410,307 


6,576,499 


7,986,806 


130,203,719 


138.190,515 


15,841,616 


1849 


2,015,815 


6,625,276 


8,&41.091 


131,710,081 


140,851,172 


5,404,648 


1850 


2,099,132 


7.376,361 


9,475,493 


134,900,233 


144,875,726 


7,522,994 


1851 


1,742.154 


8,552,967 


10,295,121 


178,620,138 


188.915,259 


29,472,752 


1852 


2,538,159 


9,498,884 


12,087,043 


154,921,147 


166,968,190 


42,674,185 


1853 


1,894,046 


11,202,167 


13,096,213 


189,889,162 


202,965,375 


27,486,875 


1854 
Total, 


3,260,451 


18,500,686 


21,761,137 


253,220,074 


274,981,211 


41,422,423 


99,497,701 


348.647,235 


448,144,986 


3,310,611,724 


3,758,756,660 


334,580,493 



Statement exhibiting the value of certain manufactured articles of domestic produce exported 
to foreign countries, from the 30th day of June, 1845, to June 30, 1854 : 



Articles. 



Wearing apparel 

Fire-engines and ap- 
paratus 

Printing presses and 

types 

Musical instruments 

Books and maps 

Paper and stationery 
Manufactures of glass 
Manufactures of mar- 
ble and stone 

Manufactures tif gold 
and silver, and sold 

leaf ".... 

Trunks 

Household furniture 
Coaches and other 

carriages 

Hats . . '. 

Saddlery 



1846. 

$ 
45,140 


1847. 

$ 
47,101 


9,802 


3,443 


43,798 
25,375 
63,567 
124,597 
90,860 


17,431 
16,997 
44,751 
88,731 
71,155 


14,284 


11,220 


8,660 
10,613 

317,407 


4.268 

5,270 

225,700 


87.712 
74,722 
24,357 


75,869 
59,536 
13,102 



1848. 



574,834 

7,686 

80.408 
38,508 
75,193 
78.307 
76,007 

22,466 



6,241 
6,126 

297,858 



1849. 



1850. 1851. 



79,945 207,642 

548j 3,140 

28,031 89,242 
23,713; 24,684 
94,4271119,475 
86.8271 99,(596 
101,419 136,682 



20,882 



34,510 



4,502 4,538 

6.099 10,370 

237,342 278,025 



89,963 95.934 
55,493 64.967 
27,4351 37,276 



95,722 
n8,671 
20,893 



1,211,894 

8,488 

71,401 

55.700 

158,912 

155.664 

185,436 

41,449 



68,689 

12.207 

362,830 

199,421 

103,768 

80,100 



1852. 



250,228 

16,784 

47,781 

67,733 

217,809 

119,535 

194,634 

57,240 



20,332 

15,035 

430,182 

172,440 
80,458 
47,937 



1853. 



289,7-83 

9,652 

32,250 

52,897 

142,601 

122,212 

170,561 

47,628 



11,873 

27,148 

714,556 

184,497 
91.261 
48,229 



1S54. 



200,420 
9,597 



126 

187, 
191, 
229. 



,012 

,062 
,335 
S4-S 
882 



88,827 



1,311,518 

23,673 

762,559 

244,6.38 
174,396 
53,311 



728 THE world's progress. 

COPPER. The Connecticut mines are stated by Professor Silliniau to extend 
over thirty miles south of Bristol, and would employ, if thoroughly worked, 
30,000 miners. The net profits in 1849 were $120,000 ; and the yield in- 
creases every foot the miners proceed. The chief staple of Lake Superior is 
native copper. For ages before the appearance of Europeans in America, 
this metal was supplied from hence to the Indian nations far and near. The 
tumuli of the Mississippi, etc., contain the identical copper of this lake. 
Traces of ancient mining in Keweenaw, Ontonagon, and Isle Royale, are 
abundant, in the form of deep pits, (a ladder in one,) rubbish, stone mauls, 
hammers, wedges, and chisels of hardened copper. In a native excavation, 
near the river Ontonagon, with trees five hundred years old growing over 
it, lately lay a mass of pure copper 81 tuns in weight, partly fused, and 
resting on skids of black oak. Modern explorers have hitherto only found 
two centers of metallic inches on the south coast — that of Keweenaw and of 
Ontonagon. In the first are the valuable mines of the Cliff, North Ameri- 
can, North-western, and other companies. In the Ontonagon center are the 
Minnesota and fifteen other mines. At the Cliff mine three large steam- 
engines are employed, (1852,) with 250 men; and at the North American 
mine, two engines with 160 men. Most of the other mines, forty in number, 
are assisted by steam-power. Three thousand miners are in work altogether, 
and the general population is fast increasing. Native copper is the princi- 
pal object. Silver is always present, and occasionally in masses of consider- 
able size. According to authentic accounts, dated February, 1852, many new 
mines have been opened lately ; and all are worked more systematically 
than heretofore — generally by contract. There are now in the Cliff mine, 
masses of pure copper within view estimated to weigh 700 tuns in the 
whole ; and on the lands of the Minnesota company, one block weighing 
250 tuns. The copper shipped in 1851 was about 1600 tuns, valued at 
£130,000. Thrs copper is stated to be of great excellence in the manufac- 
ture of wire, ordnance, and ship-sheathing. The large beds of specular and 
magnetic iron-ore, on the south-east side of the lake, are as yet only worked 
on a small scale. At this moment, the business of mining has ceased on the 
Canadian side of the lake. There is little doubt, however, but that profit- 
able deposits will, sooner or later, be discovered here. 

YIELD OF LAKE SUPERIOR COPPER MINES, 

In 1853, yield of 27 mines, .-.-.. 1.296.94 tuns. 
Yield of Eegion, 1845 to 1853, 4,824.01 " 

The East Tennessee copper mines are estimated to produce 17,735 tuns per 
annum, averaging 32 per cent, of copper. 

COSTUME, Bloomer. The male costume was entirely adopted by Miss Webber, 
an agriculturist of Belgium, in 1850; and a partial modification by Mrs. 
Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, NeAV-York, in 1851. Attempts have been made 
for its general adoption, both in this country and in England; but the pro- 
priety of female opinion has hitherto been against it. 

COTTON. First exported from this country to Liverpool in 1784, when eight 
bales were seized by the customs, who disputed its positive shipment from 
the United States. In 1791 the exports to Great Britain were about 
2,000,000, the shipments now made exceed 800,000,000 lbs. With the ex- 
ception of Liverpool, more cotton is shipped from New Orleans to Boston 
than to any other part of the world. — V. Flax-Cotton. The quantity 
received in England from the United States has increased from seventy 
millions of pounds in 1849, to nearly one hundred and twenty millions in 
1850; the former being about 9 per cent, of tlie whole quantity imported 



I 



ADDENDA. 729 

^^.f^K'T^^'-I'T^^'-t •^^•^'' f^"*"* ^^ P^^ ^^"*- Tl^e ^'^tios of cotton im- 
pel ted by Great Britain in the five years 1844-49 were: America 784 ner 
cent., rndia 10^, Brazil 7, Egypt 3^, West Indies and iniscellaneons ot per 
cent. If we could derive a larger supply than we now do froin iar 

Twn^u K^'' ^'^•"'''"iT ^?''^ ^^"^ "■'^"^'^P '^'^^^^ *^^^* ^^'"'-^ the United States, 
It would be nationally beneficial in many v,rays."-.Compamon to British 
^^manac, 18oL Ihe quantity and value of cotton exported in 1821 and 

In 1821, cotton of all sort. .... ,S5o5 $2M5"484 

Aggregate of all the yeai^, from 1S21 to isk- ' -17,?S6;i9S 1 tS^Os'Ss 

Average price per pound annually, lor the whole period, a little iliore than 10 cents. 

COITON- GIK The absolute dependence of the cotton trade upon this, is 
shown by the fact that the States which, in 1785, exported five bag., and in 
179o three hundred and seven bags, were able in 1794, the year when the 
cotton gm came into general use, to produce a crop of 17,777 bales of which 
over 3,000 bales were exported. ' 

COrrOI^ MANUFACTURES in the United States. It is estimated that the 
annual product of all the cotton mills in the United States is 250 000 000 
yards, and the consumption of cotton 600,000 bales ; 100,000 bales of which 
are consumed south of the Potomac and in the Western States. The value 
ot this amount of cotton when manufactured, is supposed to be upwards of 
sixty^seven millions. Convention of cotton planters at Macon, Georo-ia 
October 28, 1851. ° ' 

COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The follow- 
ing IS the estimated number of spindles in actual operation ; Great Britain 
ii'.^'nn'f^^T^ ^'^''"If' ^'SO'^'OOO; United States, 2,500,000; Zolh-ereiu States'. 
815,000; Russia, 700,000; Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420 000- Soain 
300,000; Italy, 300,000. Total, 29,985,000. , ^ u , c^pain, 

CRYSTAL PALACES. Early in 1852, arrangements were commenced for an 
exhibition similar to that of London, [see Exhibition,] in New York city 
under the title of Association for the Exhibition of the Industry of AU 
Nations A charter was granted by the legislature of the State on the 11th 
of March, 1852, with the privilege of issuing stock to the amount of $300 000 
which was afberwards increased to $500,0O{J. The Board of Directors 'first 
met on the 17th of March, and organized by the election of Theodore Sedo-- 
wick, Esq., President, and William Whetten, Esq., as Secretary. The first 
column of the Palace was erected with appropriate ceremonies, Oct 30th 
The building was to have been opened in May, 1853, but Avas not ready tili 
the 14th of July, when it was opened with appropriate ceremonies in the 
presence of the President of the United States and his Cabinet, et<'., etc. and 
after having been kept open for several months with very indifferent success 
was reopened again under a new organization on the 4tJi of May, 1854. Li a 
pecuniary sense it was a great failure, and attended Avith serious loss to the 
stockholders. Yet the taste and industry of the nation will long feel the 
impulse communicated by this extraordinary collection. The ij-eneral idea 
of the edifice is a Greek cross, surmounted by a dome at the "intei'section ' 
Each diameter of the cross is 365 feet 5 inches long. There are three simi- 
lar entrances— one on the Sixth Avenue, one on Fortieth, and one on Forty- 
second street. Each entrance is 47 feet wide, and that on the Sixth Avenue 
is approached by a fiight of eight steps. Each arm of the cross is on the 
ground plan 149 feet broad. This is divided into a central nave and two 
aisles, one on each side : the nave 41 feet wide ; each aisle 54 feet wide 
81* 



fSO THE world's progress. 

On each front 13 a large semicircular fanlight, 41 feet broad and 21 feet 
high, answering to the arch of the nave. The central portion, or nave, is 
carried up to the hight of 67 feet, and the semicircular arch by which it is 
spanned is 41 feet broad. There are thus, in eflfect, two arched naves, 
crossing each other at right angles, 41 feet broad, 67 feet high to the crown 
of the arch, and 365 feet long; and on each side of these naves is an aisle, 
64 feet broad and 45 feet high. The exterior of the ridgewa}^ of the nave is 
71 feet. The central dome is 100 feet in diameter — 68 feet inside from floor 
to .spring of arch, and 118 feet to the crown; and on the outside, with the 
lantern, 149 feet. The exterior angles of the building are filled up with a 
sort of lean-to, 24 feet high, which gives the ground plan an octagonal 
shape, each side or face being 149 feet wide. At each angle is an octagonal 
tower, 8 feet in diameter, and 75 feet high. Each aisle is covered by a gal- 
lery of its own width, and 24 feet from the floor. The building contains on 
its ground floor 111,000 square feet of space, and in its galleries, which are 
54 feet wide, 62,000 square feet more, making a total area of 173,000 square 
feet for the purposes of exhibition. Tiiere are thus in the ground floor two 
acres and a half, or exactly two acres and 52-100 ; in the galleries one acre 
and 44-100 ; total, within an inconsiderable fraction of four acres. There 
are on the ground floor 190 columns, 21 feet above the floor, 8 inches diame- 
ter, cast hollow, of different thicknesses, from half an inch to one inch thick ; 
on the gallery floor there are 122 columns. 
The Crystal Palace at Sydenham, (a south-western suburb of London,) is a 
revival and amplification of that in Hyde Park in which the Great Exhi- 
bition of the World's Industry was held in 1851. That Exhibition having 
been triumphantly closed, the contents removed, and the order for the 
speedy demolition of the building imperatively given, the materials were 
purchased by an enterprising director (Francis Fuller) and his associates 
for $370,000, with whom the original constructors (Messrs. Fox and Hen- 
derson) contracted to remove and reerect them for $600,000. The estate 
of one hundred and seventy-one acres, known as Penge Park, crowning 
a lovely eminence perhaps ten miles from the center of London, and four or 
five from the nearest compactly-built portion of the great metropolis, was 
chosen for the site of a new Crystal Palace. This property was valued by 
disinterested appraisers at $430,000, or about $2,500 per acre, and the Com- 
pany added to it by subsequent purchases 178 acres more at a cost of 
$400,000. They then sold off 149 acres for $500,000, retaining the 200 
acres best adapted to their purpose at a cost of $330,000. Hereupon the 
revived Crystal Palace was commenced on the 5th of August, 1852. It was 
to have been opened to the public on the 1st of Ma}', 1854, but tvas not 
actually opened till the 10th of June following, when the Queen, Prince 
Albert, and the Archbishop of Canterbury participated in the ceremonies. 
The grounds, decorations, illustrative courts, etc., Avere then very imperfect, 
and are not even yet completed. The enterprise, formidable at the outset, 
has continued to grow on the hands of its projectors ; the original capital 
of $2,500,000 was long since increased to $5,000,000, on the back of which 
a debt of over $1,000,000 has already been contracted; Dulwich Wood, 
adjoining the site, has been leased at the rate of $15,000 a year ; tlie cost of 
grading, planting, and ornamenting the grounds is given at $500,000; an 
Artesian well to furnish an abundance of water, is to cost $100,000 ; foun- 
tains, lakes, and hydraulic works, about $500,000 ; sculpture, about $150,000 ; 
fine arts, about $500,000 ; the edifice, (including purchase and removal of 
the original in H3'de Park, as aforesaid.) $1,500,000; illustrations of Natural 
History and Geology, $90,000. The Palace has been greatly enriched by 



ADDENDA. 731 

gifts of rare plants, trees, and other objects of national interest; and there 
will probably never be a time when the Palace will not be receiving ad- 
ditions to its contents; but I reckon ten millions of doilai's just about the 
fair cost of the whole concern ten years hence, should the measure of public 
patronage be such as to insure its continuance and prosperity. The edifice 
itself is 1,608 feet (not quite one-third of a mile) in length by 312 feet wide ; at 
the central transept it is 384, and at the two smaller transepts 336 feet 
wide. The wings at either end have a length of 576 feet. The hight of the 
building is 68 feet from the ground floor to the base of the noble arch or 
vault 72 feet across, forming the roof; the central transept has a vaulted 
roof of 120 feet span ; and the third gallery here crosses the main avenue at 
a hight of 100 feet from the floor. The ground floor rests on 968 columns, 
and has a basement beneath it known as Sir Joseph Paxton's Tunnel, con- 
taining a gigantic warming apparatus of furnaces, boilers, etc., including an 
iron network of fifty miles of steam-pipes. 

CUBA. Trial of G-eneral Lopez and others, engaged in the Cuban expedition, 
commenced in Circuit Court, New Orleans, December 17, 1850. General 
Quitman, of Mississippi, arrested by United States Marshal February 3, 
1851, on charge of setting on foot a military expedition against Cuba; he 
issues a paper to the people of Mississippi, resigning his office as Governor. 
Proclamation by the President United States, April 25, warning all persons 
within jurisdiction of the States from aiding or engaging in any expedition 
against Cuba. Arrest of O'Sullivan and others, April 26, on charge of being 
concerned in a Cuban military expedition then fitting out in New York. 
Steamer Pampero, with Lopez and 400 to 500 volunteers, sails from New 
Orleans, Aug. 8 ; disembark at Cabanos on the 12th ; Col. Crittenden, on his 
route to join Lopez then in advance, is attacked by 500 Spanish troops and 
his forces scattered. Lopez being repulsed by Gen. Enna, at Las Posas, retreats 
to the mountains ; is taken by bloodhounds on the 29th, and publicly garot- 
ted at Havana, September 1. Col. Crittenden puts to sea, but is captured 
with 50 of his comrades on the 15th Aug. ; the whole are carried to Plavana 
and shot the next day. The remaining followers of Lopez, after enduring 
great privations, are captured or surrender, and all but three or four con- 
demned by the governor to ten years' labor on the public works in Spain, for 
which country they are shipped September 1, under escort. Great excite- 
ment at New Orleans, Aug. 21, growing out of the above; the Spanish resi- 
dents attacked, and the Spanish consul placed in city prison for safety. 
Mr. J. S. Thrasher, late editor' of the "Faro Industrial," arrested at Havana, 
and after a trial resulting in his conviction, sent to Spain 24tli Nov., 1851. 
The American prisoners in Spain pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. [For 
events subsequent to 1851, see Chronological Tables.] 

I/AGUERREOTYPES. Of the innumerable variety of specimens of this Art, 
those of the United States are considered superior for brilliancy and execution. 
It is estimated that not less than 15,000 persons are connected with thi? Ai*t 
in the U. States, and that the amount of material annually consumed in their 
operations exceeds $900,000. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In March, 1851, the Legislature of 
North Carolina accepted a Report aflSrming as a well-ascertained historical 
fact that the celebrated Mecklenburg Declaration was published in June, 
1775, — large portions of wliich were embodied in Mr. Jefferson's Declaration 
of the following year. A resolution was passed that the Governor cause to 
be transmitted the block of marble presented by Lincoln county for the 
Washington Monument, with the arras of the State and the following inscrip- 



732 THE world's progress. 

tion sculptured thereon, — "N'orth Carolina, Declaration of Independence, 
Mecklenburg, May 20, 17*75." 

DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared 

Votes 
Country. Pop. No. Votes. to 

Pop. 
ia 26 
in 23 
in 3S 
in 81 



England, 


17,000,000 


630,721 


1 


Wales, 


850,000 


37,924 


1 


Scotland, 


2,800,000 


72,720 


1 


Ireland, 


8,000,000 


98,006 


1 



Voles 
Country. Pop. No. Votes. to 

Pop. 

^aTuUrelandj} 23.650,000 839,371 1 in 43 

France, ' 34.000,000 250,000 1 in 137 

United States, 20,000,000 2,750,000 I in 7 



DENTISTRY. Within tliirty years, the art of dentistry has, by the cultivation 
of its American practitioners, been raised from comparative obscurit}' into 
the front rank of surgical science. Herodotus mentions that there were teeth- 
doctors in Egypt during his time, and, from other ancient records, we are led 
to believe that the art was rudely practised at an early day, particularly in 
Rome, at the commencement of the Christian era, although one of its writers 
at that time has left an evidence of the small extent of his theoretical knowl- 
edge on the subject, in stating that " the cause of the toothache is known only 
to Grod." From that time to the seventeenth century, it does not appear that 
any part of dentistry was practised, except the simple knack of tooth -pulling, 
and that with rude instruments. Probably the oldest of these now to be seen 
is that exhibited in Boston, said to have been used by Dr. Snowden, on board 
the Mayflower, in 1620. In the eighteenth century, dentistry was successfully 
revived in Paris, and it was thence introduced into the United States, at the 
period of the revolutionary war, by the surgeons accompanying our French 
allies, and also by its special practitioners. The manufacture of sets of arti- 
ficial teeth was shortly afterwards commenced. Among those for whom these 
were made was Gen. Washington, who had one set made by Dr. Greenwood, 
of New- York, and a second set by one of his cotemporaries ; but he afterwards 
entirely abandoned the use of either set. In 1810, there were not probably 
fifty dentists in the United States ; but there were so many improvements 
in dentistry about 1830, especially in preparing artificial teeth, that there 
were then about three hundred. According to a careful estimate in 18-42, 
there were at that time 1400 in the United States ; in 1848, 2000; and in 
1850, the census reported 2923. In 1851, at the World's Fair, in London, 
American dentistry was acknowledged to be the first in the world, and since 
that time the profession has, by greatly adding to its achievements, gained a 
position which it will probably long continue to hold. The celebrated Fau- 
chard, a dental surgeon of Paris, wrote a work entitled Xe Chh'urgieri Dentiste, 
published in 1728, in two volumes, 12mo., of 900 pages, which was the first 
attempt to systematize the dental art, as a distinct branch of the medical 
science, and hence he has ever been considered and justly styled the " father 
of dentists." During the next ensuing fifty years, some half dozen valuable 
dental works were published on the Continent. The first English work was 
issued in 1770, by Thomas Berdmore, whose standing in his profession made 
him "Dentist-in-ordinary" to George III, He wrote and published a treatise 
on the teeth, Avhich, in point of merit, is said to be justly entitled to preemi- 
nence. Dr. Hunter's two principal works appeared in 1771 and 1778 ; Blake's 
treatise, in 1798 ; and Fox's, in 1806. There have been not less than fifty trea- 
tises on dentistry bj'Americaji authors, and about half of tliese are now in print, 
being standard works, and essential to the completeness of the practitioner's 
library. The first of these was published in 1801, the second in 1802, and the 
third in 1819, since which date there has scarcely been a y^ear without some 
valuable additions to the list of dental works. The two most important and 
largest works were prepared by Dr. Harris, of Baltimore. Of these, the "Prin- 
ciples and Practice of Dental Surgery" has, since its first publication, '.n 1839. 



4DDENDA. 733 

been revised four times, and doubled in size, and is now generally acknowl- 
edged to be the best treatise on the subject in any language. His " Diction- 
ary" is also a work of high repute, and has passed to a second edition. It may 
be said of the dental profession in the United States — what cannot be said of 
any other — that its literature is superior to that of the same profession in Eu- 
rope. The first established and most important periodical on dentistry is The 
American Journal of Dental Science, published quarterly at Baltimore, edited 
by Dr. Harris, and commenced by him June 1, 1839. From the close of its 
first year, to August, 1850, it was owned by "The American Association of 
Dental Surgeons," and was partly devoted to printing standard works : then 
it was again transferred to Dr. H., and its library department discontinued. 
The New- York Dental Recorder was commenced October, 1846, and has just 
entered on the ninth volume : it is edited b}'' C. W. Ballard. The Dental 
News-Letter, commenced in 184*7, at Philadelphia, is an able quarterly, now 
in its eighth volume. The Dental Regider of the West, issued quarterly at 
Cincinnati, was commenced October, 184*7. The Forcep is a new journal, pub- 
lished in this city. There are some three or four other smaller periodicals 
in the United States. In all Europe, there is now but one dental periodical. 
The Dentist, published monthly at Berlin, Prussia, each number containing 
twenty-four pages. An English journal was commenced in 1843, edited by 
J, Robinson, but it was short-lived. This country has the honor of having 
been the first — and, as yet, the only one — to establish special institutions for 
instruction in dentistry. The value and feasibility of such a system of tuition 
have been fully demonstrated by the success of the pioneer college at Balti- 
more, which has led to the establishment of three others in different parts of 
the Union. They are conducted on a similar plan, having an annual session 
of four months, commencing in November, and having a faculty of five pro- 
fessors and a lecturer on chemistry. The total of charges for the course of 
lectures is from $85 to $110; matriculation, $3 to $5 ; and diploma, $25 to 
$30. The Baltimore College was founded in 1840, and has been very suc- 
cessful, owing to the superior ability of its president, Dr. C. A. Harris, and 
his colleagues, several of whom have been connected with it from the time 
of its foundation. The whole number of its graduates, to 1850, was 84; in 
1851, 18 ; in 1852, 14; in 1S53, 22 ; in 1854, 18 : total, to last year, 166. "The 
American Society of Dental Surgeons," which was organized in 1840, holds 
its annual meeting in the first week of August. The last three meetings 
were held at the following places : Philadelphia, August 5th, 6th, 'Zth, 1851 ; 
Newport, August 3d, 4th, 1852; and West Point, August 2d, 3d, 4th, 1853. 
Artificial teeth were first invented in Paris, which continued to be the chief 
place for their manufacture until American ingenuity devised a superior 
article. Twenty years ago, probably not more than 250,000 teeth Avere 
manufactured annually in the United States, and a less number in Europe. 
Since then, the demand has been continually increasing, owing, in a great 
measure, to the great improvements made from year to year, which have at 
length so fully combined beauty and utility that nothing more seems to \4^ 
desired. At the present time, there are not less than two millions of mineral 
teeth made annually in this country, a considerable part of which are ex- 
ported to various European countries, including France, the countr\' of their 
invention. It is a matter, then, of some pride, that we have so completely 
outstripped ohe older countries in the perfection and manufacture of this 
delicate and important article. The capital invested in this business, alone, 
approaches $300,000, giving employment to a large number of persons, many 
of whom are women. The principal materials of which the teeth are composed, 
are : feldspar, white clay, and silex, which are brought, by tuns at a tim^ 



734 THE 

from various localities in Delaware, ConDecticut, and other States. The first 
process in the inaniifacture consists in reducing the materials to a fine paste 
in a steam-mill. This paste is then colored Avith the proper metallic oxyds, 
so as to produce teeth of all the different shades found in nature. Thus pre- 
pared, it is put in^shape by moulds — which are very numerous and varied — 
and baked in the furnace, which ever}^ hour bakes hundreds of them into solid 
porcelain, fit for service. In European countries, dentistry is by no means as 
extensively practised as in the United States. This resiilts : First, from its 
being less required, for the people are generally more healthy, and take better 
care of their teeth ; secondl}', because their practitioners are less skilful than 
ours, and hence less patronized. In 1852, an official return showed that there 
were but 411 dentists in France, which number but little exceeds that of the 
dentists in this city alone. In tlie same year, Berlin contained thirty-seven ; 
Munich, seven ; and Madrid, twelve dentists. 

DIAMONDS. The Koh-i-noor, or " Mountain of Light," valued at £2,000,000, 
receive'd in England, from India, July, 1850. The actual value of this dia- 
mond, tested by Mr. Jeffrey's tables, is £260,000. It is, however, exceeded 
by the famous Portugal diamond, weighing 1680 carats: this diamond has 
never been cut or polished, and is valued by the Portuguese Government at 
£5,644,000! The Durra-i-7ioor, or "Sea of Light," tlie property of the East- 
India Company ; a blue diamond, belonging to the Queen ; another in Mr. 
Hope's collection {1^1 grains), Avith several parti-colored ; and a green dia- 
mond, owned by the King of Saxony, are among the most remarkable gems 
of the present day. Several pink diamonds were exhibited in tlie " Crystal 
Palace ;" also a black diamond, weighing 350 carats, the property of Mr. 
Joseph Mayer. 

DIRECTORY, New-York City. The earliest published was in 1'786: a small 
volume of eighty-two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The 
names of tlie individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three 
pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city, United 
States Government, Post Office regulations, etc. In his address, the editor 
states it Avas the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The New- 
York Historical Society possesses a complete set, from its first publication. 

DOLLAR. This word is said to have originated from the folloAving circum- 
stance : In 1516, a silver mine Avas discovered at St. Joachim's Thai (or dale), 
in Bohemia, the proprietor of Avliich issued a number of silver pieces, Avhich 
Avere called "Joachim's Thaler." By subsequent corruptions, this Avord be- 
came Dollar ; the mark ($) is simply a monogram of the letters, PS: that 
is. Peso, the Spanish Avord for dollar. 

DRAMATIC FUND ASSOCIATION. This benevolent institution for the relief 
of decayed or disabled members of the profession, in this country, Avas 
founded in New- York, April, 1848. 

EARTH, Rotation of the. M. Focault's public demonstration in Paris, May, 
1851, of the rotation of the earth, was preceded by a similar exhibition by 
M. Guyot, Paris, 1836. 

EARTHQUAKE. Hoav the approach of an earthquake may be knOAvn : M. 
Rati-Menten has communicated, to the Paris Academy of Sciences, a paper, 
stating an earthquake-indicator to consist of a magnet, to Avhich is suspended, 
by magnetic attraction, a little fragment of iron. Shortly before the occur- 
rence of an earthquake, the magnet temporarily loses its power, and hence 
the iron falls. According to M. Rati Menten, the accuracy of this indicative 
sign has been thoroughly tested by an Argentine officer, Colonel Espinosa^ 



ADDENDA. 735 

during a residence of many years at Eriguipa — a region where earthquakes 
are very frequent. 
Broussa, the early capital, and the burial-place of the Ottoman Sultans, 
severely visited by an eai'thquake in the beginning of the 3^ear, (1855,) 
has recently been entirely destroyed by the recent recurrence of the ca- 
lamit}^ A few shocks sufficed to overthrow the magnificent mosques 
which were the pride of the Turks ; and the fact that the mausoleums of the 
triumphant Sultans — of Othman, Osman, Bayazeed, and Achmet — are now 
in ruins, by the hand of Allah, has impressed the Turks with sinister appre- 
hensions about their future. They take the earthquake of Broussa for a bad 
omen, foi'etelling their downfall, and the end of their rule. 

EDUCATION" (in Europe). Aiistria. — Austria has not received due credit for its 
gigantic efforts to establish a free and extensive system of education. In 
1842 there were 20,293 primary day schools, besides 11,140 evening classes for 
adults and apprentices, employing in all 41,809 teachers, and having a school 
attendance of over 2,500,000 pupils. Besides these schools, there were eight 
universities, with 353 professors and 13,871 students; twelve 13'cea; forty- 
nine theological schools; fifty-three philosophical colleges; 188 gymnasia, or 
higher classical schools; 126 special schools, and 1252 private schools. 

Bavaria. — Bavaria has three universities ; nine lyceums, or colleges ; twenty- 
four gymnasiums ; seventy Latin schools ; three polytechnic schools ; thirty- 
two mechanic, or industrial schools ; nine normal schools; and 6065 common, 
or primary schools. 

Belgium. — There is now a very complete system of public instruction in suc- 
cessful operation in Belgium, organized in 1842, and modified in 1850. It 
embraces — 1. Primary schools, of two grades ; 2. Secondary scJiools, of two 
grades ; 3. Superior schools, or universities ; 4. Special schools, of every kind ; 
6. Societies for the advancement of science, the arts, and literature. All the 
schools are subjected to constant and intelligent supervision, and their con- 
dition reported to tlie public fully and frequently. There is one normal 
school to train professors for colleges and secondary schools, and two to train 
teachers for primary schools ; besides a normal course in the best primary 
school, of a superior grade, in each province, and a meeting of all the teachers 
of a given district every three nionths for discussion. Much attention is given, 
to practical and scientific education in all the industrial occupations of Bel- 
gium ; and there are schools of commerce, engineering, agriculture, and the 
mechanic arts, in successful operation. No country in Europe is making more 
rapid educational progress. 

England and Wales. — England is well supplied with the means of academic 
and collegiate education. The ancient endowments of grammar schools, 
colleges, and universities, exceed in amount those of any other country. 
The annual income of charitable trusts designed for grammar schools, 
alone, exceeds $800,000, and for schools not classical and elementary, 
over $1,000,000 ; and, if properly managed, it is calculated, by Mr. McCul- 
loch, that these trusts would yield over $4,000,000. But these endowments 
educate to a very limited extent the mass of the poor in England, for 
whose special benefit they were left by their charitable and religious founders. 
The only eff'ectual education provided for the poor and laboring classes, has 
been given through schools supported by religious bodies and voluntary 
societies, established since 1800, and only aided effectually since 1846, by 
governmental grants and inspection. It was recently stated, in a speech in 
Parliament, that, in respect to education, England is almost at the bottom of 
the scale — Russia, Spain, and Italy, only being lower; that, out of the entire 



736 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



niioiber of children between fire and fifteen years of age, in England, forty- 
two per cent, are at school, twelve per cent, are at work, and forty-six per 
cent, neitlier at school nor at work. There was also mentioned a fact, which 
eeems really incredible, viz.: that nearly eight hundred school masters oi 
mistresses in England were imable to write their own names ; and that, at 
the taking of the censns, they signed their returns with a mark. 

The following are the most recent statistics of elementary education in England, gathered 
from Lord John Eussell's speech, in 1853 : 



Denomination of Schools. 


Number of 
Schools. 


Number of 
Pupils. 


Total Income. 


Church of England Schools, 

British and Foreign do 

"VVesleyan do 

Congregational do 

lioman Catholic do. ....... 

Eagged do 

Total, 


17,015 
1,500 

mi 

89 
585 
270 


955,865 

225,000 

38,6'28 

6,839 

34,750 

20,000 


£817,081 

161,250 

27,347 

4,901 

1 6,000 

20,000 


19,856 


1,281,077 


£1,046,579 



Public day schools, . . - - 

Number of persons on the school-books: 

Wales, ------ 

Females, - - - - - 

Total, ...... 

Attending at the schools on the 31st March, 1851 : 
Males, ------ 

Females, - . - - - 

Private day schools, 31st March, 1851, 

Number on the school books : 

Males, ------ 

Females, - - - - - 

Attending on March 81st, 1851 : 

Males, - - - . - 

Females, - - - - - 



15,473 

791,545 

616,021 

1,407,567 

635,107 

480,130 

29,425 

347,694 

353,210 

317.390 
322,349 



Proportion of scholars on the books to the (one scholar in 8^ persons) popu- 
lation, 11.76 per cent. Number of scholars in attendance to school on 
books, 83 1-5 per cent. 

France. — The system of public instruction in France embraces: 1. Primary 
schools of two grades, elementary and sujierior ; of the first there are 37,000, 
and of the last 290, with 2,780,370 pupils. In all the primary schools, public 
and private, there are 3,164,297 pupils. 2. Supplementary classes or schools, 
for children and adults who cannot attend the primary scliools. Tliis grade 
of institutions embraces 1489 infant schools, with 96,192 pupils; and 6630 
classes for adults, with 102,230 pupils. 3. Secondary schools; embracing 
fifty-seven lycea or classical high schools, with 20,372 pupils; 312 communal 
colleges and forty-six royal colleges, with an aggregate of 44,00() pupils ; 
besides some 30,000 pupils in private establishments of the same grade. 4. 
Superior schools ; or schools of law, medicine, theology, science, literature, 
and the arts. There are six faculties of Catholic tlieology, and two of Pro- 
testant theology, with about 6000 students. There are nine faculties of law, 
at Aix, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasbourg, and Tou- 
louse, with about 3000 students. There are three faculties of medicine, at 
Paris, Grenoble, and Montpelier, with seventeen secondary schools of medi- 
cine. The faculty of medicine in Paris includes about thirty professors and 
4000 students. There are eight faculties of science and six faculties of letters; 



ADDENDA. 737 

five special schools, a. ]S"ormal schools for training teachers and professors: 
One superior normal school at Paris, for educating professors for colleges and 
lycea; ninety-three primary normal schools, including the Institutes of the 
Christian Broth ei^s, and seminaries for female teachers, connected with reli- 
gious communities ; one normal military school at Paris ; one normal class 
for teachers and conductors of reform schools at Mettray. b. Schools of en- 
gineers, military, civil, and naval: There are the Polytechnic School, and the 
School of Roads and Bridges, and the School of Mines, at Paris, c. Schools 
of arts and manufactures : 1. The central school, and the Conservatory of the 
Arts, at Paris ; 2. The schools at Chalons, Angers, and Aix, together with a 
large number of provincial and town schools and classes, for special instruc- 
tion in drawing, pattern, and model making, etc. d. Schools of agriculture, 
horticulture, etc.: There are forty-four model-farm schools; four regional, 
or district ; one central institute at Versailles ; four veterinaiy schools, and 
one school of horticulture, e. Military schools : These are six — 1. Military 
Gymnasium, at Paris ; 2. Special Military School, at St. Cyr ; 3. College, at 
La Fleche ; 4. School for Artillery, at Metz ; 6. School for Staff-officers, at 
Paris ; 6. School for Cavalry, at Saumur. /. Waval schools : Besides the two 
large schools at Brest and L'Orient, there are forty naval schools in the dif- 
ferent seaports, g. School of the fine arts: Aid is given to the Academy of 
Painting at Rome and Paris, to the Conservatory of Music, and to schools of 
Design at Paris and in the provinces, h. Institutions for the blind, deaf 
mutes, and idiots: France was the earliest to establish public institutions for 
each of these unfortunate classes, and still makes annual appropriations in 
their behalf. ^. Agricultural oi-phan homes and reform schools : There are 
ten reform-farm schools, and nineteen homes for orphans, with a farm and 
a garden attached, supported or aided by the government. Besides these 
institutions, there are a large number of societies and libraries, devoted to 
the advancement of a particular science or branch of knowledge, in aid of 
which the government makes annual appropriations. 
Grand Duchy of Baden. — The Grand Duchy is one of the most advanced con- 
stitutional States of Germany, and the one best provided with educational 
institutions. With a population in 1844 of 400,000, there were — Two uni- 
versities — one at Heidelberg, with 710 students — the other at Freiburg, with 
485 students; fourlyceums, or high schools, a grade below the universit}-; six 
gymnasiums, devoted mainly to high classical instruction ; six pedagogiums, 
or schools preparatory to the lycea ; fourteen Latin schools, preparatory to 
the gymnasium ; eight seminaries for young ladies ; four normal schools — 
one at Carlsruhe, for Protestant teachers ; four normal schools — one tit 
Carlsruhe for Catholic teachers; one institution for deaf mutes: one veteti- 
nary school ; one polytechnic school, with 200 pupils ; one trade school ; one 
military academy; 2121 common schools, each with different grades, or 
classes. 

Greece. — The public educational institutions of Greece, and tlieir statistics for 
1851-2, are as follows: University of Athens, thirty-nine professors and 590 
students — classed as follows : of philosophy (sciences and belles-lettres), 
sixty-six; theology, ten; law, 109; medicine, 278; pharmacy, thii-ty -seven. 
Of the 590, 281 are from the kingdom of Greece, and 809 from the Greek 
provinces. The annual expense of this institution is $23,560. Seven gymnasia 
(classical high schools), with forty-three professors and 1077 pupils, of At'hom 
847 are from Independent Greece. Seventy-nine secondary schools (called 
Hellenic, because based upon the study of Greek), with 133 professors and 
3872 pupils; four private institutions and three supported by the communes, 
with twenty-five professors and 511 pupils; one seminary, with four profes- 



788 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

sors and thirty students^. One normal school, for training teachers for the 
communal schools, with seven professors and sixty students. 338 communal 
schools for boj^s, with 366 teachers and 33,864 pupils. Thirty-one communal 
schools for gi'rls, with forty teachers and 4380 pupils ; seventeen private 
schools for girls, with twenty-five teachers and 1479 pupils; the school of 
the Philecpaideutic Society, for the higher instruction of girls, with thirteen 
professors and 464 pupils. One agricultural school, at Tiryns, with twenty 
scholars. One military school, with twenty professors and sixty-four pupils. 
There are, also, at Athens, a school called the Polytechnic School, being the 
beginning of a school of arts and trades ; a library, of about 70,000 volumes ; 
a rich cabinet of natural philosophy; a museum of natural liistory ; an ana- 
tomical museum ; a museum of pathological anatomy ; an observatory ; a 
medical society ; a society of natural history ; an archaeological society ; a 
society of the fine arts, and a botanic garden. According to statistical returns 
of the kingdom of Greece, for 1853, the population is. 1,002,112. Of this 
number, from 700 to 750 are teachers or professors, and about 47,000 pupils, 
of whom about 6250 are females. The number of young Greeks studying in 
the universities of France, German}^, and Italy, is from 350 to 400. Of these, 
thirty-one, having finished courses of study in Greece, are maintained at the 
expense of the Greek government. Eleven of them are stud^dng medicine, 
six fine arts, six literature, one law, one physical and mathematical science, 
and six theology. 
Holland. — The primary school system of Holland was first organized in 1806. 
The kingdom is divided into disti^icts, for each of which there are school 
inspectors, who visit schools, examine and promote teachers, and give life to 
the whole system. There w^ere 3214 primary schools in 1846, with 382,370 
pupils, to which there were eiglity inspectors, paid by the government. The 
schools are partly supported by the communes or parishes, and partly by the 
parents. 
Ireland. — Prior to 1650, Ireland abounded with schools connected with reli- 
gious houses or the parish church. From the time of Henry VIII., to 1831, 
the legislation of England, in regard to Irish schools, was mainly directed 
to convert Irishmen into Englishmen, and Catholics into Protestants. It was 
even made an offense, punishable by transportation, to act as a schoolmaster, 
or for Catholic parents to educate their children abroad. In 1831, a Board 
of Commissioners of National Education for Ireland was organized, and an 
annual grant — in the year 1848, amounting to over £125,000 — was made to 
support public schools free of any denominational bias. This Board has aided 
in the erection and fitting up of over 3000 school-houses, and now supports 
over 4000 elementary schools, with 500,000 pupils, besides one normal school, 
one model-farm school, twenty-one district-farm schools, sixteen industrial 
schools, eighteen workhouse schools, and a large number of evening classes. 
Prussia. — The educational system of Prussia embraces — 1. Primary schools 
of two grades, elementary and superior, with a high school in the large 
towns; 2. Secondary schools of two kinds — gymnasia for classical training, 
and real schools for the business of life ; 3. Universities, with the most com- 
plete range of higher instruction in law, medicine, theology, science, and 
philosophy; 4. Special schools, for the deaf and dumb, blind, idiots, and for 
engineers, farmers, artisans, and artists. In 1846, there were 24,080 ele- 
mentai-y schools, with 29,663 male teachers, and 1876 female, all of Avhom 
had been trained in normal schools, of which there ai'e forty-six, including 
two for female teachers. To these should be added 1436 superior primary 
schools, with 91,818 scholars and 2729 teachers, and 100 town high schools, 
and 762 teachers, and 15,624 students 



ADDENDA. 739 

Russia. — ^The public schools of Russia may be classified as follo-ws : 1. Schools 
and institutions subject to tlie supervision of the Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion. These embrace — a. Primary schools, supported by the parishes, of 
which there are no returns, as to their numbers or the attendance ; b. Town 
high schools, of which there are over 2000, with 112,000 pupils ; c. Gymnasia, 
or classical schools, seventy-seven, in all numbering about 3000 pupils, mostly 
sons of the nobility ; d. Boarding schools sanctioned by the government ; 
e. Six universities and three lycea, with — professors and teachers, and 
3521 students. 2. Military schools: a. Twenty-seven colleges, subject to the 
direct management of the emperor, or to his delegate, the grand duke, heir- 
apparent, with 865 professors and 9504 students ; b. Ten naval schools, Avith 
3920 students and 337 teachers, under the direction of the Admiralty ; c. 
Elementary military schools, for children of soldiers in service, or whose 
fathers have been killed in war, under the management of the Minister of 
War. 3. Preparatory schools for the civil service of the empire : a. Eighty- 
five schools of commerce, with 461 teachers and 9779 pupils, belonging to the 
Minister of Finance ; b. Two schools of civil engineering, with eighty-five 
professors and 516 students ; c. Thi'ee schools, with ninety-three professors 
and 591 students, under the charge of the Postmaster ; d. Six institutions, 
with ninety-six professors and 993 students, under the charge of the Secretary 
of State ; e. Two law-schools, with ninety-three professors and 591 students. 
4. Theological schools: a. Twenty-one theological schools belonging to the 
Greek Church, with seventy-two teachers and 1261 students ; b. Fourteen 
schools to the Armenian Chui'ch, with fortyjfive teachers and 728 students; 

c. Two schools to the Lutheran Church, with eight teachers and 668 students ; 

d. Eleven schools to the Mahommedan creed, with 586 students ; e. One rab- 
binical school to the Jews. These schools are managed by the Synod of the 
Greek Church and the consistories of the other denominations. 5. Agricul- 
tural schools : a. An agricultural college, under the immediate supervision 
of the emperor, where 250 peasants are thoroughly instructed for four years, 
in scientific and practical agriculture, and then sent to model farms on the 
domains of the crown ; b. Twenty-five agricultural schools, with 124 teachers 
and 1591 students ; c. 2696 industrial elementary schools, employing 2783 
teachers for 18,907 pupils. 

Saxony. — With a population of 1,809,023, in 1846, there was one university, 
with eighty-five professors and 835 students; six academies of the arts and 
mining, with forty-three professors and teachers, and 1400 pupils ; eleven 
gymnasia, with 131 teachers and 1590 pupils; six higher burgher and real 
schools, with eighteen teachers and 270 pupils ; three special institutions, for 
commerce and military affairs, with forty-three teachers and 240 pupils ; nine 
teachers' seminaries, with forty-one teaehei's and 362 pupils; seventeen higher 
schools of industry, or technical schools, with 72 teachers and 779 pupils; 
sixty-nine lower or technical schools, with — teachers and 6966 pupils ; 
twenty-four schools for lace-making, with thirty-seven teachers and 1928 
pupils ; and 2155 common schools, with 2175 teachers and 278,022 pupils ; 
besides one institution for the blind, one for deaf mutes, three orphan asylums, 
and a number of infant schools and private seminaries. 

Scotland. — Public schools existed in Scotland for many centuries before the 
organization of the present system of parochial schools, by the Acts of 1615, 
1633, and 1696. The growth of the population has, for more than a half 
eentur}^, made the parochial system entirely inadequate to meet the educa- 
tional wants of the country. Out of 4371 schools in operation in 1850, only 
1049 belonged to the parochial system ; of the remainder, 823 were suppoi-ted 
in part by the Church of Scotland ; 704 by the Free Church ; fifty by the 



740 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

Scotch Episcopal ; sixty -three by Roman Catholics ; and 1684 were adventure 
schools, supported entirely by tuition. In all these schools thei-e were about 
225,000 scholars, leaving a large number of cliildren — not less than 125,000 — 
of the proper school age, still to be provided for. The parochial schools of 
Scotland are supported partly by a charge on the property of the parishes, 
and partly by tuition paid by parents. 

Wirtemberg. — Wirtemberg was one of the earliest of the Germ tin States to 
establish a graduated system of public instruction, from the common school 
to the university, and has always shared largely in all the educational move- 
ments of Germany. The fiamework of the school system in operation in 1848 
was substantially the same as it was in 1538, enlarged, fi'om time to time, to 
meet the demands of the age for new institutions, and a more liberal and 
practical instruction. With a population of 1,750,000, there were the fol- 
lowing institutions, aided by the government, in 1847 : One university, at 
Tiibingen, with six faculties, seventy-one professors, and 800 students ; nine 
real schools, with seventy teachers ; six gj'mnasia, each with ten professors 
and three assistants — that at Stuttgart has twenty-six professors ; live lycea, 
each with seven teachers ; eighty-seven Latin schools, in which eighty-six 
classical teachers, sixty-six real teachei^s, and forty-four assistants, are em- 
plo37ed; one Protestant theological seminary, at Tiibingen, with fifteen teach- 
ers, and four preparatory theological schools in other parts, each having six 
teachers and thirty pupils ; one Catholic theological seminary ; one poly- 
technic school, with twenty-one teachers, and a course of instruction em- 
bracing four years, for engineers, architects, etc. ; one institute for agriculture 
and forestr}'', at Ilohenheim, the most complete agricultural establishment in 
Europe, and five smaller schools; one veterinary school, with five professors; 
two orphan houses, each having 278 orphans; nine farm schools, for vagrant 
and criminal children ; seven schools of art and drawing ; one superior 
seminary for Protestant girls, at Obenstenfeld, with eleven teachers ; one 
superior seminaiy for Catholic girls, at Stuttgart, with thirteen male teachers 
and thirteen female teachers; one institute for deaf mutes and the blind; 
1455 Protestant common schools ; 787 Catholic schools ; six teachers' semi- 
naries. These institutions, providing on a liberal scale for the educational 
wants of the whole community, are all in some way aided by the government, 
and subject to its supervision through the Home Department, 

Agricultural Education. — Much attention is now paid in Europe, by govern- 
ments and by voluntary associations of the friends of agricultural improve- 
ments, in different countries, to schools and model farms, for special instruc- 
tion in the science and practice of agriculture. The first school of the kind 
was proposed by the Abbe Rosier, in France, i'n 1775, but established by 
Fellenberg, atllofwyl, in Switzerland, in 1799. It appears, from Mr. Barnard's 
book, that there are now in Europe twenty-five superior schools, sixty inter- 
mediate, and 260 primary schools of agriculture, besides a course of lectures 
on the science of agriculture in sixteen universities, Mr. Barnard gives a 
particular description of several of the most successful of these interesting 
institutions. 

Normal Schools. — The first institution for the special instruction of teachers 
in the art of teaching, Avas established by the Abbe de Lasalle, in France, in 
1681, and the second, by Franke, in Germany, in 1694. There are now nearly 
three hundred in successful operatioji. The}' exist, as pa,rt of the system, in 
every country where public schools are established and supported by law. 

Meformatory Farm Schools. — A very interesting class of agricultural schools 
has been established in France, Germany, and England, within a few years, 
under the name of " Reform Farm Schools," designed for delinquent children. 



ADDENDA. 741 

EDUCATION" (in India), Education always from the earliest period of their his- 
tory had been an object of ]-)ublic care and of public interest to tlie Hindoo 
governments in the peninsula of India. Every well regulated village under 
those governments had a publicschool and a public schoolmaster. The s3-stera 
of instruction in them was that which in consequence of its efficiency, sim- 
plicity, and cheapness, was, a few years ago, introduced from Madras into 
England, and from England into the rest of Europe. Every Hindoo parent 
looked upon the education of his child as a solemn duty which he owed to God 
and his country, and placed him under the schoolmaster of his village as soou 
as he had attained his fifth 3'ear, The ceremony of introducing him for the 
first time to the schoolmaster and his scholars was publicly recorded, and was 
attended with all the solemnity of a religious observance; a prayer being 
offered up to Ganesa, the Hindoo god of wisdom, which was at the head of 
every Hindoo school, imploring him to aid the scholar in his endeavors -to 
learn and become wise. 

EDUCATION — Schools of the Sandwich Islands. 

Whole Number of Schools, 411 

Whole Number of" Scholars in same, 11,782 

Whole Cost in 1854 $20,705 32 

Average Number of Scholars in each School, 23 4.10 

Average Cost of eacli School for the year, .$50 25 

Average Cost of each School for a day, $202 1.10 

Select Sciiools supported wholly or in part by Government, including English 

and High Schools, 15 

Number of Scholars in same, say 650 

Number of Native Children learning English, about 600 

EDUCATION (in the United States). 

Total of the School Fund of the States of the Union [For the details, see 

Finances], $26,509,820 

COLLEGES AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 

Number of Colleges and Professional Schools in the United States, . . . 119 

" Instructors in Do., 1,028 

" Students in Do 11,732 

(being 1 Instructor to 11.4 Students on an average.) 

" Alumni of Do 62,123 

" Volumes in Libraries of Do. 976,033 

" Theological Schools, 44 

" Professors in Do., 126 

" Students in Do., 1,372 

(being 1 Instructor to 10.89 Students on an average.) 

" Educated since Foundation of Do., 8,195 

" Volumes in Libraries of Do., 201,547 

" Law Schools, IT 

♦' Professors in Do., 37 

" Students in Do., 473 

(being 1 Instructor to 12.78 Students on an average.) 

" Medical Schools, ST 

" Professors in Do., 254 

" Students in Do., 5,181 

(being 1 Instructor to 20.4 Students on an average.) 

Number of Graduates of Do., 18,150 

Normal Schools — [see Normal Schools.] 

For the results of education, it may be instructive to compare the native 
white population, and the number of native white adults ignorant of letters in 
a few States : 



t42 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



Population. Ignorant Adultfc 

Maine, 5i9,674 1,99-4 

North Carolina, 550,267 73,226 

Massachusetts, 819,044 1,055 

Tennessee, 749,661 77,017 

Oliio, 1,732,098 51,963 

Yii-glnia, 871,393 75,868 

Connecticut, 324,095 726 

Maiyland 366,650 17,364 

Ehode Island, 119,975 981 

Louisiana, 187,558 14,950 

New- York, 2,388,830 23,241 

Missouri, 514,527 84,443 

It is worthy of remark that the two oldest colleges of the United States, 
Harvard and Yale, have independent chairs of Zoology; while the two 
great Universities of England afford no means of instruction in those de- 
partments, except such as are derived from the casual lectures of the reader 
in Anatomy and Ph37siology. 

EMIGRATION STATISTICS— Great Britain. 

Eeturn by the Land and Emigration Commissioners of the Emigration from the United 
Kingdom, during the Twenty-six years from 1825-50, inclusive.* 



Years. 


To the North 
American 
Colonies. 


To United 
States. 


To Australian 
Colonies and 
New Zealand. 


To all other 
Places. 


Total. 


1825 


8,741 


5,551 


485 


114 


14,891 


1826 


12,818 


7.063 


903 


116 


20,900 


1827 


12,643 


14,526 


715 


114 


28,003 


1828 


12,084 


12,817 


1.056 


135 


26,(j92 


1829 


13,307 


15,678 


2,016 


197 


81,198 


1830 


30,574 


24,887 


1,242 


204 


56,907 


1831 


58,067 


23,418 


1.561 


114 


83.160 


1832 


66,339 


32,872 


3,733 


196 


103,140 


1S33 


28,803 


29,109 


4,093 


517 


62,527 


1834 


40,060 


83,074 


2,800 


283 


76,222 


1S35 


15,573 


26,720 


1,860 


825 


44,473 


1886 


84,226 


37,774 


8,124 


293 


75,417 


1887 


29,884 


36,770 


5,054 


826 


72,034 


1833 


4,577 


14,332 


14,021 


292 


33,222 


1839 


12,658 


83,536 


15,786 


227 


92,207 


1840 


82,293 


40,642 


15,850 


1,953 


90.743 


1841 


38,164 


45,017 


82,625 


2,786 


118,592 


1842 


54,123 


63,852 


8.534 


1,835 


123,344 


1843 


23,518 


28,335 


8,473 


1,881 


57,212 


1844 


22,924 


48.660 


2,229 


1,873 


70,686 


1845 


81,803 


58,538 


830 


2,330 


93,5ai 


1816 


43,439 


82,239 


2,347 


1,826 


129,851 


1847 


109,680 


142,154 


4,949 


1,487 


258,270 


1848 


31,065 


188,233 


23,904 


4,887 


248,089 


1819 


41,367 


219,450 


82,191 


6,490 


29;),493 


1850 


32,961 


223,078 


16,037 


8,773 


280,849 


1851 ) 












to March v 
31 \ 

Total, 


•• 




•• 


•• 


56,584 




.. 






2,622,617 



* The Eeturn does not distinguish the emigrants born la Great Britain from those born in 
Ireland. 



ADDENDA. 



l^O 



EMIGRATION TO THE UOTTED STATES. A statement of the number of 
passengers arriving in tlie United States by sea from foreign countries, 
during ibe last eleven years from September 30, 1843, to December 31, 
1854:— 





Males. 


Females. 


Sex not 
stated. 


Total. 


From Sept. 30, 1843, to Sept. 30, 1844, . 
Sept. 30, 1844, to Sept. 30, 1845, . 
Sept. 30. 1845, to Sept. 30, 1846, . 
Sept. 30, 1846, to Sept. 30, 1847, . 
Sept. 30, 1847, to Sept. 30, 1848, . 
Sept. 30, 1848, to Sept. 30, 1849, . 
Sept. 30, 1849, to Dec. 31, 1849, . 
Dec. 31, 1849, to Dec. 31, 1850, . 
Dec. 31, 1850, to Dec. 31, 1851, . 
Dec. 31, 1851, to Dec. 31, 1852, . 
Dec. 31, 1852, to Dec. 31, 1853, . 
Dec. 31, 1853, to Dec. 31, 1854, . 

Total, .... 


48,897 

69,188 

90,973 

134,750 

136,128 

179,253 

33,282 

200,903 

245,017 

236,596 

284,887 


35,867 

49,290 

66,778 

96,747 

92,883 

119,915 

27,107 

113,392 

163,745 

164,181 
175,587 


1.400 

897 

1,057 

472 

442 

181 

1,038 

66 

898,470 


84,764 
119,804 
158,648 
232,554 
229,843 
309,610 

66,570 
315,333 
408,828 
398,470 
400,777 
460,474 


1,664,874 


1,105,492 


404,029 


3,174,895 



ENLISTMENTS. It is stated on high authority that, out of a company of 55 iu 
the United States army, nine-tenths enlisted on account of female difficulties ; 
thirteen of them had changed their names, and forty-three were either 
drunk, or partially so, at the time of their enlistment. Most of them were 
men of considerable talents and learning, and about one-third had once been 
in elevated stations in life. Four of them had been lawyers, three doctors, 
and two ministers. 

ENVELOPES FOR LETTERS. Delarue's machine in London completes no 
less than 396,000 daily, the cutting, folding, and gumming, being performed 
by one single operation. Dr. Hawes' three machines at Worcester, Mass., 
complete, count, and pack, 36,000 per day, and preparations are making 
for a contract of 120,000 daily. 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC SHIP. The caloric engine was patented by Captain 
Ericsson in 1833. Its peculiarity is the use of hot air in the place of steam 
for the propulsion of the vessel. Its first practical application was in the 
steamer Ericsson, built at New York, and fitted up under the immediate 
superintendence of the inventor. At her first trial this ship accomplished 
about nine revolutions of her wheels a minute and a speed of about seven 
miles an hour. Her cylinders were so large, being foui'teen feet in diameter, 
that the bottoms, to which the fires of the furnace were directly applied, 
were rendered insecure through constant expansion and contraction. This 
difficulty it was found could not be easily remedied, and the plan was 
adopted of running the ship on the high-pressure principle, and by this 
means very much reducing the size of the cylinders, bringing them down to 
about six feet. The ship, in May or June, 1854, made her first trip with the 
new machinery, and when, in returning to her dock, after what Capt. 
Ericsson deemed a most successful trial, she was sti'uck by a fatal flaw 
which carried her to the bottom. This accident, though happening at 
home, was nevertheless a complete shipwreck. The ship was in fact reduced 
to a mere hulk, with ever^^thing movable in ruins and everything fixed 
requiring renovation, the entire machinery included. The enterprise was 
started by a company of gentlemen ; but the withdrawal of one after another 
threw nearly the entire burthen on Mr. John B. Kitching, who couraga 



744 THE world's progress. 

OTisly held out to the last. The plan of propelling the vessel by heated air 
has been abandoned for the present, and the opinions of scientitie men as to 
the possibility of its ever superseding steam, are divided. The Efi(js3on is 
now converted into a steamship of improved pattern. Capt. Ericsson claims 
to have made a very important improvement by his new condenser. The 
saving is great in fuel, in the Avear of the boiler, and the labor of cleansing 
it, througli the use of fresh water in lieu of salt. By the new plan, the 
boilers of the Ei-icsson are charged with fresh water, and as there is no 
waste, she may carry the same out from New York to Havre and return 
without diminution other than what might result from accidental leakage. 
In addition, she has apparatus for distilling 1,000 gallons of fresh water 
from salt a day, so that the great bulk of the water-tanks is saved for freight. 
Altogether, she comes nearer to the caloric standard of cheapness of 
power and economy in space. The room occupied by the naachinery and 
boilers is unusually small, and the consumption of fuel greatly reduced from, 
the old standa^-. It is stated that her furnaces cannot consume over thirty 
tuns a day, and it is expected the Atlantic vo3^age will be made on a tun an 
hour. The speed of the ship on her trial trip was about twelve miles an 
hour, with an alleged consumption of fuel not exceeding three-fourths of this 
quantity. 

EXHIBITION, GREAT, LONDON, opened by the Queen, May 1, closed Oct. 
11, 1851. This building, erected for the exhibition of the "'World's Indus- 
try" in arts, manufactures, etc., covered nearly nineteen acres, being four 
times the size of St. Peter's at Home. It was erected from the designs of 
Joseph Paxton, almost entirely of glass and iron ; the cubic contents of the 
building were 33,000,000 feet; hight of the transept, 108 feet. 

Total cash receipts from privileges, season tickets and visitors, - - - £505,107 

Of which $356,803.25 were taken on the Is. days. 
Expenses and appropriations, ....--- 355,000 

Net profit, - - £150,107 

Total number of visitors, ..--... 6,201,856 

Lai'gest number of admissions on closing day, being at 5 P. M., - - 108,000 

Number of Exhibitors, -------- 17,000 

Council Medals awarded to Great Britain, 79 ; Germany, 12 ; Austria, 4 ; Belgium, 2 ; Tus- 
cany, 2; Spain, 1; France, 56; United States, 5; Eussia, 3; Switzerland, 2; Holland, 1; 
Rome, 1 ; and Turkey, 1. Total, 169. 
Jury Medals, of which 9 were awarded to U. S., 2,918. 

The number of letters received by the acting Commissioners during their 
official session was thirty-seven thousand ! 

It is not a little to the honor of the United States that the articles combin- 
ing the greatest utility were exhibited by American citizens — McCormick's 
Heaping Machine being one of the most important and successful. The ex- 
ample of the Great Exhibition was followed by exhibitions at Cork, in 1852, 
and Dublin, in 1853. Industrial exhibitions have also been opened on various 
scales, in Bavaria, Berlin, Breslau, Copenliagen, Munster, Piedmont, Ply- 
mouth, Salisbury, and Sheffield. In Paris, preparations are making for an 
exhibition early in 1855, b}^ the erection of a suitable edifice, etc. The in- 
terior of the main edifice is 827 feet long by 556 broad. It is divided 
lengthwise into three galleries; the central one, or nave, is 623^ feet long 
by 157^ in width and 98^ in hight; around it, above the lower range of 
windows, runs an upper gallery, 78|- feet wide. Besides its glass dome, the 
Palace is lighted by 698 large windows. There are 136 supporting columns. 
The accessory or supplemental edifice, on the Quai de la Conference, is 3,937 
feet long and 82 wide, with xipper galleries on either side, running its whole 
lengh, 20 feet in width. These two great buildings are to be united by a 



ADDENDA. 745 

new gallery which takes in on its way the old Panorama building. Finally, 
there is. near by, the accessory Palace, devoted to the exhibition of the fine 
arts. Excluding this last, the other buildings present, on the ground floor 
and in raised galleries, a surface of 106,443 square yards, or 3,589 more than 
that of the London Crj^stal Palace. The Palace des Beaux Arts has a ground 
surface of 16,744 square yards The national exhibition of the fine arts and 
that of manufactures, are to beheld in the edifice at the periods fixed by the 
goverimient. At all other times the state reserves to itself, for railitar}' or 
other fetes, the free use of the building on any two days in the week which 
it may select. Should the government not require the building on the two 
days of the week, the company may profit by that fact, on asking leave of 
the Minister of the Intei'ior. During the other five days of the weelc, the 
company having the building may employ it for private /efes or exhibitions. 
During the national exhibitions the company may demand, on the days fixed 
by the government, an entrance fee, which is not to exceed 8 francs, one 
day in the week being fixed at 50 cents. The government may at any pe- 
riod after the first ten years take possession of the building on condition of 
paying as an indemnity to the company the average of the last five years' 
receipts multiplied by the number of yeai's remaining to run to the end of 
the concession. As the ground belongs to the city of Paris, the company is 
to pay it an annual rent of 1,200 francs. 

EXTENSION OF THE TERRITORY OF THE U. S. Until 1760, the entire 
valley of the Mississippi belonged to France and was styled the Province of 
Louisiana. In that year France commenced negotiating with Spain a secret 
treat}^ and which resulted in transferring to Spain so much of the aforesaid 
province as lay wei^t of the Mississippi River, embracing, of course, New 
Orleans. This treaty, though ratified in 1762, was not published until 1764, 
after the general "Treaty of Paris," made in 1763 between Great Britain, 
France, and Spain, when France ceded Canada to Great Britain with all the 
Louisiana Province east of the Mississippi River, and which v.'as thencefor- 
ward called East Louisiana. Thus by those two treaties France disposed of 
all her territory in North America. By the treaty last mentioned. Spain 
ceded the Floridas to Great Britain. By the treaty of 1783, at the close of 
the Revolution, the United States acquired from Great Britain all of 
East Louisiana. In the same year the Floridas were retroceded to Spain, 
which also retained its other possessions in North America. Thus the 
United States was then bounded on the north by Canada and the great 
lakes, on the west by the Mississippi, and on the south by the 31st parallel 
of N. latitude, which divided it from the Floridas. In 1795 the United 
States obtained from Spain the free navigation of the Mississippi, which had 
become an urgent public want ; but Spain afterward threw many obstacles 
in the way of trade, and it is probable that hostilities with that nation were 
only prevented by its ceding Louisiana to France, March 21, 1801, in accord- 
ance with the treaty of San Udefonso, of October 1, 1800. About this period 
the general attention of the nation was drawn by many circumstances to a 
consideration of the probable destiny of the great Mississippi Valley, and the 
earnest sentiment of our people began to show itself through the public 
press, and Congress was called upon to make arrangements for purchasing 
the entire province. On the recommendation of President Jefferson in 
1803, Congress provided for the exploration of the country, which was ac- 
cordingly accomplished by Capts. Lewis and Clarke. Negotiations were 
commenced with France, and the condition of her affairs so favored the pro- 
posed purchase that it was speedily consummated. The treaty was signed 

J. April 18, 1808, and perfected on the 30th of that month- Louisiana now 

^ 32 



746 THE world's PROGRESa. 

became the properly of the United States, $15,000,000 being paid for tht 
same. In December folloAving, the territory was duly surrendered. The 
$15,000,000 was paid in stock and money. The amount paid for interest on 
that stock up to the time it became due was $8,529,353.43, making the total 
payment to France for Louisiana $23,529,853.43. In 1811, that portion of 
West Florida south of 31°, and now included in Alabama and Mississii)pi, 
Avas occupied by the United States, the Spanish authority having been sub- 
verted by revolution. After Louisiana had been acquired, there Avas a 
grave controversy with France concerning the Western limits of that province, 
which lasted until 1819-20, when by the Florida Treat}^ of that period, the 
Floridas were ceded to the United States and Texas was confirmed to Spain. 
Spain in 1821 ceded the whole of Florida as indemnity for spoliations com- 
mitted on the property of American citizens, though it also received 
$5,000,000, which with $1,489,768.66 paid in the shape of interest on stock 
issued, made together the sum of $6,489,768.66. Thus we j^aid France and 
Spain for new territory $30,019,122.09 But this is not all. Georgia, by its 
charter of 1*732, extended westward to the Mississippi River, and hence, though 
at that period the territory beyond its present limits (now Alabama and Missis- 
sippi) was de facto a French possession, yet on its coming into the possession 
of Great Britain in 1763, and of the United States in 1783, it was of course 
claimed by Georgia as falling within the limits of its charter. In 1798 this 
country was formed into the Territory of Mississippi, and Georgia's claim to 
it was ceded to the United States in 1802 for the simis of $1,250,000, paid in 
money and arms, and $4,282,151.12 paid for Yazoo claims under that State 
—total $5,532,151.12. Thus far the aggregate cost is $35,551,273.21. Texas 
was a province of Mexico until March, 1836, when it declared its indepen- 
dence, but it had previously been in open rebellion. At the battle of San 
Jacinto on April 21 of that year, the Mexicans were defeated, and Santa 
Anna was captured. He conceded the independence of Texas, but hif; 
acknowledgment was never confirmed by Mexico. After an independent 
existence of nine years, Texas was admitted into the Union by a joint reso- 
lution of Congress, which received the President's signature, March 1, 1845. 
Texas ratified the resolution on the 4th of July following, and by act of 
Congress of Dec. 29 of the same year, the laws of the United States were 
extended over this new member of the Union. On the 28th of March, 1846, 
Gen. Taylor and the "Army of Occupation" took their position opposite 
Matamoras. On the 24th April the first hostilities took place, Avhen a de- 
tachment of our troops were killed. This resulted in the first great battle 
of May 8-9 ; and on the 13th following, Congress passed the first act for the 
prosecution of the war, appropriating $10,000,000, and providing for 
60,000 volunteers. The treaty of peace and cession was signed at Guadalupe 
Hidalgo Feb. 2, 1848. By the act of Sept. 9, 1850, Texas received for its 
cession of that part of its territory noAV included in ISTew Mexico, $10,000,000, 
and for its relinquishment of claims on the United States, the sum of 
$10,000,000 in stock bearing five per cent, interest, payable halt-yearly, and 
redeemable in fourteen yeai's. Half of this amount, or $5,000,000 was re- 
served for its creditors. This provision was changed at the last session, and 
an additional amount of $2,500,000 was appropriated toward paying the 
creditors of Texas, which sum is consequently chargeable to the account 
of our national expenses for that State. The purchase of the Mesilla Val- 
ley, ostensibly for the purpose of having one of the moonshine routes for 
the Pacific Railroad within our national domain, was effected for the 
moderate sum of $10,000,000, in accordance with the treaty of December 
15, 1853. The expenses for concluding this treaty are stated in the Treasury 



ADDENDA. 747 

Report as at least $86,255.88. The following table shows the territorial 
increase of the United States since 1*783, as given in the compendium of the 
last Census : 

Square Miles. 
17S3. Area of the Union at tho peace, - . - - - = S-iit,630 

ISOo. The purciiase of Louisiana added about - . - . 899.579 

1819. Tiie acquisition of Florida added, - _ . . . 66,9i»0 

1845. Admission of Texas, (Emory's Map, 1844,) - . ^ . 818,000 

1846. Oregon Treaty, ----.-.. 808,052 

1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ) ... ... 

1853. With Mesilla Valley, |. - - . . . 5oJ,4oo 

1855. Total area of the United States, ---.-- 2,963,666 

The present area of the Slave States is 851,508 square miles; that of the 
Free States 612,597 square miles; total area occupied by the States, 
1,464,105 square miles; area occupied by the territories, 1,494,561 square 
miles, or a little more than half of the entire Union. 

FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES. Statement of duties, revenues, and 
public expenditures, during the fiscal year ending June 80, 1854, agreeably 
to warrants issued, exclusive of trust funds and Treasury notes funded : 

RECEIPTS. 

The receipts into the Treasury, during the fiscal year ending June 39, 1854, were as follows : 

From Customs, viz.: 

During the quarter ending September 30, 1853, . . . $19,718,822 00 

" " " December 31, 1853, . . . 13,587,82127 

" " " March 31, 1854, .... 16,t9o,724 83 

" " " June 30, 1854, .... 14.020,822 17 



From sales of public lands, viz.: 

During the quarter ending September 30, 1853, . . . 1,489.562 05 

" " " December 31, 1853, . . . 2,223,076 39 

" " " March 31, 1854, .... 2,012,9.)8 38 

" " " June 30, 1854 2,745,251 59 



$64,224,190 27 



8,470,798 39 



From miscellaneous and incidental sources, 854,716 54 

Total receipts, 73,549,705 20 

Balance in the Treasury, July 1, 1853, 21,942,892 50 



Total means, $95,492,597 76 



EXPENDITURES. 

Total civil, $4,649,384 98 

" foreign intercourse, 7,726 677 13 

" miscellaneous, 13,531,310 33 

" under Department of tho Interior, 2,6 ;9!(.'54 79 

" under the War Department, . 11,733,629 48 

" under the Navy Department, 10,768,192 89 

" public debt, 24,336,380 66 

Total expenditures, $75,354,630 26 

Balance in the Treasury, July 1, 1854, $20,137,967 50 



Receipts and expenditures for the quarter ending September 30, 1854, exclusive of trust 

funds : 

Receipts, $21,521,312 85 

Expenditures, $18,169,330 62 



748 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



Statement of the Expenditures of the United States for 65 years, exclusive of Payments on 
account of the Public Debt and from Trust Funds, fractions excluded. 



Years. 



17S9-91 

1792 

1793 

1794 

1795 

1796 

1797 

1793 

1799 

1800 

18Q1 

1803 

1803 

1804 

1805 

1806 

1807 

1808 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1812 

1813 

1814 

1815 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1823 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1833 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 
6 mo. of 1843 
*1344 
*1845 
*1846 
*1347 
*184S 
*1S49 
*185:J 
*1S51 
*1S52 
*1S53 



Civil List, 
Foreign Inter- 
course, and 
Miscellaneous. 



$l,083,4ul 
654,257 
472,450 
705,598 
1,267,037 
772,485 
1,246,904 
1,111,038 
1,039,392 
1,337,613 
1,114,763 
1,462,929 
1,842,636 
2,191,009 
3,768,583 
2,891,037 
1,697,897 
1,423,286 
1,215,804 
1,101,145 
1,367,291 
1,683,083 
1,729,435 
2,208,029 
2.898,871 
2,989,742 
3,513,937 
3,835,839 
3,067,212 
2,592,022 
2,223,122 
1,967,996 
2,022,094 
7,155,303 
2,748,544 
2,6011,173 
2,314,777 
2,836,052 
3,092,214 
3,2SS,416 
3,064,346 
4,574,341 
5,051,739 
4,399,779 
3,720,167 
5.338,371 
5,524,253 
5,666,703 
4,994,562 
5,531,878 
6,49 1,331 
6,775,625 
2,367.289 
5,231,747 
5,608,207 
6,733.000 
6,715,854 
5,585.070 
14,017,640 
14.339,725 
17,872.967 
17.379,768 
17,175,797 



Military Es- 
tablisbment.t 



$835,618 

1,223.594 

1,237,620 

2,733,540 

2,573,059 

1,474,661 

1,194,055 

2,130,837 

2,582.693 

2,625,041 

1,755,477 

1,853,539 

944,953 

1,072,017 

991,136 

1,540,431 

1,564,611 

3,196,935 

3,771,109 

2,555,693 

2,259,747 

12,137,046 

19,906,362 

20,608,366 

15,394,700 

16,475,412 

8,621,075 

7,019,140 

9,385,421 

6,154,518 

5,181,114 

5,635,187 

5,253,295 

5,270,255 

5,692,331 

6,243,236 

5,675,742 

5,701,203 

6,25.1,530 

6,752,689 

6,913,239 

7,932,377 

13,096,152 

10.061,428 

9,420,313 

18,466,110 

19,417,274 

19,936,312 

14,263,931 

11,621,433 

13,704,882 

9,188,469 

4,153,384 

8,231,317 

9,533,203 

13,579,423 

41,2S1,6:)6 

27,820.163 

17,290,936 

12,801,764 

11,311.793 

13.424,075 

15,476,826 



Naval Estab- 
lisliment. 



$570 
53 

61,409 
410,562 
274,784 
382,632 
1,331,343 
2,858,082 
3,448,716 
2.111,424 
'915,562 
1,215,231 
1,189,833 
1,597,500 
1.649,641 
1,722 064 
1,884,063 
2,427,759 
1,654,244 
1,965,566 
3,959,365 
6,446,600 
7,311,291 
3,660,000 
8,908,278 
8,314,598 
2,953,695 
3,847,640 
4,387,990 
3,319,243 
2,224,459 
2,503,766 
2,904,582 
3,049,084 
4,218,902 
4,263,378 
3,913.736 
3,3)8,745 
3,239,429 
8,856,183 
8,956,370 
3,901,357 
3,956,260 
3,864,939 
5,800,763 
6,852.060 
5.975,771 
6.225,003 
6,124,456 
6,001,077 
8,397,243 
8,672,713 
6,496,991 
6,223,639 
6,450,862 
7,931,633 
9,4;)6.737 
9,869,313 
7,923, :il3 
8.937,793 
8,923.236 
10,891,640 



Aggregate of Expenditure. 



In each Year. 



$1,919,539 

1,877,904 

1,710,070 

3,500,547 

4,350,658 

2,521,930 

2,823.591 

4,623.223 

6,480;i67 

7,411,370 

4,931,669 

3,737,080 

4,002,825 

4,452,3.-)9 

6,357,224 

6,031.109 

4,984,572 

6,504,339 

7.414,672 

5,311,082 

5,592,604 

17,829,499 

28,082,397 

80,127,636 

26,953,571 

23,373,432 

15,454,610 

13,303,674 

16,300,273 

18,134,530 

10,723,479 

9,827,642 

9,784,155 

15,330,145 

11,490,459 

13,062,316 

12,254.397 

12,506,041 

12.651,439 

13,220,534 

13.863,763 

16,514,088 

22.049,293 

18,420.467 

17,005,419 

29,655.244 

81,793,537 

31,578,735 

25,438.547 

23,327,772 

26,196,840 

24,361,337 

10,693,391 

19,96i),055 

21,370,049 

26,813,290 

55,929,093 

42,311,970 

57,631.667 

43, (I0'i,l 68 

48,005,879 

46,007,396 

43.543,263 



In each Period 
of Four Years, 



$3,797,493 



12,083,205 



21,338,351 



17,174,433 



23,927,244 



86,147,857 



108,537,086 



58,698,087 



45,665,421 



49,313,213 



56,249,879 



87,130,428 



112,188,691 



81,216,623 



146,924,402 



194,647,610 



* For the year ending Juno 30. t Including the Department of the Interior for and since 1850. 



ADDENDA. 



749 



Btatement of the Receipts into the National Treasury, from Customs, Internal Revenue, and 
Direct Taxes, and Sales or' Fiiblic Lands, tor 65 years, from 17S9 to 1853 inclusive. 



Years. 



1789-91 
1792 
1793 

1794 

1795 

1796 

1797 

1793 

1799 

1800 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 

1805 

18:i6 

1807 

1808 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1812 

1813 

1814 

1815 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1823 

1829 

1830 

1S31 

1832 

1S33 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 
6nio. ofl843 
*1844 
*1845 
*1846 
*1847 
*1848 
*1S49 
*1850 
*1851 
*1S52 
*1853 



Customs. 



$4,3y9,47o 

3,443,:i71 

4,255,306 

4,801,065 

5,588,461 

6.567.988 

7,549,650 

7,lii6,()62 

6,610,449 

9,080,933 

10,75(1,779 

12,438,236 

10,479,418 

11,098,465 

12,936.487 

14,667,693 

15,845,-522 

16,363,550 

7,296,t!21 

8,583,31.9 

13.313.223 

8,958,773 

13,224,623 

5,998,772 

7,232,942 

86,3ii6,S75 

26,283.348 

17,176,385 

20,283,609 

15,'J05,612 

13,004,447 

17,539,762 

19,083,433 

17,878,326 

20,093,714 

23,341,332 

19,712.233 

23,2;)5.524 

22,681,966 

21,922,891 

24,224,442 

23,465,237 

29.032,509 

16.214,957 

19,391,311 

23,409,940 

11,169,290 

16.153,300 

23.137,925 

13,499,502 

14,437,217 

18,137,909 

7,046,844 

26,188,571 

27,523,113 

26,712.663 

2-3.747,364 

81,757,070 

23,346,733 

89,668,686 

49,017,563 

47,-339,326 

53,931,865 



Internal and 
Direct Taxes. 



$203,943 

337.706 

274,090 

337,755 

475,290 

575.491 

644,353 

779,136 

1,543,620 

1,532,377 

823.464 

287,059 

101,139 

4-3,631 

75,365 

47,734 

27,370 

11,562 

19,379 

9,962 

5.762 

8,561 

8,832,432 

6,84i!,733 

9,378,344 

4,512,288 

1,219,613 

813,244 

137,847 

93,377 

83.617 

44,530 

40,865 

28,102 

23,228 

22,513 

19,671 

25,838 

29,141 

17,440 

13,422 

8,153 

4,216 

14,723 

1,099 



Sales of Lands 
and Mis- 
cellaneous. 



$4,836 
83,541 
11,963 

444 

167,726 

183,623 

165,676 

487,527 

540,194 

765,246 

466,163 

647,939 

442,252 

696,549 

l,04i!,233 

710.428 

835,655 

1,135.971 

1,287,959 

1,717,985 

1,991,226 

2,606,565 

3,274,423 

1,635,872 

1,212.966 

1,303,582 

916,523 

934,418 

1.216,(190 

1,-39-3,785 

1,495,945 

1,018.309 

1,517,175 

2,829,356 

3,210,815 

2,62-3,381 

3,967,632 

4,857,601 

4,757.601 

4,877,180 

6,863,556 

3,214,184 

7,261,118 

3,494,356 

1,470,295 

1,456,058 

1,013,482 

2,320,948 

2,241.021 

2,736,579 

2,598,926 

3,679,679 

2,727,608 

8,707,112 

3,295,412 

2,339,060 

2,405,709 



Aggregate of Receipts. 



In each Year. 



$4,390,473 
3,652,014 
4,59-3,012 
5,075,155 
5,926,216 
7,048,114 
8,208,682 
7,762.333 
7.339,585 
10,624,997 
12,500,882 
13,455,328 
10,982,153 
11,687,231 
13,520,312 
15,508,809 
16,359,469 
17,038,859 
7,749.835 
9,299,7-37 
14,36-3,423 
9,674,968 
14,068,839 
11,017,225 
15,411,634 
47,403.204 
32,736,362 
21,002,563 
23,871,276 
16,779,331 
14,815,790 
19,481.961 
20,049.536 
18,9li3,609 
21,-342,906 
24,763,-345 
21,230,641 
24,243.504 
24.224,979 
24,230,338 
27,4,52,697 
31,107,040 
38.008,-344 
21,076,774 
34,163,635 
48,238,219 
18,032,846 
19.372,984 
30,399,043 
16,993,858 
15,957,512 
19,643,967 
8,065.326 
28,504,519 
29,769,1-34 
29,499,247 
26 -346.790 
35,436,750 
81,074,347 
43,375,798 
52,312,979 
49,728,336 
61,337,574 



In each i'eriod 
of Four Years. 



$8,051,487 



22,642,497 



88,985,647 



48,575,694 



62,427,449 



41,087.963 



87,900,902 



94.440.032 



72,750,896 



91,580,396 



107,065,604 



136,581,972 



84,798,781 



72,171,824 



121,051,921 



176,491,510 



• For the year ending June 30. 



750 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATED— continued. 

Statement of the Debt of the United States, the Total Value of Imports and Exports, and the 
Total Tonnage, for 63 years, from ITLil to 1853, fractions excluded. 



Years. 


Debt. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Tonnage. 


1791 


$75,463,476 


$52,200,000 


$19,012,041 


502.146 


1792 


77.227,924 


31,50i),000 


20,753,098 


564,437 


1793 


80,352,634 


31,100,000 


26,1(19,572 


491,780 


179-t 


78,427,405 


34.600,000 


33,026,233 


628,817 


1795 


80.747,587 


69,756,268 


47,989,472 


747,964 


1796 


83,762,172 


81,436,164 


67.064.097 


831.900 


1797 


82,064,479 


75,379.406 


56,850,206 


876,913 


1793 


79,228.529 


63 551,700 


61.527,097 


893,328 


1799 


78,40S;670 


79,068,143 


78.665,522 


946,408 


1800 


82,976.294 


91,252,763 


70,971,780 


972,492 


1801 


S3,0:]8,051 


111,363,511 


94 115,925 


1,033.219 


1802 


80,712,632 


7n.333,333 


72.4^3,160 


892,101 


1803 


77,054,686 


64,666,666 


55,800,033 


949,147 


1804 


86,427,121 


85,000,000 


77,699,074 


1,042,404 


1805 


82,312,150 


120,000,000 


95,566,021 


1,140,369 


1806 


75,723,271 


129.000,000 


101,536,963 


1,208,735 


1S07 


69,218,399 


138.500,000 


108,343,150 


1,268,548 


I8;i3 


65 196,318 


56,990,000 


22,439,960 


1,242,595 


1809 


57,023,192 


59,400,000 


52.203,231 


1,350,281 


1810 


53,173,217 


85,400,000 


66,757,974 


1,424,783 


ISll 


43,005.538 


53,400,000 


61,316.831 


1,232,502 


1812 


45,209,738 


77,030,000 


38,527,236 


1,269,997 


1813 


55,962,828 


22,005,000 


27,855,997 


1,666,623 


ISll 


81.487,846 


12.965,000 


6,9J7,44l 


1,159,209 


1815 


9:).833,060 


113,041,274 


52,557,753 


1,368,127 


1816 


127,334,934 


147,l!i3.000 


81,920,453 


1,372.218 


1817 


123,491.965 


99,250,000 


87,671,569 


1,399,912 


1818 


103,466,634 


121,750,000 


93,281,133 


1,225,184 


1319 


95.529,643 


87,125,000 


70,142,521 


1,260,751 


1820 


91,<115,566 


74.450,000 


69,691,669 


1,280,166 


1821 


89,937,423 


62.585,724 


64,974,332 


1,298,958 


1822 


93,546,677 


83.241,541 


72,16:),281 


1,324,699 


1823 


90.875,877 


77,579.267 


74.699,080 


1,336,566 


182-4 


90.269,773 


80,549,007 


75,936,657 


1,399,163 


1825 


83,788,433 


96,34! 1,075 


99,.585,388 


1,423,112 


1826 


81,054.060 


84,974,477 


77,59.5,322 


1,534,191 


1827 


73,987,357 


79,484,063 


82.324.827 


J, 620, 608 


1828 


67 475,044 


83,509,8.'4 


72,264,636 


1,741,392 


1829 


58,421,414 


74,492,527 


72,358,67 1 


1,260,798 


1830 


48,5()5,4i)6 


70,876,920 


73,H49,50S 


1,191,776 


1331 


39.123,192 


103,11)1,184 


81.310..5S3 


1,267,847 


1832 


24.322,23) 


l!il.()29,26) 


87,176,943 


1,439,450 


1833 


7.001,6;)9 


108.113,311 


90,140,433 


1,606,151 


J 834 


4,76;>.'.82 


126.521,332 


104.336,973 


1,758,907 


1835 


87,733 


149,395,742 


121,693.577 


1,824.940 


1836 


37,513 


189.9S0,035 


128,668,040 


1.882,103 


1837 


1,873,224 


140,939,217 


117,419,876 


1896,636 


1833 


4,857,(!6;) 


103,486,616 


113,717,404 


1,995,640 


1H89 


11,983.738 


121,02H,416 


162,092.132 


2,096,3?0 


1840 


5,125,073 


181,571,95!) 


104,305,891 


2,180,764 


1841 


6,737,393 


127,946,177 


121,851,803 


2,180.744 


1842 


15,028,436 


100,162,037 


104,691,534 


2.092,391 


1313 


26,898,953 


64.753,799* 


84,346,430* 


2; 158,603 


1844 


26,143.996 


108,435,035t 


111,200,046+ 


2,230,09.5 


1345 


16,801,647 


117,251,564t 


114,646,606+ 


2,417,002 


1816 


24,256,495 


121,691,797+ 


118,433,516+ 


2,562,085 


1847 


45.659,659 


146,545,633+ 


153,643,622+ 


2,839,046 


1S4S 


65,SJ4,45:) 


154,977.923+ 


1.54,033.436+ 


8,154,042 


1^49 


64,704.693 


147,857,439+ 


145,75.5,820+ 


3,334,015 


185) 


64.223,283 


178,133,313+ 


138,946.912+ 


8,535,454 


1851 


6-'.56il,395 


216.224,932+ 


218,383,011+ 


8.772,439 


1S52 


C7,56,),395 


212,945,442+ 


209,641,62.5+ 


4,133,441 


1853 


56,336,157 


267,978,1)47+ 


230,976.157+ 


4,407,010 



Only nine months of 1843. 



+ For the year ending June 30. 



ADDENDA. 751 
FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES— continued. 

Public Debt of the United States, July 1, 1S54. 

LoanoflS42, $5,217,420 81 

LoanoflS43, « 27,900 00 

Loan of 1846, 2,647,21326 

LoanoflS47, 16,745,350 00 

Loan of 1848, 12,889,741 SO 

Texan indemnity, 4,480,000 00 

Texan indemnity not issued, 5,000,000 00 

Old funded and unfunded debt, , . 114,118 54 

Treasury notes outstanding, .....<,,,,. 113,261 64 

Debt of the corporate cities of the District of Columbia, .... 7,200 00 



$47,242,206 05 



Interest paid during the fiscal year upon the public debt outstanding June 

30, 1854, $2,717,140 15 

Amount of stock redeemed during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1854, . 20,098,422 73 

Amount of premium paid on stock redeemed during the year, . . . 2,991,668 69 

Amount of interest paid on stock redeemed during the year, . . . 353,876 54 



Principal, Premium, and Interest, paid of the Public Debt, from July 1 to November 20, 
1854, and amount outstanding November 20, 1854. 



Loan. 



1842, 

1843, 

1844, 

1846, 

1848, 

Texan indemnity, 

Texan indemnity not issued, 

Oid funded and unfunded 
debt, 

Treasury notes, 

Debt of corporate cities, 

Total,.. 



Principal. 



$394,250 00 

25,500 00 

379,200 00 

1,085,000 00 
313,150 00 
116,000 00 



50 00 
3,600 00 



2,266,750 00 



Premium. 



$46,720 00 

11,976 00 

177,175 00 

53,009 00 

7,680 00 



296,560 00 



Interest. 



$7,577 93 

637 50 

5,172 86 

18,434 44 
5,951 80 
1,614 93 



4 05 

500 00 



40,893 51 



Outstanding. 



$4,823,170 81 

2,400 00 

2,268,013 26 

15,710,500 CO 

12,576,591 80 

4,364,000 00 

5,000,000 00 

114,118 54 

113,061 64 

3,600 00 



44,975,456 05 



752 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES.— continued. 



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CO CO t- CO OS CO 
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00C0C0r)iOC0^-cJlCSTHr-iC0:0C0i-10sO>J— COtHO 
T-lr-lTfliOt— ■<llCD-^OOl^OOi-lOlt-OSCOO)COO)00 



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OSi-HOICO-^lOCOf— OOOSOi-iiyiCO-d'OCOl— G00SST-i0^C0-*i0C0t-G0CsOT-<01 
QOCSOsOSOSOSCSCSOSOSOOOOOCCiOOOCi'-li-li-' — ^1— 1-1— ii-i.-i<M010q 
t— t-b-t-f-t-t-l— t— t-CCOOOOQOOOOOCOCOGOOOQOOOGOGOOOCOCOCO'aDOOCOCOQO 
i-li-li-lrHr-HrHT-'rHTHrHr^T-lTHT-li-ir-l'— iT-l— iT-"i-lT-li-li-ii-iTHTHi-lr-li-lr-<r-*'rH 






ADDENDA, 



753 



FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES.—contimied. 



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T-l CO 



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> Oa l^ 05 1-1 CO Tfl CO 



O lO CO 
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lO CO CO 



00 ^ CO 1-1 c:-,' 

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t- .— CO c; CO 
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i_05 CO^CO : 



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T-l CO CO CO •"— C^ -t CO lO CO JCi CO 05 05 -."; CO 

t— 05 O o; f-^r- 03C005C005C005 c;05b- 

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CO l^ 



CO ffl 1^ lO go C^ 31 1-1 O O CO C3 CD lO 
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l^t— 'Ob-OSCOCOOSiOt— 3SOS31 "O 
CO b- O C3 31 CO^CO CO C» ^' CO ^ '^'5,^^ 
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■.+liriCOH-COOs05^31-:0-*i(3CDl-GOO^ 
C0COCOC0C0C0-*^-tl-*-*Tt<i*-tlTt<-t< 
COtnOOOOODCOGOCOGOOOl I I I I \ 
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S 00 GO CO cc 00 CO 
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CO GO GO CO CO 



32* 



754 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



FINAjS^CES of the states of the UNI02T, coMPAKATiVE view of. 



• .-. CO 

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0OC5OO0>OOOCDOO<0C)O0OO 



10 0.^5 — 
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1-1 1- 05 



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r-< 05 55 r-( T-i rl 



O O O C: 1-1 ffJ 

O O O C: <? I O 
w' O O O -1-1^ CO 

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CC CO 1— r-i t— O 
CO 00 00 00 «o (» 



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CO CO lO 






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»~— \JJ ^ta-- T — i ^^ ilfc) >^-' 1 T — I 

OJTH'OCS'^t— TfOSt— 

CO iO crfio TjTco'oo' — "of 
oioosiOcoeooicoco 

«S_05_iO CO O <N_Tli_CO c<>_ I 
C-r Oi C^ Oi t~^ ''rj ■r-^ CZ CO 
CO<N«OC<I(M'HCOOO<M 



c «> 

»: a, 



CO 

o c:r^ 



•0»— -^1-10050000000 

•OOOC5 0tiC£>COOCO(0 
• O^C^_Oi^l— C0_0 CO o^co o 

; crTkO -t cc~o'"io'T-<'o"'5i5'cr 

.0<— C0C0i0<Mr-iOO<0 
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10 -^ 

CO CO 



C5 00 )0 «5 



CO o 00 
O Oi o <o 
"*. "^,'^'^ 
tHO cTaj' 

10 C! O (M 
CO O o,co 
eo' co'oo" 



• o eo 

, c> CO 

; cTcf 



O>t-T)<C0(y)C0CO-*'M 
050-rHl--<M'*'*00<0 
b-_l— ^C0_O^t-;^-rl<__t^ CO )0 

iO-^af'^ooiMcD coco 

1— COCOCOCO ^"CO^CS 

csasososcoiocococo 
io'th" -^ -*" ic ocT — " 00' — ■ 

Tf rt< CO CO C-l T-l rH ■"• tH 



<5" 



CO r)i t— lyi 00 CO 

'^ OO-tH CO lOt— 

CO s CTt'COOJCOCO 
T-l o 0'*>^'*c0Ci 

'""^'^T-i e^co 



• O CO CO 

• o -^ o 

• o ii:5,co_ 
lnnTo'co" 
. CO CO 10 

.t}It-It-i 





23,086 
* "1,075,818' 









O O <M O O CO CO 
C t- «5 o <o Oj CO 
O_!M^C0_^O^O_O CO 

o" o" Tt^" o" o oT icT 
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T-rr-Tr-r »a~ 



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C^O>COOCOb-'*lOT-i 
C0_0> t- CO -J_05 05 lO h- 

cT CO ' o" ccT ai" — " erf -rH CO 

CJCOt— 10-^<MCO'COC3 
iO cOi-H rfi - ■■ - - - 



< 10 Tji CO CO CO 



£So 



Oi o (yi-rH_ 



. o o o o o 

• o o <o o o 

• o o^oq^o o_ 
! 010 co^cf crT 

■ CO *1 CO O CO 
. CO CO r-l tH T-l 



000 

O' <o o 
oo_o 
o"co"i£:r 

tH CO <N 
COtHt-I 



»-j o 00 o o 

CO O O <M O 'O 
rH O <0 O OMK 



o 10 CO 00 CS 00 
05 0=1 -^ tH iCl OS 

eo CO ot-io» 



o c> o o 
0000 
0000 



oq_co_oo_co__cb_o CO os o 

OT -r-i" cd" >C" (-T -riT rH Vf O 
"^OSOJiOt— CO<Mt-CO 

o,cq_»^«:> CO 00 in o ci 
aTotf t-^t-i t-T t-^oo'oToT 




CO CO <?5 -«JI 
O 00 CO (N 
iO t— t- CO 

O CO o -* 

oq_T-H m 10 

r-TccToft-J 
<M T-l O 'O 
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10 CO CO »0 00 
iC_-<*_0 10 CO 

io"of orfT-Tco 



• icutioq 10 

• 10 CO tH -H 

■ 10^C0^01_CO_ 
; oToq' C/fr-T 
. Ttl 00 10 CO 

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•«©■ 






00 
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O^T^rtlcocOCiOOTfliO 

TH050qcO-r-lb-0 10C5 
T-i O5_T-'^C0 <M C5 O CO CO 
CO'co't-Tco'cO of oT.-i CO 
COCOCOOIOCDCOCOCO 

T-<_QO t); o_^t- 10 05^ t- CO 

cTth CO T-^co'crio'-.-r-rir 

COCOCOCOCO-^COiCtIi 








T-ll«0000-rflCOOOOq 
OSCOCOCOCOIOCOCDI^J 
C0__00 CO_C^C0 -* C: O O 

'co co'io'cTcTcD cTio 



' OS C^ OS O 05 



• C005— lOOSCOt-CO 

• >0 lO 10 >C -^ -* -^ Ttl 
'COCOCOQOOOOOOOCO 



ADDENDA. 

FINANCES OF THE STATES OF THE JimOl^— continued. 



755 



Amount of the securities of the several States, etc., held in England and other foreign countries, 

June 30, 1S53. 



State. 



Maine, 

JSIevv Hampshire, .... 

Vermont, 

Mastiaclmsetts, 

Kliode If^land, . . . , 

Connocticut, 

New York, 

New Jersey, 

Pennsylvania, 

Delaware, 

Maryland, 

Virginia, 

^Nortli Carolina, . . . . . 

South Carolina, 

Georgia, 

Florida, 

Alabama, 

Louisiana, 

Arkansas, 

Mississippi, 

Tennessee, 

Kentucky, 

Missouri, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Ohio, 

Micliigan, 

Wisconsin, 

Iowa, 

Texas, 

California, 

District of Columbia, 



State bonds. 



Total, 72,931,507 



None. 

None. 

None. 

4,000,000 

None. 

None. 

6.758,700 

None. 
26,584,671 

None. 

8,537,917 

3,075,909 

Not known. 

937,777 

72,000 

None. 

4,397.666 

8,000,000 
Not known 
Not known 
Not known 
Not known 
40,000 
Not known 

2,570,960 

7,750,000 
Not known 

None. 

None. 
195,907 



City, town, 

and county 

bonds. 



Bank capital. 



Not known. 



4,000,000 



4,109,372 

350.000 

1,201,500 



125,000 



85,018 

442,856* 
4,000,000 



15,000 
1,036,000 

'"'75,666' 

50,000 

5,707,000 



21,462,322 



48,500 

100 

16,145 

438,150 

7,000 

23,500 

1,774.995 

2,750 

167,420 

'823,426" 
26,000 

'165,925' 

55,550 

'604,166' 
2,548,400 



341,500 
79,200 
40,300 



25,015 



Capital in 
insurance 
companies. 



6,638,996 



3,000 



192,352 
°l'o'l',626' 



81,800 



Eailroad 

stock and 

bonds. 



510,000 
196,700 

' "5,105, 496 

"mo.ooo 

9,919.900 

3,541,750 

12,076,526 

"i,'(:'65,666 

626,032 

635,779 

1,914,444 

69,100 

'566,666 
74,000 



48,000 
200,000 

'2,016,566 
1,708,466 
3,687,884 
].314.(M)0 
600,000 



378,172 j 43,169,777 



United States stocks held abroad 30th June, 1853 : 



Total, 

Held by foreigners, 



$58,205,517 
27,000,000 



FIRE-ANNIHILATORS. The water bomb for extinguishing fires invented by 
Zachary Gre}-!, a German, 1721 ; another by an English chemist, 1823. 
Phillips's annihilator, experimented with in New York, 1851. Salomon's 
gas engine exhibited, Cincinnati, September, 1851 ; and one by W. Lay, at 
Philadelphia, same year. First fire engines in New York, brought from 
London, 1713, with hooks and ladders. Within the last year, steam has 
been successfully introduced as a locomotive and a working power in the 
common engine. 

FISH FOR FOOD. The New Jersey Natural History Society liave lately ap- 
pointed a committee of inquii-y on the feasibility and present necessity of re- 
stocking our rivers with salmon. That our natural supply has failed there 
is not a shadow of doubt, and that it never will be replenished except by 



756 THE world's progress. 

artificial breeding is equally indisputable. That a restocking of our watera 
with fish, so as to make them as plentiful as formerly, would prove one of 
the cheapest modes of lessening the pi"ice of human food is just as certain. 
Fish are the least costly food that man can obtain ; yet owing to the scarcit}'^, 
the labor of taking them out of the water — which is all the expense attend- 
ing their production — has become so great that fish are sold in our market 
at nearly as high a price per pound as meat. Salmon are really higher tlian 
choice cuts of either beef or mutton. And yet salmon can be grown at very 
trifling expense. We have long been producing 03^sters by artificial means, 
without which our market could not be supplied; and yet with that fact 
before our eyes, nobody attempts to produce fish by an equally easy process. 
Mr. Herbert states one fact of importance in proof of the benefit of simply 
protecting fish from being taken in the spawning season. It is as follows: 
"In the river Foyle, in the north of Ireland, by a steady perseverance in a 
proper system of protection, the amount of salmon taken was raised from an 
average of forty-three tuns annually, in 1823, to that of three hundred 
tuns in 1842 ; while in the small river of Newport, in the county of Mayo, in 
which the salmon was formerly unpi'otected by law, and consequently taken 
at all periods of the year, within three years after the introduction of Par- 
liamentary regulations enforcing their protection during the breeding 
season, the annual take was increased from half a tun of fish to eight tuna 
of salmon and three tuns of white trout, with a certainty of a still higher 
increase." Another sensible extract from his letter merits particular con- 
sideration : " In view of the great augmentation in the price of all the 
articles of food and necessaries of life in this country, the small probability 
of any considerable reduction, and the actual suff"erings of many of the la- 
boring class from want of sufficient food, it appears to me that this subject 
is worthy of the closest consideration, and that any one who can suggest 
and efi^ect the means of furnishing a new and ample supply of cheap, nu- 
tritious food, has some small claim to be thought of as not an entirely use- 
less member of the community." "What State will take the lead in passing 
laws which shall increase the quantity and variety, and diminish the price, 
of human sustenance ? 

FLAX-COTTON. M. Claussen's patent, in 1850, for a new preparation of hemp, 
under the title of cotton-flax, having excited much attention, extensive pi'e- 
parations were made in Great Britain and Ireland for the cultivation of flax 
for the new material. A sample of 60 tuns manufactured for a Manchester 
house, f flax and -J cotton, was considered decidedly successful, Avhen the 
British Board of Trade agreed to purchase a company's produce of 100,000 
acres at the rate of £12 per acre. In the Western States, and particularly 
Ohio, the subject excited great interest, as a branch of trade well suited for 
the agricultural facilities of that district. 

FLOGGING IN THE NAVY. Bill to abolish it passed the House of Representa- 
tives of the United States, 131 to 29, Sept. 19, 1850. Mr. Brodhead, of Penn- 
sjdvania, presented a petition in S-enate, Dec. 17, 1851, praying for "restora- 
tion of flogging in the United States Navy." 

FLOUR MARKET IN NEW YORK for the last twenty years, per barrel : 



1836, - - $T.50 


1843, 


- $5.12.V 


1849, - 


- $5.60 


1837, - - - 10.75 


1844, - 


- 4.90^ 


1850, 


5.50 


1838, - - 8.25 


1845, 


4,75 


1851, - 


- 5.00 


1839, - - . S.50 


1846, - 


- 4.62 


1852, 


4.31 


1840, - - 5.62^ 


1847, 


T.62 


1853, - 


- 456 


1841, ... 4.92^ 


1848, - 


. - 5.75 


1854 


- 9,15 


1842, - - 6.25 











ADDENDA. 757 

FUEL, NEW. Some curlotis experiments have been made at the Polytechnic 
Institution, (England,) to test the results of a recent invention of Dr. Bach- 
hoffner, for which patents have been obtained by the inventor and Mr. K 
Defries. The invention consists in the substitution of thin pieces of metal in 
the place of coals in fire grates, which being acted on by a small jet of gas, im- 
mediately become red hot, and emit a prodigious degree of heat. The flame 
which is produced by the proper but very simple management of the gas, 
co-operating with the metallic laminae, gives the appearance of a very brisk 
and cheerful coal fire, and can scarcely be distinguished from it. The heat 
can be regulated by turning the cock of the gas tube. There is no deposit 
of soot, no smoke, nor any of the anno^'ances which attend coal fires; and 
the gas can, it is said, be extinguished, itista^iter, or the fire kept as low as 
may be convenient. This invention reminds one of Edward's Atmopyre, de- 
scribed in the Year-Book of Facts, 1851, p. 91; metal being substituted for 
clay. 

FUGITIVES FRgM JUSTICE in the State of IS^ew York. The expenses at- 
tending the arrest of fugitives from justice are increasing in a ratio far 
beyond that of the population of the State. 

The amount expended for the year 1851, - - - - . $3,231.78 

The amount expended for the year 1852, - . _ _ 4,162.91 

The amount expended for the year 1S58, - - - - . 2,91 1.81 

The amount expended for the year 1854, - - - - 6,088.85 

GAS. First introduced into the United States, in the city of Baltimore, 1820, 
and shortly after in Boston, New-York, and Philadelphia. Opposed in Italy, 
by the Pope — Gregory XVI. — as "subversive of religion," in suppressing the 
sale of wax candles for the shrines. Watei'-gas discovered by Lavoisier, circa 
1790. Paine's water-gas spoken of during the last five or six years, but appears 
to have been accomplished by the French chemists. Superior gas from wood 
and fibrous matter, the discovery of a German, used at the railroad depot at 
Munich, 1851. In 184*7, the expense of gas at the London General Post Of- 
fice was £3047 ; increased facilities by the Gas Company gradually reduced 
the charges in 1850, when the whole amount paid by the post office was 
£1485. 

GAS, CANNEL, HYDRO-CAEBOK The Commissioners of Southport, England, 
have published the details of four months' working with boghead, cannel, 
and water gas, by "White's Hydro-carbon Process," showing a clear profit of 
twenty-four per cent., after paying for all matei'ials, labor, and interest on 
capital ; the whole cost for labor and fuel being charged against the small 
quantity of gas required during the summer months. The gas at Southport 
is charged 6s. %d. per thousand feet. The consumption in the period embraced 
in the above return is under three thousand feet per day, although it is thirty 
thousand in winter. The cannel was brought by railway from Scotland, at 
a charge of 16s. per tun for freight; whilst, on this three thousand feet per 
day, there is the same interest on capital, and about the same charge for labor^^ 
that would be on the thirt}'' thousand. All the Scotch cannels, from their 
richness, suit admirably for this system, and are far superior to any English 
cannels ; so much so, that it has been found advantageous to carry them by 
railway above two hundred miles, in preference to using the English cannels. 
A new source of traffic and profit is thus opened for Scotland, not previously 
imagined. 

GAS, SOLID COAL. "It would be pronounced," says Liebig, " one of the great- 
est discoveries of the age, if any one could succeed in condensing coal gas into 



758 THE world's progress. 

a "wliite, dry, solid, odorless substance, portable, and capable of being placed 
upon a candlestick, or burned in a lamp." Tliis greatest of discoveries has 
actually been made. A mineral oil flows out of coal, in Derbyshire, which is 
obviously produced b^'a slow process of distillation fi-om the coal : it consists, 
as fuel, of solid paraiflne dissolved in a liquid oil. A consideration of the 
conditions under which this material product is formed, has led Mr. James 
Young, of Manchester, to the discovery of a method, which he has patented, 
of readily obtaining the parafline, in any quantities required, and at a cheap 
rate, compared with ordinary candles, from the ordinary coal-gas. 

aAS-BATHS AND KITCHENS (Boggett's Patent). Mr. Boggett's new gas-bath 
possesses, in a preeminent degree, the three most essential properties of such 
an apparatus : First, portability — the whole weight, when made in zinc, not 
exceeding what a couple of hands can readily move ; second, convenience of 
use — the gas-burner being attached to the bath, and lighted in an instant ; 
and, thirdly, accessibility in every part for purposes of cleansing and repair. 
The water is heated by a cluster of hollow vertical plates, pfeced at the foot 
of the bath, in close proximity to the burner, and it can be raised in less than 
twenty minutes to a temperature of 110° Fahr. The lighting is effected by 
drawing out a horizontal tube, perforated at top with a row of holes ; then 
letting on the gas into this tube by a small tap ; and next appl3'ing a light to 
the jets of gas emitted from the row of holes ; after which the tube is turned 
round on its axis, and applied to the lighting of a series of larger burn- 
ers. 
The same inventor's "portable gas-kitchen," owes its superior cleanliness to 
this circumstance, that in all those cooking operations where the article to 
be cooked is exposed to the direct action of heat, as in roasting or broiling, 
the heat is applied downward, instead of upward, as usual ; whereby the 
possibility of any of the gas vapors coming in contact with the food, or of 
any unconsumed particles of cax'bon being deposited in the shape of soot, is 
completely avoided. Heating by ascent is confined to the processes of boiling, 
stewing, and baking, in which the articles, being placed in covered vessels, 
run but small risk of being affected. Where the gas used, however, is pure — 
as it ma}^ and ought to be in all cases — it imparts no perceptible flavor in 
any case to the food cooked by it ; much less so, indeed, than coal or wood. 
One of these kitchens, covering a superficial space of not more than a foot 
square, and with one burner only, consumes but twelve cubic. feet of gas 
per hour, at a cost of less than three farthings; and it will, at one and 
the same time, perform all the roasting and boiling required for a large 
family. 

GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESSIVE. Sir Charles Lyell, in a lec- 
ture read at Ipswich, England, on "Progressive Development," concluded bj'- 
explaining the theoiy, which he advocated in his works, in opposition to that 
of progressive development. He believed that there had been a constant 
going out and coming in of species, and a continual change going on in the 
position of land and sea, accompanied by gi-eat fluctuation in climate ; that 
there had been a constant adaptation of the vegetable and animal creations 
to those new geographical and climatal conditions. At the present moment, 
we found cotemporaneously a marsupial fauna in Australia, and mammalia 
of a difterent and higher grade in Asia and Europe: we also found birds 
without mammalia in New Zealand, reptiles without land quadrupeds in the 
Galapagos Ai'chipelago, and land quadrupeds without reptiles iti Greenland. 
In like manner, in successive geological eras, cei'tain classes, such as the rep- 



ADDENDA. 



759 



tiles, may have predominated over other vertebrata throughout wide areas ; 
but there is no evidence that the adaptation of the fauna, as above explained^ 
had been governed by any hiw of progressive development. In those classes 
of the in vertebrata which were best known, and fully represented in a fossil 
state at all geological periods, the oldest, or Silurian fauna, was as highly 
developed as the corresj>onding funna in the recent seas. Our ignorance of 
the inhabitants of the ancient lands was the chief cause of our scanty ac- 
quaintance with the highly-organized beings of remote epochs. 

OirSIES. A company from England arrived in Cecil oounty, Maryland, in March, 
1851, bringing with them all their wandering habits and peculiarities. 

GLOBES, MONSTER. Originally exhibited in Paris, 1823, and a more perfect 
one, by M. Guerin, in 1844, which he styled the Georama. Wyld's Monster 
Globe," erected in London, 1851, employed three hundred men nearly thirty 
days in fitting up the interior. 

GOLD, Consumption of. The exportation of coin from England is rapidly in- 
creasing, and the English sovereign is becoming more extended as a medium 
of exchange. Formerly, the Spanish dollar passed everywhere, and now the 
English sovereign is taken as current coin over three-fourths of the globe; 
and its exportation keeps pace with the importation of raw gold. From 
November 1850 to June 1851, the Bank of England issued 9,000,000 sovereigns, 
being at the rate of 18,000.000 a year; and so great is the demand for our 
gold coin, that Sir John llersehel informs us in 1853, that since November 
last they have coined at the Mint 3,500,000 sovereigns and half-sovereigns, 
and the rate of production can scarcely keep pace with the increasing de- 
mand. This must have a material influence in maintaining that stability 
which is desirable in our standard value. In Birmingham, not less than 
1,000 ounces of fine gold are used every week, and the weekly consumption 

of gold-leaf is as follows : 

Ounces. 

London, 400 

E'linburgh, ....••••• 35 

Birmingham, ••••••*•* TiJ 

Manchester, ...••••• f2 

Dublin, }2 

Liverpool, ..••••••'« 

Leeds, » 

Glasgow, .....•••• ^ 

Total, . . . ... . .584 

Of which an eminent gold-refiner states not one-tenth part can be recovered. 
For gilding metals by the electrotype and the water-gilding process, not less 
than 10,000 ounces of gold are required annually. One establishment in the 
potteries employs £3,500 worth of gold per annum, and nearly £2,000 worth 
is used by another; the consumption of gold in the potteries of Staffordshire 
for gilding porcelain and making crimson and rose color, varying from 7,000 
to 10,000 ounces per annum. The consumption of gold and silver in Paris 
has been fairly estimated at 14,552,000 francs a year. The wear upon gold 
coin in circulation is about four per cent, per annum ; and from this knowl- 
edge and the foregoing details, we ma^' deduce the fact that nearly £2,000,000 
a year is necessary to maintain the metallic currency at its pi-esent value; 
therefore a supply of between £8,000,000 and £9,000.000 is necessary for the 
arts and manufactures, and the purposes of coinage; and when Ave add to 
this our constantly increasing exportation of coin, it appears that tlie influx 
of Californian and Australian gold will produce but little change in its value 
in Europe. 



760 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



GOLD, Consumption of — continued, 
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ADDENDA. 



761 



GOLD, Consumption of — continued. 

Estimates of the Amount of Gold and Silver in the United States at different Periods. 



Tear, 


Specie in 
circulation. 


Specie in 
the banks. 


Total in the 
country. 


Authorities. 




Millions. 


Millions. 


Millions. 




1816 


$7^ 


$15 to 19 


$22.1- to 26 


Crawford and Gallatin, 


1819 


8 


29 


37 


Crawford. 


1819 




15i 




Congressional report. 


1820 




191: 




Gallatin. 


1829 


"si- 


22§ 


'sii 


Woodbury. 


1S30 


lo 


22 


82 


Gallatin. 


1830 


8 


15 


23 


San ford. 


1833 


12 


30§ 


42§ 


Congressional report. 


1833 


4 


25 


29 


Taney. 


1836 


25 


40 


65 


Woodbury. 


1837 


85 


38 


73 


Woodbury. 


1838 


52.V 


35 


87i 


Woodbury. 


1839 


42 


45 


87 


Hazard (Commercial Eegister). 


1840 


50 


33 


83 


Woodbury. 


1841 


35 to 45 


35 


70 to 80 


Gouge (Journal of Ban-king). 


1814 


50 


60 


100 


Hunt (Merchants' Magazine). 


1845 


52 


44 


96 


Bank returns and estimates. 


1816 


55 


42 


97 


Bank returns and estimates. 


1847 


85 


85 


120 


Bank returns and estimates.— (Constitu- 
tional treasury began to operate.) 


1848 


66 


46 


112 


Bank returns and estimates. 


1849 


77 


43 


120 


Bank returns and estimates. 


1850 


109 


45 


154 


Bank returns and estimates. 


1851 


138 


48 


186 


Bank returns and estimates. 


1852 




.... 


204 


Esti mates. 


1853 


• > . . 


• . • • 


236 


Estimates. 


1854 


181 


60 


241 


Bank returns and estimates. 



The aggregate number of disbursing officers in the United States, is 221, and 
the aggregate of amounts held by the depositories, $3,217,211 90. 

Gold was discovered at Ophir, Bathurst District, Australia, by Mr. Har- 
greaves, in Feb. 1851 ; and at Port Philip, in June, same year. One 
piece weighed 3 lbs. 10 oz. ; and Dr, Kerr found in one day over 102 
lbs., value £4,000 sterling. The diggings are estimated at 300 miles in ex- 
tent. Gold mines reported to be discovered in the province of Gerona, 
Spain, Oct. 1851, ISTearly £750,000 sterling was raised in London, K'ov, 1851, 
for Californian and Australian gold mining operations. 

GOVERNORS, United States. In all the States, except South Carolina, the 
Governor is voted for by the people ; and if no one has a majority of all the 
votes, in the States in which such a majority is required, the Legislature 
elects to the office of Governor one of the candidates voted for by the people. 
The aggregate of the salaries of the Govei'nors of the thirty-one States and 
seven territories is $94,333,33 1-3: tlie smallest, (R, L,) $400; the largea^ 
(Gal.,) $10,000. 

GUANO. Along the sea-board of Peru and Bolivia, within the tropic of 
Capricorn, countless numbers of aquatic fowls exist, which live on fish, 
and whose excretions are exceedingly fertilizing. In some localities, the 
number of guanas is enormous, so that when alarmed by discharges of 
fire-arms, or otherwise, they rise from their nesting-places in such masses 
as cannot be supposed by those who have never seen these birds dark- 
ening the air like a cloud. Guano-producers change their habitation 
when continually disturbed, but they do not permanently leave a locality 
which has long been frequented by them, in consequence of a temporary 
alarm ; for, in such a case, they soon return to their old haunts, and totally 



762 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



abandon thera only when teased by lasting annoyances. The ocean on the 
west coast of South America, within the tropic, teems with fish, the quantity 
eeeming exhaustless, and guanas equally abound; so that their egesta is 
gradually accumulating somewhere either on or oflf that desert land. It 
is only about twelve years since these deposits became of commercial im- 
portance ; and in this period they have proved a source of great wealth to 
the Government of Peru, which is now the most prosperous of all the South 
American Republics. The amount of its revenue fx'om this source for 1854 
and 1855, as stated in the last Treasury Budget, is estimated at $8,600,000. 
It sells tlie privilege of loading vessels for about $19 a tun. There are fre- 
quently over 100 vessels engaged in loading at the same time, and as each 
vessel receives but one " measure" at its " turn," the period occupied in 
loading is several weeks. The following is the official report of the total 
amount of deposits on these islands. In the fall of 1853, the Peruvian 
Government employed a corps of engineers, headed by Mr. Chas. Paraguet, 
to measure their areas; and their reports were printed in London, with 
lithographic illustrations. Of this return we have this summaiy : 

On the North.ern Island, - - - . . 4,189,477 tuns of measurement. 

On the Middle Island, 2,508,948 " " 

On the Southern Island, 5,680,675 " " 

Total, 12,376,100 

This is to be increased one third as the difi'erenee made by breaking it up and 
forming tuns of weight, as shipped, or in all 16,501,4-66 tuns. Tliis is pro- 
bably a correct estimate, and shows that previous estimates were too large. 
The total qiiantity exported is not definitely known. The greatest quantity 
has been taken from the Northern Island; the Middle Island has been 
moderately worked ; and the Southern Island, which is the most difficult of 
access, has scarcely been touched. The following is a semi-ofiicial statement 
of the exports in three years : 



Countries. 


1850. 


1851. 


1852. 


To England, tuns, 

To the United States, " 


102,421 

14,250 

1,681 


150,653 
38,371 


160,000 
32,000 
28,500 


To France, etc., " 

Total,... " 




118,352 


169,024 


220,500 



Since 1852, our trade in that article has become equal to that of England, 
and is likely to exceed it hereafter. The following table presents the guano 
trade of the United States for the last six fiscal years, each ending 30th June: 



Tears. 


Total Imports. 


Total Exports. 


Home Con- 
sumption. 


1848-49, tuns, 

1849-50, " 


21,243 
11,640 
97,881 
50,054 
38,034 
175,849 


3 

4 

1,128 
430 
848 
386 


21,240 
11,736 
96,743 
49,624 
37,686 
175,463 


1850-51 " 


1851-52, " 


1852-53 " 


1853-54, " 


1848-54, '• 


394,801 
65,800 


2,299 

383 


392,502 
65,417 


Yearly average, " 



GUN COTTON. Discovered by Prof. Schoenbein, in Germany, 1846, but itd 
practical utility for mining purposes supersedes its use in fire-arms. 



iDDENDA. 763 

GUTTA PERCHA. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta perclia was im- 
knowii to European commerce. In that year two cwt. was shipped experi- 
mentally from Singapore. Tlie exportation of gutta percha from that port 
rose in 1845 to 169 piculs; (the picul is 1,830 lbs. ;) in 1846, to 5,364; in 
1847, to 9,292 ; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the 
first four and a half years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued 
at 1274,190, wei'e shipped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to 
England, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent 
of Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for 
domestic use, the ornamental arts, etc., to wliich this material has been ap- 
plied, has given employment to thousands, not only in the factories of our 
own and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, 
with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of 
export. M. Perrot has submitted to the Paris Academy of Sciences some 
specimens of gutta percha, which he had purified to such an extent, and 
manufactured in such thin sheets as enabled him to iise it as a substitute for. 
paper, upon which he had taken impressions from the lithographic stone. 
One of the advantages which he stated this would possess over the ordinar}^ 
paper impression was, that of enabling the reverse of any given object to be 
obtained, without the labor of redrawing it. 

HATS, STRAW. This branch of trade is principally carried on in Massachu- 
setts. At Medfield the value of bonnets made in' 1851 was $134,000; Fox- 
boro' for the same period, $122,000 ; and in Franklin $160,000. In Boston 
city alone there are over 300 sewers. Tuscany still continues to be, as it 
alwaj^s has been, a chief and best manufactory of these articles. 

HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced into this country 
by the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in 
the forage of their horses. 

HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists 
in the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person would 
produce a similar but not precisely the same disease, its fimdamental prin- 
ciple being similia similibus curantur — was discovered by Samuel Christian 

. Frederick Hahnemann, a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10th, 
1755, died at Paris, 1843). Dissatisfied with the explanation of the 
antipyretic principles in the Peruvian bark, given by the celebrated ph3-si- 
cian Cullen in his Materia Medica, Hahnemann determined to discover by 
experiment on what the power of the bark, in intermittent fevers, depended. 
He took it in considerable quantity, while in perfect health, and found that 
it produced an ague similar to the intermittent marsh fever. He seized upon 
this hint of nature in his practice, which he Avas at that time pursuing 
in the Insane Hospital in Georgenthal, at Brunswick, and at Konigslutter 
where by many experiments of the efi"ects of simple medicines on himself and 
his family, he acquired so much knowledge of their nature, that he efi'ected 
many remarkable cures by homoeopathic applications. This system is much 
in vogue in the LTnited States, where there are three homoeopathic colleges 
or medical schools, and numei'ous practitioners — the State of New York 
alone having not less than three hundred. Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, pos 
sesses a homoeopathic medical school. Great Britain has as many as fifty 
nine hospitals and dispensaries where this new mode of treatment is "followed ; 
and even Calcutta, in Kindostan, fias a native homoeopathic hospital. The 
principal cities of Europe and America are supplied with homoeopathic 
medical attendants as follows : 



764 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



nOM(EOFATUY— continued. 



Physicians. 

- 55 
13 

- 53 

10 



London, 66 I Paris, - - - - 

Yicniia, 51 | Dresden, - - - 

New York, - - - - 62 I Phi lade IpUia, 

Boston and vicinity, - - 20 | Baltimore, 
There are both iu Britain and America, and also on the continent of Europe, 
many associations for the defense and protection of homoeopath}', and for 
general professional improvement and intercoui-se. 

The following are the comparative results of Allopathic and Homoeopathic treatment in tho 

Hospital St. Marguerite, Paris. 





Homoeopathic. 


Allopathic. 


Admitted. 


Dis- 
charged. 


Died. 


Per cent. 


Admitted. 


Dis- 
charged. 


Died. 


Per cent 


1S49. 

Male, 
Female, 

1850. 
Male, 
Female, 

1851. 
Male, 
Female, 

Total, 


870 
422 


780 
878 


75 
51 


8.62 

12.08 


689 
393 


595 
316 


87 
82 


12.62 
20.62 


1,292 

966 
711 


1,158 

896 
632 


126 

63 
75 


9.75 

6.52 
10.54 


1,087 

754 
441 


911 

692 
394 


169 

61 
46 


14 71 

8.08 
10.43 


1,677 

1,085 
609 


1,528 

997 

558 


138 

70 
65 


8.22 

6.45 
10.67 


1,195 

901 
541 


1,0S6 

828 
467 


107 

77 
58 


8.99 

8.54 
10.72 


1,694 


1,555 


135 


7.96 


1,442 


1,295 


135 


9.36 


4,663 




399 


8.5 


8,724 




411 


11.30 



The Protestant Half Orphan Asylum, in the city of New York, has been 
under homoeopathic treatment since August, 1842, with the following results : — 



Tears. 


No. of cases. 


Cured. 


Died. 


Under treat- 
ment. 


Aug. 1842-47, 5^ years, 

Jan. 1848-53, 5 " 


1,053 
888 


1,020 
767 


5 

14 


52 



In this Institution, under allopathic treatment, the children were continually 

subject to sore eyes: under homoeopathic treatment this complaint has 

entirely disappeared. 
HOSPITAL, JEWISH. The first Jewish hospital in the United States was 

formally consecrated in May, 1855. For this institution the Hebrews are 

mainly indebted to the late Judah Touro, whose munificent bequest of 

$20,000 paid two-thirds of the cost of building and site. 
nUMAlS' RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which 

the names and nxmibers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000,000, 

are as follows : 



White, 

Mongolian, 

Malayan, 

Tclingan, 

Negro, 

Ethiopian, 



- 350,000,000 
300,000,000 

- 120,000,000 

60,000,000 

- 55,000,000 

6,00C,000 



Abyssinian, 

Papuan, 

iftgrillo, 

Australian, 

Hottentot, 



3,000,000 

3,000,000 

3,000,000 

500,000 

500,000 



ADDENDA. 765 

Dr. P. supposes that there have been at least two centers whence these dif- 
ferent races have been derived, one in Asia and the other in Africa; he does 
not siippoi-t the original unit}^ of the races in one parent stem. — See Picker- 
ing's Races of Men, 1851. Professor Agassiz contends for a primitive 
ubiquity, or different types of humanity co-existent in different climes and 
countries. (Further see Population.) 

IDIOTS, EDUCATION OF. The first efforts for the education of idiots in 
America, were in 1839. In that year, the Institution for the Deaf and 
Dumb in this city received a mute boy, who was instructed for three years, 
by Professor Morris, with favorable results. The same year, Dr. Howe of 
Boston treated and greatly improved a blind idiotic child, and afterward two 
others. Two or three children were also under instruction at the American 
Asylum at Hartford before 1848. In 1846, efforts were m.ade in both the 
Legislatures of New York and Massachusetts for the establishment of asylums 
for this class. In July, 1848, Dr. Wilbur opened a private institution for this 
purpose, at Barre, Massachusetts, where he had fifteen pupils before 1851. 
In that year, having been called to our State Asylum at Albany, he trans- 
ferred that school to Dr. George Brown, under whose management it is still 
in successful operation, having some twenty-five or thirty pupils. In October, 
1848, the Massachusetts School was commenced, under the superintendence 
of Dr. Howe. It was conducted for three years as an experiment, and had 
fifteen pupils at tlie close of that period — October, 1851. Then it entered on 
its career- as a permanent State institution. From 1848 to Januarj^ 1855, it 
had 118 pupils, of whom forty-one were then remaining. We are informed 
that the Legislature has lately granted it $25,000 for an edifice, etc. Tlie 
asylum at Albany was opened in October, 1851. For the last two years it 
has had .an average attendance of fifty pupils, and an equal number of appli- 
cations for admission are now on file. The new edifice at Syracuse, costing 
$70,000, will be opened next August. Appropriations for current expenses 
for this year, $13,000. The Pennsylvania School, in Germantown, was com- 
menced in July, 1853, as a State institution, having been founded on the 
private school begun in the winter of 1851-2 by Mr. J. B. Richards. His 
report of last January states the number of pupils then remaining at twenty. 
We learn that over $10,000 have been subscribed by citizens of Phila- 
delphia for the erection of buildings, etc. A private school for idiots was 
commenced last fall near Boston, by Mr. McDonald, formerly associated with 
Dr. Howe, which completes the list of institutions of this character. 

INDIA-RUBBER. The natives of Hindostan were the first to collect this 
substance, which was introduced into England in 1*735, for the purpose of 
removing pencil-marks from paper. In 1772, a cubical half inch of this 
substance cost 3s. sterling. Mr, Macintosh, of England, was the first to 
manufacture the prepared gum for its px^esent innumerable applications. 
Cuirasses of vulcanized rubber were introduced in the French army, 1851, 
and said to be bullet-proof (?). The daily product of India-rubber shoes, 
made in the United States, is calculated at 15,000, at an annual profit of 
nearly $200,000. 

INFANTICIDE IN INDIA. The birth of a son, by both Hindoos and Mahom- 
medans, is regarded as an occasion for the gi'eatest rejoicing. The event is 
celebrated by Uie firing of cannon, and expensive festivals among the rich ; 
while the report of a single matchlock of the poorest peasant proclaims the 
honor that has been conferred upon his family. At the birth of a daughter, 
there is always much less rejoicing, and often none at all. No friends 
assemble to rejoice with the parents, or to offer their congratulations. By 
some, the event is i-egarded with seeming indifference: by others, as a 



766 THE world's progress. 

calamity and a disgrace. An English gentleman, writing npon this subject, 
saj's: "Among the tribe of Rajputs, and especially among the Rajahs of that 
class, the birth of a daughter in their house was considered disgraceful^ 
This feeling is so strong as to lead to murder. Among some portions of the 
inhabitants of India, the dreadful sin of infanticide has for a long time 
prevailed, and to an alarming extent. Among certain clans of feudatory 
Rajputs, and other tribes in Central and Western India, this horrid crime has 
been carried on more extensively and systematically than among any other 
people of the earth. In the districts of Kach and Kattiawar, it has been 
found, after the fullest and most elaborate inquiry, that the greater part of 
the inhabitants put their infant daughters to death without the least remorse. 
In these provinces, containing 120,000 people, from the investigations of 
Colonel Walker, we learn that at least 4,000 infant children are annually 
destroyed by their parents — more than 100,000, in a single generation, in 
two small provinces. The same bloody custom is traced to other tribes of 
Hindostan — to the Jats and Mewats ; also in the provinces of Gujarat, Jaipur, 
and Jamedpur. By the philanthropic efforts of Christian men, some few 
families have been induced, in whole or in part, to discontinue it ; but their 
motives for doing so have been found to be none of the purest or worthiest. 
They have, in several instances, confessed that this act of liumanity did not 
proceed from parental feelings. From a report of an able and excellent 
officer of the British Government, the late Mr. Wilkinson, the fearful extent 
of this inhuman custom may be clearly seen. He says: "An intelligent 
Rajput chief, in conversing with me, stated, as his opinion, that not less tlian 
twenty tliousand infants were annually destro^'ed in Malwa and Rajputana." 
In several districts, where the census was as carefully taken as possible, the 
following startling facts were elicited: "In the first district, tlje proportion 
of sons to daughters was 118 to 16 ; in a second, 240 to 98 ; in a third, 131 
to 61 ; in a fourth, 14 to 4 ; in a fifth, 39 to 7 ; in a sixth, 20 to 7 ; and in a 
seventh, 70 to 32. Now, as the most extended inquiries of statists, in Eu- 
rope and throughout the Avorld, have all shown one result, viz : that the 
births of males and females are of nearly equal amount, the only inference 
to be drawn from this disparity, is, that females equal, or nearly equal in 
number to the difference here exhibited, have been destroyed. The murders, 
therefore, perpetrated in the first of the above districts, were sevent3'-seven 
per cent, of the females born. The aggregate result, given by these censuses, 
is 632 sons to 225 daughters. This is at the average rate of 36 daughters to 
loo sons ; in other Avords, out of every hundred of the females born, on the 
same supposition of the equality of the sexes, sixty-four have been cruelly 
destro_yed by their parevts, or, in round numbers, about tioo-third(i destroj-ed, 
and only one-third preserved." Nor was the practice confined to the Rajputs 
alone, but it extends to the Sikhs also. " Of eleven villages in the districts 
of Jaipur and Udapur, he found, after the closest inquiry, that the aggregate 
numbers of boys under twelve years of age were 369, and of girls, only 87. 
This shows that 282 girls, or more than three-fourths of all born, were 
destro3'ed in these villages in the brief period of twelve years. In one of 
these villages, there were only four girls to forty-four boys; in another, four 
girls to fifty-eight boys ; and in a third, with a large proportion of boys, 9io 
girh at all ; the inhabitants freely confessing that they had destroyed every 
girl born in their village." We are very naturally led to inquire what 
causes have produced so revolting a custom. From the most extensive 
inquiries in reference to this subject, it is now generally believed not to arise 
from she.8r cruelty, or from a total destitution of pai'ental affection. Indeed, 
from a most careful study of the national character, it is manifest that the 
great mass of Hindoo mothers possess as strong a love for their children as 



ADDENDA. 767 

the mothers of any other people. The nnanimoiis and concurrent testimony 
of educated natives, as well as that of Europeans, is, that the real causes 
are — 1st, The difficulty of obtaining suitable matches for their daughters, 
were they allowed to gi-ow up, coupled with the supposed disgrace of their 
remaining unmarried. 2d, The difficulty of defraj'ing the marriage expenses, 
which have been sanctioned by immemorial custom. 

INOCULATIOK The small-pox was introduced into the United States about 
loH ; and, so late as the year 1769, we find the practice of inoculation pro- 
hibited by law in Virginia. 

INVENTIONS. The following will be found useful by way of reference : Glass 
windows were first used in 1]80; chimneys in houses, 1236 ; lead pipes for 
conveying water, 1252 ; tallow candles for lights, 1290 ; spectacles invented 
by an Italian, 1299 ; paper first made from linen, 1302 ; woollen cloth first 
made in England, 1331; art of painting in oil colors, 1410; printing invented. 
1440 ; watches made in Germany, 1477 ; variation of compass first noticed, 
1540; pins first used in England, 1543; circulation of human blood first 
discovered by Harvey, 1619^ first newspaper published, 1630; first steam- 
engine invented, 1649 ; first fire-engine invented, 1663 ; first cotton planted 
in °the United States, 1769; steam-engine improved by Watt, 1767; steam 
cotton-mill erected, 1783 ; stereotype printing invented in Scotland, 1785 ; 
animal magnetism discovered by Mesmer, 1788; Sabbath-school established 
in Yorkshire, England, 1789; electro-magnetic telegraph invented by Morse, 
1832 ; daguerreotype process invented, 1839. 

TKON, produced in the United States in 1851 : 

Mine at Salisbury, Conn., yields, ... - - 3,000 tuns. 

Dutchess and Coiumbia CO., N. Y., .... ?2'^!,'5 l[ 

Essex CO., 15,000 

Clinton CO., 8,000 

Franklin CO., - - - - - - - " o oJ? " 

St. Lawrence co., ------- ^^'XX^ „^„ 

Value of Iron produced in the Uaited States, 1835, - - - $6,000,000 

u * u » 1837, - - 7,70D,00t) 

The iron ores in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee. Illinois, Maryland and Virginia, 
from recent inspection are found to be inexhaustible. In the Gentleman's 
Mao-azine, 1783, is a recommendatory article of cast iron, then in its infanc}'-, 
wluch is there said to be " capable of being carried to a great extent." In 
1854, the make of iron in U. S. was about 700,000 tuns, about one-half of 
which are consumed for castings, and the remaining portion was converted 
into wrought iron, at a loss in waste, etc., of about one-third. The present 
annual consumption amounts to 1,200,000 tuns, or nearly eighty-eight 
pounds per head of the population. Wrought iron is now made direct from 
the ore by a process patented in 1851, and "in operation at Cincinnati, Ohio, 
Newark, N. J., and Mott Haven, N. Y. 

JESUITS. In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechis?n Filosofico" ox 
dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for kings, 
how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to 
their people. 

JEWS. Of the original twelve tribes, two only are at present known; the 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews are the 
descendants of Judah ; the Jews of Germany and Northern Europe are of the 
tribe of Benjamin. Dr. Raphael, (lecture N. Y., May, 1851,) states that witli 
the exception of Josephus, who wrote in Greek, and M. Jost, who wrote m 
German, about 1841, the Jewish historians ffom the first century, (a. p.,) to 
the nineteenth, invariably wrote in the Hebrew language. Dr. Lykms, of 



768 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 



the Pottawattamie Reservation, exhibited in the office of Indian Department 
Washington, in December, 1851, a iQ\\\&\\ frontlet, containing portions of the 
Pentateuch, wliich he received from Pategwe, a Pottawattamie Indian, in 
whose family it had been from time immemorial. Thei'e were originally 
two of these indexes of Jewish faith, one of which was irrecoverably lost in 
crossing a river. This curious discovery may pei'haps be considered ao 
strengthening the opinion of the late Major Noah, that the American Indi- 
ans are descended from the lost tribes of the Jewish people. 

KANSAS CENSUS RETURNS. The following are the complete census retm-ns 
of the Territory of Ka-nsas, taken prior to the first election for members of 
the Territorial Legislature 1855 : 



Districts. 


Males. 


Females. 


Voters. 


Natives. 


Foreign- 
ers. 


Slaves. 


Total. 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

YI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

XIII 

XIV 

XV 

XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 

Total, 


623 

316 

161 

166 

824 

472 

32 

56 

61 

97 

33 

163 

16S 

655 

472 

70S 

91 


389 

203 

91 

71 

533 

318 

36 

27 

25 

54 

3 

80 

116 

512 

381 

475 

59 


869 

199 

101 

57 

441 

253 

53 

39 

36 

68 

24 

78 

96 

333 

303 

885 

59 

28 


887 

506 

215 

169 

1,385 

791 

117 

76 

65 

108 

30 

206 

273 

301 

846 

1,040 

143 


75 
19 
12 

2 
22 
12 

1 

6 
12 
23 

6 
37 

9 

46 

16 

104 

5 


6 

1 

26 
Jl 

1 
10 

o 

14 
85 
15 
83 
23 


962 

518 
252 
177 

1,407 

810 

118 

83 

86 

151 

36 

243 

284 

1,167 
873 

1,183 
150 


5,088 


3,273 


2,877 i 7,161 408 


192 


8,500 



LAND-OWNERS. It is a remarkable fact, that of all the constitutional states 
of Europe or America, Great Britain is the country in which the people 
hold the smallest stake in the soil, France, with a population of 82,560,034, 
has 10,896,682 landed proprietors, or one in three. The United States, with 
a population of 20,000,000, has 5,000,000 proprietors, or one in four. Bel- 
gium, with a population of 5,022,677, has 950,723 proprietors or one in five. 
Holland, a commercial and shipping country, with a population of 3,500,000, 
has 400,000 proprietors, or one in nine. Sweden, with a population of 
3,874,203, has 300,000 proprietoi-s, or one in twelve. While Great Britain 
and Ireland, with a population of 27,041,050, have only 633,421, or one in 
forty of the population, including freeholders and copyholders, with a direct 
interest in the soil. 

LANDS (Public) of the U. S. Within the limits recognized by treaties and 
cessions, (see American Almanac, 1850, p. 179,) the public lands covered an 
estimated area of 1,584,000,000 acres. To the 30th Sept., 1849, 146,000,000 
acres liad been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438,000 acres, which land, 
in large bodies of detacheil tracts, is found in the several States and terri- 
tories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the 
public lands was established by the act of 20th May, 1785, and has continued 
to the present time, but with slight modifications, viz., every township of 
six square miles is to be divided into thirty-six sections, of one mile square^ 



ADDENDA 



769 



each section generally containing 640 aci^es. The lands are then proclaimed 
by the President for sale, at public auction, at not less than $1.25 per acre, 
and such as hereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at 
that rate. 

Quantity of public land sold, and the amount paid for it, in each year, from 1833 to the third 

quarter of 1850 : 



Years. 


Acres. 


Dollars. 


Years. 


Acres. 


Dollars. 1 


1883 


3,856.227.56 


4,972,284.84 


1844 


1,754,763,13 


2,207,678.04 


1834 


4,658,218.71 


6,099,981.04 


1845 


1.843,527.05 


2,470,308.17 


1835 


12,564,478.85 


15,999,804.11 


1846 


2,268,730.81 


2.904,637.27 


1836 


20,074,870.92 


25,167.833.06 


1847 


2,521,305.59 


8.296.401.08 


1837 


5,601,103.12 


7,007,523.04 


1818 


1,887,553.04 


2,621,615.26 


1838 


8,414,907.42 


4,805,564.64 


1849 


1,829,902.77 


1.756.89(1.42 


1839 


4,976,382.87 


6,464,556.79 


1850 


1,405,888.70 


l,818,829.-32 


1840 


2,286,889.74 


2,789,687.53 


1851 


3,846,847.49 


2.370,94745 


1841 


1,164,796.11 


1,468,364.06 


1852 


1,553,070.94 


1,975,718.54 


1842 


1,129,217.58 


1,417,972.06 


1853 


1,083,495.21 


1,804.653.24 


1843 


1,605,264.06 ' 


2,016,044.30 


1854 


7,035,735 07 


9,285,533.58 



The following table shows the present condition of the bounty land warrants, 
under the Acts of 1847, 1850, and 1852, to wit: 



1 

Act of 1847. 


Grade of warrant. 


Number 
issued. 


Acres 
embraced 
thereby. 


Number 
located. 


Acres 
embraced 
thereby. 


Number 
outstand- 
ing. 


Acres 
embraced 
thereby. 


160 acres, 


79,407 
7,269 


12,705,120 
290,760 


71,989 
5,596 


11,510,240 

223,480 


7,468 
1,673 


1,194,880 
66,920 


40 " 


Total, 


86,679 


12,995,880 


77,535 


11,734,080 


9,141 


1,261,800 








1 

Act of 1850. | 


160 acres, 


26,808 

66,220 

101,567 


4,289,280 


22,713 
43,484 
75,034 


3,6.34,080 
8,474,720 
3,001,360 


4,096 
12,780 
26,538 


655,200 
1,054,880 
1,061,320 


80 " 

40 " 

Total, 


4,529,600 
4,062,680 


184,567 


12,881,560 


141,181 


10,110,160 


48,414 


2,771,400 


Act of 1852. 


160 acres, 


1,157 
1,649 

8,732 


185,120 
131,920 
349,280 


709 
959 

5,037 


113,440 
76,720 
201,480 


448 

690 

8.695 


71,680 
55,200 1 
147,800 


80 " 


40 " 


Total, 




11,538 


666,320 


6,705 


391,640 i 4,883 


274,680 i 


Stjmmaet. 


Act of 1847, 

" 1850, 

« 1852, 

Grand total, — 


86,676 

184,.595 

11,538 


12,995,880 77,535 

12,881,560 141,181 

666,320 6,705 


11,734,080 

10,110,16a 

591,640 


9,141 1,261,800 

43.414 1 2,771, -400 

4;833 274,680 


~ 282,809 


26,543,760' | 225,421 


22,235,880 


57,383 4,307,880 



770 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



It will thus be perceiyed, that of the 26,543,'760 acres embraced by the war 
rants now issued, 22,235,880 acres have been located — leaving onl}^ 4,307,880 
acres to be satisfied. The following table exhibits the present condition of 
the grant of 500,000 acres made to each of the States for internal improve- 
ments, by the Act of 4th September, 1841, to wit: 



n 



states. 



Quantity to 
which 
entitled. 



Quantity 

selected and 

approved. 



Quantity 

to be 
selected. 



Illinois, 

Missouri, . . . 
Alabama, . . . 
Mississippi, . 
Louisiana, . . 
Michigan, . . 
Arkansas,.. . 
Florida,* . . . 

Iowa, 

'Wisconsin,t . 

Total, 



209,085.50 
500,000.00 
97,469.17 
500,000.00 
500,000.00 
500,000.00 
500,000.00 
499,990.09 
500,000.00 
500,000.00 



4.806,544.76 



208,989.05 
500,000.00 
97,469.17 
499,934.59 
387,875.20 
498,638.54 
499,889.03 
368.290.10 
500,000.00 
416,721.41 



8,977,848.09 



105.45 



l.i.41 

112,124.80 

1,861.46 

110.97 

131,699.99 

"83,'27S.59' 



358,696.67 



LANGUAGE. Ethnography has fm'nished conclusive evidence that the family 
of American languages have had a common origin with those of Asia. Tho 
unity of all human language must be considered as establishing an identical 
unity of all the human races ; all dialects must be regarded as dialects of 
one now lost. — Di'. S7)iyth's Unity of Human Races. 

LA"W. The number of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, was 21,979, 
or about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants. — MontJUy Law Magazine. 
Estimating their average receipts at $1,000 per annum, their aggregate 
income would reach within a fraction of twenty-two millions of dollars. In 
1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in 
Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066; and in Georgia, 
908. — Livingstones Law Register. 

LETTERS. The number of letters transmitted in the following European 
countries annually, were estimated, in March 1851, as follows : 



Countries. 



Population. 



Letters. 



Per head. 



England, 

France, 

Prussia, 

Switzerland, 
A.ustria, 



29,000,000 
36,000,000 
16,500,000 
2,408,000 
37,000,000 



320,000,000 

108,000,000 

45,000,000 

13,000,000 

23,000,000 



11. 
8. 

2.7 
5.6 
0.6 



Being rather more than half a letter for each inhabitant of the Austrian do* 
minions. (Fic/e Post Ofiice.) 



* Subject to readjustment, owing to imperfections of plats from which selections were madf 
t Under decision of Attorney-General, July 24,. 1852. 



ADDENDA. 



771 



LIBRARIES. 



Approximate Tabular Yiew of the Libraries containing 10,000 Volumes or upwards, acces- 
sible to the Public, in tlie several States oi' Europe ; also, the whole Number of Libraries 
in said States, and the Number of Volumes and of Manuscripts contained tliereiii in IS-iS. 



Name of State. 



Anhalt, . , 

Austrian States, 

B.iden, 

Bavaria, 

Belgium, 

Bremen, 

Brunswick, 

Cracow, 

Denmark, 

France, 

Frankfort-on-the-Mainc, . . 
Great Britain and Ireland,* 

Hamburg,* 

Hanover, 

Hesse, 

Hesse-Darmstadt, 

Hildbursrhausen, 

Holland,' 

Lippe-Detmold, 

Lubec, 

Lucca, 

Luxemburg, 

Mecklenburg, 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 

Modona, 

Naples and Sicily, 

Nassau, 

Oldenburg, 

Pai)Mi States, 

I'arnia, 

Portugal, 

Prussian States, 

Reuss, 

Rudolstadt, 

Eussinn Empire, 

Sardinia and Piedmont,. . . 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 

Saxe-Meiningen, 

Saxe-Weimar, 

Saxony,* 

Spain, 

Sweden and Norway, 

Switzerland, 

Tuscany, 

"Waldeck Pyrmont, .,-.... 
Wurtemberg, 



^ 



I 

49 
5 

IS 

14 
2 
1 
2 
5 
109 
1 

84 
6 
5 
4 
2 
1 
5 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
8 
1 
1 

15 
3 
7 

44 

'i 

12 
9 
3 
1 
2 
9 

17 
8 

13 

10 
1 
5 



Aggre- 
gate Popu- 
lation of 
Cities and 

Towns 
containing 
said Lib- 



11,479 

1,448,187 

72,960 

373,837 

588,564 

42,000 

8,500 

37,000 

156,692 

3,188,120 

66,244 

3,344.916 

128.000 

61,700 

88,700 

30,800 

10,200 

349,010 

2,500 

26,000 

24,092 

12,000 

26,634 

4,500 

27,000 

550,458 

15,000 

5,564 

35S,6')0 

71,500 

368,000 

989,613 

4,000 

1,068,823 

302,497 

85,579 

6,000 

17,029 

182,927 

65;),859 

120,528 

187,083 

158,466 

1,,500 

67,999 



Aggre- 
i;ate Num- 
ber of 
Volumes 
in said 
Libraries. 



20,000 

2,408,000 

404,300 

1,268,500 

509.100 

86,000 

200,000 

52,000 

647,000 

4,092,695 

62.000 

1.77i;498 

2ii0.367 

492,000 

265.000 

280,000 

12,000 

219,000 

21.500 

52,000 

25,000 

19,600 

84.000 

50,000 

90,000 

413,000 

50,000 

60,000 

953,000 

146,000 

276,000 

2,008,351) 

46,000 
852,090 
286,000 
247,000 

32,000 
180.000 
570.500 
687,550 
853,000 
480,300 
401,000 

80,000 
427,000 



t>,c <s 






Ov-O 



1^ cp S 



170 
167 
540 
339 

95 

86 

2,853 

141 

412 

129 

94 

53 
148 
818 
299 
924 
118 

63 
860 
200 
104 
163 
815 
1,111 
388 

66 

888 

1,078 

266 

204 

76 
200 

1,150 

80 

94 

61S 

533 

1,057 
417 
106 
309 
850 
261 

2,000 
623 






2 

49 

5 

18 

14 

2 

6 

2 

'5 

186 

1 

34 

6 

5 

5 

3 

1 

7 

1 

2 

1 

1 

8 

1 

1 



1 

16 

3 

7 

58 

1 

1 

12 

11 

5 

1 

2 

9 

27 

8 

13 

10 

1 

6 



Aggre- 
gate Num- 
ber of 
Volumes 
of Printed 
Books in 
1848. 



25.700 
2,408,000 

404.300 
1,268,500 

509.1ii0 
36,000 

228,000 
52,000 

647,000 

4,510,295 

62,000 

1,771,493 

200,367 

492.0;0 

273,200 

282.600 
12,000 

228,310 
21,500 
52,0!10 
25,000 
19,600 
85,4,!0 
50,000 
90,000 

413,000 

5;;,ooo 

60,000 

957,000 

146,000 

276,000 

2,040,450 

5,000 

46.000 
852.090 
297,000 
247,000 

32,000 
180,' :00 
57 5,500 
711,050 
358,000 
480,800 
401,000 

8: ',000 
433,000 



No, of 
Vol- 
umes of 
MSS. in 

1848. 



41.108 

3,170 

80,156 

20,728 

4.580 

2.210 

3,200 

119,119 

55 ;( 

62,149 

5,1.00 

5,743 

400 
.5,268 

12,000 
100 
400 

'162 



8.000 
3,000 

83,495 

7,587 
1.5,417 



21.604 
4,500 

5,oao 

2.000 
7.950 
8.262 
9,300 
12.734 
30,000 

5 200 



* In tliese States the enumeration embraces libraries of less extent than 10,000 volumes. 



772 



THE world's progress. 



Volumes. 

*Milan, Brera Library, . . . 170,000 

Paris, St..Genevieve do., . . 150,000 

Darmstadt, Grand Ducal do., . 150,000 

*Florence, Magliabecchian do., . 150,000 

*Naples, Eoyal do 150,000 

*Brussels, Koyal do., . . . 183,500 

Rome, Casanate do., . . . 120,000 

*Hague, Eoyal do., . . . 100,000 

Paris, Mazarin »1<)., .... 100,000 

Rome, Vatican do., . . . 100.000 

*Parma, Ducal do., .... 100,000 



The principal libraries of the several capital cities of Europe, in the order of 
their magnitude, in 184§, stood as follows: 

Volumes. 

*Paris, National Library, . . 824,000 

•Miinicli, Royal do., . . . 600,000 

Petersburg, Imperial do., . . 446,000 

*London,Britisli Museum do., . 435,000 

*Copenhagen, Royal do., . . 412,000 

*Beriin, Royal do 410-000 

*Vicniia, Imperial do., . . . 318,000 

♦Dresden. Royal do., . . . 300,000 

Madrid, National do., . . . 200,000 

Wolfenbuttal, Ducal do., . . 200,000 

Stutgard, Royal do., . . . 187,000 

Paris, Arsenal do., . . . 180,000 

The oldest of the great libraries of pi'inted books is probably that of Vienna, 
"which dates from 1440, and is said to have been open to the public as early 
as 1576. The town library of Ratisbon (in Bavaria) dates from 1430; St. 
Mark's library at Venice, from 1468 ; the town library of Frankfort, from 
1484; that of Hamburg, from 1529; of Strasburg (France), from 1531; of 
Augsburg (Bavai'ia), from 1537 ; those of Berne and Geneva, from 1550; and 
that of Basel or Basle, from 1564. The Royal Library of Copenhagen was 
founded about 1550. In 1671, it had 10,000 volumes; in 1748, about 65,000; 
in 1778, 100,000; and in 1820, 300,000. The National Library of Paris was 
founded in 1595, and was made public in 1737. In 1640, it had about 17,000 
volumes; in 1684, 50,000; in 1775, 150,000; in 1790, 200,000. The library 
of the British Museum was founded in 1753, and made public in 1757, when 
it contained about 40,000 volumes. In 1800, it had about 65,000 volumes; 
in 1823, 125,000; in 1836, nearly 240,000. The whole of the difference be- 
tween 1836 and 1848 does not arise from the actual increase of the collection; 
a portion of the difference results fi'om the fact, that many thousand tracts, 
formerly in volumes or cases, have been separately bound, and are now enu- 
merated as distinct volumes. The rest of the increase is mainly ascribuble 
to donations. Of its 435,000 volumes, at least 200,000 have been presented 
or bequeathed. The growth of the Copenhagen Library arises mainly from 
judicious purchases, at favorable opportunities. The increase of the Na- 
tional Library of Paris, since 1790, is in a great measure to be ascribed to 
the Revolution. Special instructions were usually given, that the officers of 
the library should liave unlimited power of selection from the many libra- 
ries at the disposal of the government upon tlie suppression of tlie monas- 
teries and convents, and the confiscation of the property of rebels and 
emigrants. The chief University Libraries, in 1848, ranked as follows: 

Volumes. 

Vienna University Library, . • 115,000 

Leipsic University do., . . 112,000 

Copenha<jen University do., . . 110,000 

tTurinij: IJniversity do., . . 110,000 

Louvain Univer.sitV do., . . 105,000 

Dublin,^ Trinitv College do., . 104,239 

tUpsal Univers'ity do., . . . 100,000 

Erlaiiffen University do., . . 100,000 

Edinburgh University do., , . 90,854 



Volumes. 

•fGottingen:}: University Library, . 360,000 

Breslau University do., . . 250.000 

Oxford,^ Bodleian do., . . . 220,000 

Tubingen University do., . . 200,000 

Munich University do., . . , 200,000 

Heidelberg University do., . 200,000 

Cambridge^ Public do., . . . 166,724 

Bologna University do., . . 150,000 

tPrague:|: University do., . . 130,000 



* These libraries are entitled by law to a copy of every book published within the states to 
which tliey respectively belong. 

t These are lending-libraries. 

t These are legally entitled to copies of all works published in the states to which they 
respectively belong. 



ADDENDA. 



773 



The date of the foundation of some of the libraries is as follows : Turin, 1436 ; 
Cambridge, 1484; Leipsic, 1544; Edinburgh, 1582; the Bodleian, 1597. 
The library of the University of Salamanca (24,000 volumes) is said to have 
been founded in 1215. The following table shows the whole number of 
printed volumes in the public libraries of some of the principal cities of 
Europe, in 1848: 





Volumes. 




Volumes. 




Volumes. 


Aberdeen, 


. 46,000 


Dublin, . 


. 143,654 


Munich, . 


. 800.000 


Amsterdam, . 


16,000 


Edinburgh, . 


. 2SS,S54 


Naple.*, 


290,000 


Antwerp, . 


. 15,000 


Florence, . 


. 299,000 


Oxford, . 


. 273.0110 


Barcelona, 


45,000 


Genoa, . 


. 120,000 


Padua, 


177,000 


Berlin, 


. 460,000 


Glasgow, . 


. 80,096 


Paris, 


. 1,474,000 


Boloirna, 


. 833,000 


G.'jttinifen, 


. 850,000 


Prague, 


193,000 


Bremen, . 


. 36,000 


Halle, 


. 121,000 


Koine, 


. 465,000 


Brcslau, 


. 370,000 


Hamburg, 


. 200,867 


Seville, 


58.000 


Brussels, . 


. 143,500 


Leipsic, . 


. 192,000 


Stockiiolm, 


. 82,000 


BudH-Pesth. . 


6S,000 


Lisbon, . 


93,000 


St. Petersburg, 


595,900 


Cambridge, 


. 261,724 


London, . 


, 490,500 


Stutcard, 


. 197.000 


Cologne, 


, 109,300 


Lyons, . 


82,000 


Venice, 


137,000 


Copenhagen, 


. 557,000 


Milan, 


. 250,000 


Vienna, . 


. 453,000 


Dresden, 


. 340,500 


Moscow, 


66,000 


"Weimar, 


110,000 



The avei'age annual sura allotted to the support of the National Library at 
Paris is £16,575; the Ro^yal Library at Brussels, £2,700; of Munich, about 
£2,000; of Vienna, £1,900; of Berlin, £3,745; of Copenhagen, £1,250; of 
Dresden, £500 ; of Darmstadt, £2,000 ; of the British Museum, prior to 1835, 
less than £8,000, and of this sum only £1,135, on an average, was expended 
for printed books. Li 1846 and 1847, £10,000 was annually appropriated 
for the purchase of printed books, which sum was in 1848 reduced to £8,500. 
The whole sum expended in the purchase of printed books for the British 
Museum, including maps and musical works, from its foundation in 1753 to 
Dec. 25, 1847, was £102,446, 18s. 5d. ; for manuscripts, £42,940, lis. lOd.; 
prints and drawings, £29,318, 4s.; antiquities, coins, and medals, £125,257, 
Os. 9d. ; specimens in all branches of natural histor}', £43,599, 7s. 8d, ; in all, 
£344,562, 2s. 8d, The average number of volumes added annually to the 
National Library of Paris is stated to be 12,000 ; to that of Munich," 10,000 ; 
of Berlin, 5,000; of Vienna, 5,000; of St. Petersburg, 2,000; to the Ducal 
Library of Parma, 1,800; to the Ro^'al Library of Copenhagen, 1,000; to 
the British Museum under the special grant, about 30,000 volumes, usually 
compi'ising about 24,000 separate works. We give below the summary, by 
Isif. Edwards, of the public libraries in America, for the j'ear 1846. Tha 
summary takes no account of libraries containing less than 5,000 volumes : 



Name of State. 



Alabama, 

Columbia, Dist. of, 

Connecticut, 

Georgia, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Missouri, 

New Hampshire, . 



No. of 
Lib- 


No. of 
Vols. 


raries. 




1 


6,000 


2 


53,000 


6 


81,449 


1 


13,030 


1 


7.000 


1 


5.5'10 


3 


33,860 


1 


12,000 


14 


200.757 ■ 


2 


14.300 


2 


22,500 



Eatio of 
Volumes 
to every 
100 In- 
habitants. 



1.1 
121.2 

26.8 
1.9 
0.9 
1.6 
7.7 
2.6 

27.2 
3.7 
7.9 



Name of State, 



New Jersey, 

New York, 

North Carolina,. . . 

Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 

Khode Island, 

South Carolina, . . . 

Tennessee, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 



No. of 
Lib- 


No. of 
Vols. 


raries. 




3 


28.500 


12 


157,411 


1 


10,000 


4 


80,497 


14 


159,2; ;o 


3 


87,185 


2 


80.000 


2 


16,000 


2 


16,254 


4 


41,000 



Eatio of 
Volumes 
to every 
100 In- 
liabitants. 



7.5 
6.2 
1.3 
2.0 
9.2 
34.2 
5.0 
2.0 
5.5 
3.3 



774 THE world's progress. 

LIGHT-HOUSES IN" THE F- S, On the 31st of Angnst 1852, there were 349 
light-houses and beacon lights, existing or authorized, of which 5 were filled 
with lens appai-atus. By the 30th June 1856, there will be 610 light-houses 
and beacon lights for the Atlantic, Gulf, and Lake coast, viz. : Lights of the 
first class, 45; of the second class, 30; of the third class, 21 ; of the fourth 
class, 225 ; of the fifth class, 103 ; and of the sixth class, 86. On tlie Pacific 
coast (in California, Oregon, and Washington), there will be a total of 21. 
Which, together with 47 light vessels, will make an aggregate of 578 lights ; 
but as it is probable that about 21 of these lights will be discontinued as un- 
necessary for the interests of navigation, there will be for the entire coast 
of the United States, 557 lights, to be annually provided for. The aggregate 
appropriations for the current fiscal year, for the entire coast, Atlantic, Gulf, 
Lake, and Pacific, amount to $911,561 43. 

IjINEK The average annual import of linens into the United States is estimated 
at about $6,500,000. The only manufactory in the United States is that of 
Mr. Stevens, at Webster, Massachusetts. In 1840 the flax crop in all the 
States north of the Ohio river, and including Maryland, covered some four 
millions of acres, averaging 350 lbs. flax lint per acre ; of which about one- 
third is fit for linen fabric; the remainder, say 130 lbs., being available for 
paper bagging, etc. The excess of profit in the culture of flax compared with 
cotton, is shown by the JV. Y. Tribune, April, 1851, to be nearly- 50 per cent. 

LITHOGRAPHY. A process for printing in oil by diff"erent stones, according 
to the colors required, was invented by Mr. Kronheim, of Paternoster Row, 
London, in March, 1851. 

LOCKS. Mr. Chubb, of London, stated before the Society of Arts in Jan., 1851, 
that the basis of all security in modern locks is found in the old Egyptian, 
the original of the patent tumbler lock. His lock, however, was picked by 
the celebrated Mr. Hobbs, of New York, during the session of the Great 
Exhibition, 1851. Day and Newell's parautoptic lock, exhibited in the Cr3"sta] 
Palace, is susceptible of 1,307,647,368,000 changes; the time required for 
effecting the whole of which would consume 13,000,000 years. 

LOTTERIES. The Mar^dand Convention of 1851 passed a resolution abolishing 
all lotteries and their attendant evils, after April, 1859. At Rome and Naples 
Lotteries receive the direct patronage of government as direct sources of 
revenue. • 

MANHATTAN. This term, as applied to the island on which the city of NTew 
York stands is taken from the name given by the Indians to the original 
Dutch settlement in 1621, and means '■^ the place lokere they (the Indians) all 
got drunk /" 

MANUFACTURERS. The increase of manufacturing industry in Great Britain 
in sixty years, is shown by the following table of the raw materials used in 
that kingdom : 

In 1 TOO. InlS49. 

Wool, .... 3.2J5.352 lbs, 76,756.1 S3 lbs. 

Bilk, .... 1,253,-145 " 6,881,861 " 

Hemp, .... 5<)2,306 " l,Oi) 1,273 " 

Flax . . . . 257,222 " 1.806,786 " 

Cotto, .... 80,574,374 " 758,841,650 " 

fe'ee " Cotton," etc. 

MARYLAND. The new Constitution of this State went into operation on 4th 
Jul}', 1851, and from its general acceptance promises greatly to increase the 
prosperity of the State. Population by the census of 1850, 582,506, of which 
89,800 were slaves. 



ADDENDA. 



775 



MASKS. ^ Before the introduction of females on the British stage, masks were 
used in the representation of female characters, by the male actors who 
were no longer youthful.— A^/w^Aif's Shakspeare. They were also employed 
by female actors in the early stage of the English drama, and also by women 
when traveling. Miss Livingston, of New" York, who married Nicholas 
Bayard, about 1*749, when she rode out in cold weather, or went sleighing, 
wore a black velvet mask, with a silver button or mouthpiece to keep'^it on'. 

MASSACHUSETTS. The polls, population, and valuation, for the last four 
decimary terms, are as follows, viz. : 



-■■ ■ 

Years. 


Polls. 


Population. 


Valuation. 


1820, 


122,715 
150,691 
185,938 
245,142 


523,287 
610,408 
718.592 
994,665 


$153,644,265 
208,908,107 
299,878.327 
597,936,969 


1830, 


1840, 


1850, 



The relative increase of polls, population and property, during the above pe- 
riods, omitting fractions, is as follows : 



Years. 


Polls. 


Population, 


Valuation. 


1820 to 1830, 


28,000 
85,000 
57,000 


47.000 
108,000 
255,000 


$55,000,000 

91,000,000 

299,(!48,666 


1830 to 1840, 


1840 to 1850, 



In this State sj^stematic beggary is unknown. The poor are provided for by 
law, and for this purpose not less than 204 comfortable alms-houses are 
sustained at the public charge. The number of persons relieved or sup- 
ported as paupers, in the year 1850, was 25,98], and of these 12,334 were 
foreigners, the larger portion being from Ireland. The weekly cost of each 
pauper in alms-houses was $1.08^; out of alms-houses, $0.98. Estimated 
value of pauper labor in alms-houses, llY.gGC). Of paupers by reason of 
idiocy, the number was 969: while that from intemperance in themselves, 
or through others, was not less than 14,674. Number of public schools in 
this State, 1850, was 3,878 ; scholars in summer, 176,344; in winter schools, 
194,403. _ Male teachers, 2,442; female do., 5,985. Average expense each 
scholar in Massachusetts is nearly $8. Value of public school-houses in 
1848 was $2,750,000, of which amount $2,200,000 had been expended since 
1838. Criminal prosecutions in 1850 were 3,764, of which the convictions 
were 1,907. Of the banks in Massachusetts, there are 29 in Boston, and 97 
in various parts of the State ; cash capital, independent of other resources, 
$36,925,050; circulation, $17,005,826. The commerce and manufactures of 
Mass. have advanced 100 per cent., in the last ten years— ^w. Al. ; the im- 
portations more than doubled, and its tunnage has increased more than 60 
per cent. The wealth of Boston and its suburbs, in 1840, was $120,000,000 ; 
in 1850, it had increased to nearly $270,000,000. The annual value of the 
boots and shoes manufactured in 'Massachusetts is estimated at $18,000,000. 
The legislature which has adjourned was in session 139 days. The compen- 
sation having been increased last year from two dollars to three dollars per 
day, the expense of the present session has been much larger than that of 
any previous session. Last year the expense for mileage and attendance 
was as follows: Senate, $14,579; House, $112,106; total, $126,685. This 
year, Senate, 17,500 ; House, $161,603 ; total, $179,103. The number of acts 



7^$:: THE world's PROGRESS. 

passed by the legislature and signed by the Governor, is 488 ; number of re« 
solves, 89. Two bills were vetoed and failed to become laws, and one became 
a law in spite of the veto. 

MATTER, DIVISIBILITY OF. Many years ago, a curious calculation was 
made by Dr. Thomson, to show to what degree matter could be divided, and 
still be sensible to the eye. He dissolved a grain of nitrate of lead in 500,000 
grains of water, and passed through the solution a current of sulphuretted 
Jiydrogen, when the whole liquid became sensibly discolored. Now a grain 
■ of water may be regarded as being about equal to a drop of that liquid, and 
a drop may be easily spread out so as to cover a square inch of surface. 
But under an ordinary microscope, the millionth of a square inch may be 
distinguished by the eye. The water, therefore, could be divided into 
500,000,000,000 parts. But the lead in a grain of nitrate of lead weighs 0.62 
grain; an atom of lead accordingly cannot weigh more than l-310,000,000,000th 
of a grain; while the atom of sulphur, which in combination Avith the lead 
rendered it visible, could not weigh more than 1-2,01.5,000,000.000, that is 
the two-billionth part of a grain. But what is a billion, or rather, what 
conception can we form of such a quantity? "We may say that a billion is 
a million of millions, and can easily represent it thus : 1,000,000,000,000. 
But a schoolboy's calculation will show how entirely the mind is incapable of 
conceiving such numbers. If a person were able to count at the rate of 200 in a 
Uiinute, and to work without intermission for twelve hours in the day, he 
T^ouldtake, to count a billion, 6,944,444 days, or 19,025 years 319 days. But 
this may be nothing to the division of matter. There are living creatures so 
minute, that a hundred millions of them might be comprehended in the 
space of a cubic inch. But these creatures, until they are lost to the sense 
of sight, aided by the most powerful instruments, ai*e seen to possess organs 
fitted for collecting their food, and even capturing their prey. They are, 
- therefore, supplied with organs, and these organs consist of tissues nouiished 
by circulating fluids, which circulating fluids must consist of parts or atoms, 
if we please so to term them. In reckoning the size of such atoms, we must 
speak not of billions, but perchance of billions of billions. And what is a 
billion of billions ? The number is a quadrillion, and can be easily repre- 
sented thus: 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; and the same schoolbo3''s 
calculation may be employed to show that to count a quadrillion at the rate 
of 200 in a minute, would require all the inhabitants of the globe, supposing 
them to be a thousand millions, to count incessantly for 19,025,875 years, or 
for more than 3,000 times the period for which the human race has been 
supposed to be in existence. 

MEDICINE. The first medical school established in the United States, was 
commenced in Philadelphia in 1768 ; this was closed during the first war with 
Great Britain. First medical degrees conferred were by King's College, 
New York, 1769. Thatcher's "Brief Guide on Small Pox and Measles," 
Mass., 1677, was the first medical work published in this country. Inocula- 
tion for small pox introduced by Dr. Z. Boylston of Boston, 1677, having 
first experimented on his own son ; Dr. B. Van Beuren first practised inocu- 
lation in New York. The first recorded po.H-mortem examination in America 
was that of Gov. Sloughter, by Dr. Johannes Kutbyl and five other ph3'sicians 
of New York, in 1691 ; and the first medical meeting was held in New 
Brunswick, N. J., 1766. 

MESMERISM. In 1776, F. A. Mesmer of Germany first made public his doc- 
trine of a subtle fluid produced by planetary influence acting on the nervous 



ADDENDA. 



777 



system of the animal frame. Fi-anklin and Dr. Bailly exposed the futility of 
animal magnetism, which theory, however, has been lately revived, both in 
this country and Europe. — [See Spirit Rappings.] 

METHODISTS. The general " Book Concern" of this body was first established 
at Philadelphia in 1800; Ezekiel Cooper, Agent. It was subsequently I'e- 
moved to Ne"U^ York. The unfortunate dissension between the iS'orthern 
and Southern Methodist Conferences on the question of slavery was brought 
to trial in New York in May, 1851, and by decision of Judge Nelson, of L. 
S. Circuit Court, in Nov. of that year, judgment was given confirming the 
full right and title of the Southern Conference to their proportion of the 
profits of the General Book Concern, the value in 1845 being $150,000. Tiie 
case will be moved to the Superior Court. 

MILITIA FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Abstx'act of the United States Militia, from the Army Eegister for 1854. 



States and 
Territories.* 


For 
what 
year. 


General 
Officers. 


General 

Statx 
Officers. 


Field 

Officers, 

etc. 


Com- 
pany 
Officers. 


Total 
commis- 
sioned 
Officers. 


Non-commis- 
sioned Offi- 
cers, Musi- 
cians. Artili- 
cers, Privates. 


Aggre- 
gate. ! 


Maine, 


1S52 
18o3 
185.3 
1S4.S 
1852 
1S52 
1852 
1852 
1852 
1H27 
1838 
IS.iS 
1845 
1848 
1850 
1S45 
1851 
1851 
1833 
1840 
1852 
1845 
1852 
1832 
1451 
18 >2 
1844 
1843 
184T 
1853 
1851 
1853 
1852 


'"i-s" 

10 

12 

6 

2 
100 

"54" 

4 

22 

31 

28 

19 

39 

3 

82 

16 

15 

25 

43 

91 

30 

31 

30 

15 

45 

8 

15 

12 

2 

2 

3 


' ' '54' 
42 
51 
23 
13 
329 

"'53' 

8 

168 

65 

133 

96 

91 

14 

142 

81 

70 

79 

145 

217 

124 

110 

99 

3 

94 

29 

45 

9 

5 

'"io* 


"m 

27 

224 

53 

66 

1,600 

■■■71' 
544 

1,422 
657 
452 
624 
95 
775 
190 
392 
859 

1,165 
462 
401 
566 

1,297 
114 
790 
310 
248 

"'48' 

. 28 


"377' 

505 

801 

29 

213 

5,926 

864 

1,763 
4,974 
3,449 
2,024 
4,296 

5;;s 

1,883 

987 

348 

2,644 

3.517 

1,281 

2,2;;8 

2.154 

3,192 

232 

2,990 

762 

940 

"235' 
185 


* 'l',251 
584 

1,088 
111 
294 

7,955 

"'2i2 

447 

2,397 

6,492 

4,267 

2.591 

5,050 

620 

2,832 

1,274 

825 

3,607 

4,870 

2,051 

2,793 

2.861 

4,613 

414 

8,919 

1,109 

1,248 

21 

7 

285 

226 




56,024- 
33.576 

140,356 
23,915 
15,969 
54,391 

239,306 
81,984 i 
18,328 

9.229 1 
4 6*86 4 : 

12.5,121 : 
79,448 i 
55.2 9 
78,609 
12.122 
76.662 
53.23 ) 
36.084 
71.2.52 
88,979 

176,4-55 
64,669 
53,913 

170,-359 

89,565 

61,000 

17.1-37 

19,766 

■ 201,4OO 

2.0! 3 

2.821 

8,2 1 


N. Hampshire,. 
Massachusetts,. 

Vermont, 

Ehode Island,. . 
Connecticut,. .. 

New- York, 

New Jersey, . . . 
Peimsylvania, . 

Delaware, 

Maryland, 

Virginia, 

North Carolina, 
South Carolina, 

Georgia, 

Florida, 

Alabama, 

Louisiana, 

Mississippi, 

Tennessee, 

Kentucky, 

Ohio,.. .' 


82,325 
1.39,772 

22,827 

15,353 

54,097 

281,351 


1.3.1 16 

8,782 
44,467 

113,629 
75,181 
52,613 
7-3,649 
11,5::2 
7-3,330 
51,956 
35,259 
67,645 
84,109 

174,404 
61.906 
51,052 

165,741 
39.1.51 
57,031 
16,028 
18,-518 

201.379 
1.996 
2,536 
7,975 


Michigan, 

Indiana, 

Illinois, 

Wisconsin, 

Missouri, 

Ai-kansas, 

Texas, 

California, 

Minesota Ter.. . 
Utah Ter.,...'. . 
D. of Columbia, 

Total, 


1 758 i 


2,407 13,787. 1 


49,337 ' 66,289 1 


2,054,740 


2,259,r:37 



MILITARY ACADEMY, U. S, at West Point, continues to work successfully, 
and with constant progress. The course of studies has been extended to five 
years. The academical arrangements and progress of the elder cadets 



* No returns from Iowa, and the Territories of New Mexico, Oregon, and "Washington. 
88* 



778 

will not be disturbed by the change. Increased attention will be given to 
military engineering, reconnoisances, artillery, tlie tactics of special arras, 
and their subdivisions. An appropriation of $20,000 is recommended for 
commencing the erection of officers' quarters. A professorship of ethics, in- 
dependent of the chaplaincy, is recommended ; and the separation of the 
instruction in artillery and cavahy. An appropriation of $5,000, to com- 
plete the extension of the buildings occupied by the professors, is urged, 
together with an increase in the pay of the professors of French and drawing. 
The report of the Board of Visitors, dated June 22d, 1854, is highly com- 
mendatory of the condition of the institution. The board regard the exten- 
sion of the period of study as the only alternative of requiring a higher 
standard of qualification on entering the academy, which latter course would 
cut off fi'om its benefits the sons of that large and highl}'' respectable class 
of citizens who cannot command the means necessary to educate their chil- 
dren to that standard. An increase in the compensation of acting assistant 
professors is recommended, and, in an even more emphatic manner, an 
increase in the pay of cadets. For the latter, it is stated, such sum should be 
allowed as will place the cadet, "with proper economy, beyond the reach of 
want." A statement of the rank, pay, and emoluments of the officers, profes- 
sors, instructors, cadets, and employes at the academy, shows that five of the 
professors receive each the sum of $2,000 per annum, while the professors of 
■ drawing and French are in the annual receipt of only $1,500 dollars each. 
It is recommended that the pay of the last two be increased. 

MINES, Austrian. The last resource of the State, the mines of the Austrian 
Empire, will all probably soon be sold. The copper mines of Croatia were 
sold on the 31st of March, and the mines of Salzburg are now offered to the 
highest bidder. The mines of Hungary and Transylvania, which are more 
valuable, and j'ield a yearly income of about 1,500,000 florins, though no- 
toriously mal-administered, are not yet in the market. 

MINNESOTA. The first territorial legislatiu-e closes its session of sixty days 
Nov. 1, 1849. The census returns show the population of this territory in 
1850 to be — white, 6,038 ; colored, 39 ; total, 6,077. Farms in cultivation, 
157; manufactories producing annually $500 and upwards, 5. 

MISSISSIPPI. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River ; 
the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists; Marquette 
spells it " 3Iissoissippy ;" Hennepin ^' Meschasipi." Sape is river, running 
water; the prefix means "great," "biff." Population in 1850, 611,577, 
of whom 311,568 are slaves. The Mississippi legislature in the session 
of 1850 abolished the common law form of pleadings, for a system simi- 
lar to that of chancery or civil law, and appointed a special officer for 
making up the "Mississippi Reports," to the exclusion of all other reporters. 
These reports are in future to be printed by the State only. 

MONARCHY. Royalty in its origin was almost every where elective. In her 
long wars against the Turks, Europe was defended by three elective mon- 
archies — Venice, Hungary, and Poland — classing Venice where she properly 
belongs, among aristocratical elective monarchies. The partizans of heredi- 
tary monarchy assert that the tranquil order of succession depends upon the 
son's succeeding the father in the regular order of descent. But on com- 
pai'ing the hereditary monarchy of France with the elective empire of Ger- 
many, we find in five centuries sixty-three years of wars of successive, for 
forty-three of elective; and if we were to add to the former all the wars that 
grew out of questions of succession, the number would be greatly increased. 



I 



ADDENDA. 779 

In the same period, the right of succession gave France thirty years of a 
deranged king, and ninety-two of minorities. 

MOON, CoiiPosiTio>f OF. Every object on the surface of the moon of the 
hight of one hundred feet is distinctly seen through Lord Rosse's telescope. 
On its surface are craters of extinct volcanoes, rocks, and masses of stone 
almost innumerable. But there are no signs of habitations such as ours — no 
vestige of architectural remains, to show that the moon is, or ever was, in- 
habited by a race of mortals similar to ourselves. No water is visible, no 
sea, no river — all seems desolate. 

MORMONS. The number of Mormons in England and United States, early in 
1851, was estimated at 300,000. Twenty-five hundred left the former 
country for Deseret in the spring of that year. In April, 1851, their elders 
and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and 
Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses ; also at Paris. Their 
celebrated "Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was 
really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of 
some ancient mounds in Ashtabula co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been 
borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it, and subsequently printed 
the same. A copy of this " Bible" in the English, French, and Danish lan- 
guages, was intended for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, 1851. 

MORTALITY. According to the tables of mortality for the year 1844, in Eng. 
land, the number of deaths was 1 in 45 ; in Massachusetts, 1 in 55. By the 
tables for the year 1851, the number of deaths in England was 1 in 46 ; in 
Massachusetts, 1 in 52. Consumption was as prevalent in England as in thl,< 
country; and apoplexy, as might well be supposed, was much more common 
— the number of deaths by that disease in a population of 10,000 being in 
England 162, in Massachusetts 96. 

TABLE SHOWING THE DIMINUTION OF MORTALITY IN COUNTRIES. 

Deaths in England, in 1690, 1 in 33 in 1S4S, 1 in 47 

" France, in 1776, 1 in 25.^ in 1S4S, 1 in 42 

" Germany, in 17S8, 1 in 82 in 1S4S, 1 in 40 

" Sweden, in 1760, 1 in 34 in 1S4S. 1 in 41 

" Konian States, in 1767, 1 in 21^ in 1829, 1 in 28 

DIMINUTION OF MORTALITY IN CITIES. 

Deaths in London,.. in 1690, 1 in 24 in 1844, 1 in 44 

" Paris, in 1650, 1 in 25 in 1829. I in 32 

" Berlin, in 1755, 1 in 28 in 1827, 1 in 34 

" Vienna, in 1750, 1 in 20 in 1S29, 1 in 25 

" Koine, in 1770, 1 in 21 in 1823, 1 in 31 

" Geneva, in 1560, 1 in 18 in 1821, 1 in 40 

MOUNTAINS, FORMATION OF. Prof. Gorini of the University of Lodi, in 
Oct., 1851, by a remarkable process, illustrated the formation of mountains 
by melting a secret composition, and allowing it gradually to consolidate, 
during which process portions continue to ooze up in gradual elevations, 
forming ranges and chains of hills exactly corresponding in shape with those 
which are found on tlie earth. 

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, N. Y. Instituted 1826; number of 
members originally limited to 35, but now increased to 50. 

NAVAL ACADEMY, U. S., at Annapolis. The Naval Academy has, during 
the 3'ear 1854, continued to present to the country practical evidence of the 
wisdom and foresight of its projector. Under the vigilant superintendence of 
Commander Goldsborough and liis worthy assistants, the strictest discipline 
has been enforced, to the mai'ked benefit of this institution. The plan of 



780 THE world's progress. 

education is now thorough, and the training of the youth admirable. Tlie 
cruise in the practice ship is of immeasurable advantage in imparting, at an 
early age, practical knowledge of seamanship. During the last summer, the 
Preble, with 31 young midshipmen, visited Portsmouth and Plymouth in 
England, and Brest and Cherbourg in France, thereby affording them an op- 
portunity of examining the naval establishments at those points. The con- 
tract has been nxade for the erection of a machine-shop at Annapolis, \mder 
the act of Congress authorizing it, and I shall avail myself of the first oppor- 
tunity when the service will permit, to substitute a steamer for the sloop now 
used as a practice ship. The number of students now at the Academy is 160. 

N"AVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

OFFICEK8. 

Captains, 08 

Commanders, 97 

Lieutenants, 327 

Surgeons, 69 

Passed Assistant Surgeons, . . 37 

Assistant Surgeons, .... 43 

Pur.sers, 64 

Chaplains, 24 

Professors of Mathematics, . . 12 

Masters in the line of promotion, . 14 
Passed Midshipmen, . . . .194 

Midshipmen, 68 

Acting Midshipmen, .... 137 



Ships of the Line, 
Frigates, . 
Sloops-of-war, 
Brigs, 
Schooner, 
Steam Frigates, 

Do. do. building, 
Steamers, . 
Store-ships, . 
Permanent Receiving Vessels, 

Total Number of Vessels, 



11 
13 
20 
4 
1 
6 
6 
9 
7 
2 

79 



Total, 1,154 

The estimates for the support of the navy and marine coi'ps for the year end- 
ing June 30, 1856, and for all objects coming under the control of this de- 
partment, are, in the aggregate, $16,241,931.53. 

N IVY, BRITISH. The naval force of the United Kingdom for 1850, comprised 
six hundred and seventy-one ships of war, either in ordinary or commission, 
varying from two to one hundred and twenty guns each ; of this number 
one hundred and seventy-eight are armed steamers, of one hundred to three 
hundred horse-power engines, constructed on the most approved principles 
for active sea service. This fleet, the largest of any maritime power on the 
globe, employs in time of peace 35,000 to 50,000 able-bodied seamen, 2,000 
strong lads, and 13,000 royal marines. 

NEW ENGLAND. " In 1630 the whole of New England contained but 300 in- 
habitants, which, in a century afterwards had increased to 160,000, and may 
at this day be given at nearly three millions. The capital of New England, 
in 1720, contained 12,000 inhabitants; in 1820, 43,000; in 1830, 78,000; and 
in 1850, 135,000. Boston, in 1789, was proud of two stage coaches, which 
employed twelve horses; she was prouder still in 1800, of twenty-five stage 
coaches, which employed one hundred horses; in 1847, these twenty-five 
coaches, had risen into two hundred and fifty coaches and omnibuses, em- 
ploying one thousand six hundred horses, Avithout taking into account seven 
railwaj^s, which provide, daily, accommodation for 7,000 passengers. The 
fii'st newspaper published in the colonies, was issued in 1704, in this same 
city of Boston, and a third newspaper published in the same town, in 1721, 
under the title of the New England Courant, could not maintain itself, though 
it had very warm advocates, being supported by the Hell-fire Club ; at this 
moment there are in Boston sixteen daily newspapers, with a circulation of 
36,000 copies, and fifty weekly newspapers, with a circulation of 223,000 — 
to say nothing of semi-weekly papers, and semi-monthly papers, and 
montlily, quarterly, and annxial publications. — Extract from Sir H. Bulwer^t 
Speech before W. Eng. Society, Bee. 22, 1860. 



ADDENDA. 



78.1 



KEW HAMPSHIRE. The returns of the Ttli census (1850) show a population 
of 317,997; in 1840 i-t Avas 284,574; gain in ten years, 33,423: being an 
increase of nearly 12 per cent. 



Number of School Districts reported, . 
" Scholars in winter schools, , 

" " summer " 

Whole amount raised fur District Schools, 

Increase above preceding year. 



1850. 

2,167 

T7,8il6 

61.498 

$174,517.66 

15,087.28 



1851. 

2,222 

78,301 

58,328 

$179,(165 46 

4,547.80 



Number of Banks in K Hampshire is 22 ; cash capital independent of other 
resources, $2,501,000; circulation $2,012,837. 

N'EW JERSEY. The total free population of this State, according to the 7th 
census, (1850,) was 488,552, viz., 466,283 white, and 22,269 colored ; of the old 
slave population but 119 remaining. The number of children receiving 
public instruction in 1851 was 75,245, at the average cost per quarter of $2.10 
each pupil. The appropriations and receipts "for school purposes was 
$152,578.62 ; amount expended $99,560.13 ; whole available school fund was 
$377,929.85. Transit duties levied upon merchandise and passengers, for 
the year 1850, and paid into the State Treasury, was $75,511, viz. :— Dela- 
ware and Raritan Canal, $20,289; Camden and Amboy Railroad and Trans 
portation Co., $41,421 ; New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Co., 
$13,261. 

NEWSPAPERS IN THE United States. — (Compiled by J. R. Roche, Cen- 
sus Office.) The statistics of the newspaper press forni an interesting featui-e 
in the returns of the 7th census. It appears that the whole number of 
newspapers and periodicals in the United States, on the 1st June, 1850, 
amounted to 2,800. Of these, 2,494 were fully returned, 234 had all the 
facts excepting circulation given, and 72 are estimated for California, the 
territories, and those that may have been omitted by the Assistant Marshal. 
From calculations made on the statistics returned, and estimates where they 
have been omitted, it appears that the aggregate circulation of those 2,800 
papers and periodicals is about 5,000,000, and that the entire number of 
copies printed annually in the United States, amounts to 422,660,000. The 
following table will show the number of daily, weekly, monthl}-, and other 
issues, with the average circulation of each class : 



Class, 



Dailies, 

Tri-weeklies, . . . 
Semi-weeldies, . . 

Weelclies, , 

Semi-monthlies, 

Monthlies, 

Quarterlies, 



Total,. 







Number of 


Number. 


Circulation. 


copies printed 
annually. 


350 


750,000 


235,0(JO,000 


150 


75,000 


11,700,000 


125 


80,000 


8,320,000 


2,000 


2,875,000 


149,500,000 


50 


300,000 


7,300,000 


100 


900,000 


10,800,000 


25 


20,000 


80,000 


2,800 


5,000,000 


422,700,000 



424 papers are issued in the New England States, 876 in the Middle States, 
716 in the Southern States, and 784 in the Western States. The average 
circulation of papers in the United States, 1,785. There is one publication 
for every 7,161 free inhabitants in the United States and territories. 2,000 
are published in the free, and 800 in the slave States. About 850 are Wliig; 
750 Opposition; 70 Freesoil or Anti-slavery; 20 Agricultural; 40 Tempe- 
rance; 200 Religious ; and 870 neutral and miscellaneous. New York State 
publishes 443 papers ; Pennsylvania, 328 ; Massachusetts, 212; and Ohio, 300. 



782 



THE world's progress. 



England, — London Morning Papers : 



Names. 


Circulation. J 


1844. 


1854. 


The Times, 


22,181 
4,551 


51.648 
7,795 
4,436 
8.859 
2;910 
2,435 


Morninsc Advertiser, 


Daily News, 


Morning Herald, 


5,099 
4,103 
6,511 


Morning Post, 


Morning Chronicle, 



The London Illustrated News, in 1855, rose to a weekly circulation of 115,000. 
Of the newspapers published in the United Kingdom, 159 are issued in 
London; 222 in the English provinces; 110 in Scotland; and 102 in Ire- 
land. The duty paid for the different advertisements in these, in 1850, was 
£163,038! This duty was abolished in 1855. 

Europe, Asia, etc.— In the Austrian dominions it appears tliere are but 10 
newspapers; 24 in Spain; 20 in Portugal; 30 in Asia; 14 in Africa (?); 65 
in Belgium; 85 in Denmark; 90 in Russia and Poland ; 300 in Prussia; and 
320 in other Germanic States. In July, 1851, Burgess, an Englishman, 
issued the first number of a Persian Journal, with all the features of a 
general ncAvspaper, under the patronage of the prime minister of that 
country. In Constantinople there appear two Turkish weekly papers — the 
Takoini Wakai, or "Official Table of Events," and the Jeridei Havadis, or 
"Table of News." Four journals are published in the French language, 
four are Italian, one Greek^ one Armenian, and one Bulgarian. Including 
Servia, the Danubian Principalities and Egypt, there are thirty-three peri- 
odicals in the Turkish Empire — most of them weekly, some semi-weekly, 
none daily. The origmator of Turkish journalism was Alexander Blacque, a 
Frenchman of great talent, who, in 1825, founded the Spectateur de V Orient, 
at Smyrna, and defended the cause and interest of Turkey against the pub- 
lications of the Greek and Philhellene press of Europe, with consummate 
ability. It was the first regular journal in Turkey. Formerl}^, that is to 
say, in 1711, and again in 1795, the French Embassadors publislied Fi-ench 
short-lived' journals in the Embassadorial Palace at Constantinople, which 
remained without effect. Blacque's editorials were so powerful, that the 
Greeks dreaded them more than the Turkish irregulars. He was poisoned 
in 1836, either by Russians or hy Greeks, on his way to Fi'ance — sent thither 
by Sultan Mahmoud, who was his greatest patron, on a confidential mis- 
sion to Louis Philippe. 

Religious. — The number and circulation of English religious papers bear no 
comparison with those of the United States. The Church of England has 
two papers: the Record, published twice a week, with a circulation of 3,379 
each number ; and the J^cclesiasticcd Gazette, weekl^r^ with a circulation of 
2,7o0. The Baptists have no paper, but they patronize the jiapers of the 
Independent denomination. These are — the Patriot, issued twice a week, 
with 1,268 subscribei'S ; the British Banner, with a weekly circulation of 
3,888; and the Nonconforrnist, with a weekly circulation of 3,211. The 
Weslej'an Conference has only one paper, the Watchman, with a subscription 
list of between 3,000 and 4,000. The Wesleyan Times^, the organ of the 
agitators, is- rapidly declining, its circulation having diminished one-half 
since the year 1851. 
NEW YORK CITY, Chinese in. Few of our citizens can have failed to observe 
the sudden increase of Chinese emigration to our shores during the last three 
or four 3^ears. Up to that time, Joim Chinaman was quite a curiosity even 
in our Atlantic cities ; and we can remember when half a dozen Celestials 
were esteemed a great accession to the curiosity department of Barnum's 



ADDEKDA. 



783 



Museum. The arrival of the Chisie^r jn.;k. of C'aptle Garden memory, was 
the event of a season, and probably caused as much commotion in the me- 
tropolis as did the visit of the great Magyar himself. Subsequently nume- 
rous companies of Chinese jugglers, dancers, and actors appeared among us; 
and though generally it was appai-ent that American cupidity had imported 
these Celestial vagabonds, yet the late increase of general emigration proves 
conclusively that there is some motive beyond this whfch guides and actuates 
the exodus of this singular people. The number of Chinese at present in this 
city is about 1,000, or perhaps 1,500. The greatest part of these live in 
Gold-st. and Cherry, near Pearl-st. 

CEfisus OF 1855 ; The census of 1855, (not yet completed,) will show a popu- 
lation of about 750,000; or, including Brooklyn, Williamsburg, and other 
suburbs, properly belonging to New York, the number will reach about 
960,000. In 1851, New York city contained 517,849 inhabitants: showing 
an increase of 205,000, or about 66 per cent, in ten years. The manufac- 
turing capital employed in this cit}-, annually, according to the census of 
1850, was $105,218,808. Number of children in the public and ward schools 
in 1850, was 105,378. 

Finances. — Appropriations, expenditures, and receipts of City Government, 
from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1864: 

Api)ropriations. Expenditures. 

Alms-House, $552,000.00 $552,000.00 

Total, 4,238,582.02 3,936,075.65 

Appropriations, expenditures, and receipts on trust and special accounts, from 

Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1854 : 

Appropriations. Expenditures. 

Total, $6,988,590.77 $6,248,342.02 

Receipts from all sources: 

.$fi7,S90.39 

$5,061,472.80 

$4,611,811.32 



Total from City Government accounts. 

Trust accounts, 

Taxes and loans, . . 



Entire Keceipts, except Sinking Fund, . 
Internal Communication. — Omnibuses : 



9,744,310.58 



Lines. 



New York Cont^olidated Stage Co., . . . 

Knickerbocker Stage Co., 

Chelsea Line, 

Telegraph and Transfer Line, 

EastBroadway Line, 

Bowery and Grand-st. Con. Stage Co., 

Eed Bird Line, 

Houston-st. Line, 

Courtlandt-st. Line, 

Siiuth-st, Dry Dock, and Houston-st, 

Empire and Waverly Lines, 

Bull's Head Line, 

Croton Line, 

Madison-av. Line, 

Bowerj^ Fourth-av., and W. 23d-st. L 
Green wich-st. and Tenth-av. Line, . . 
Manhattanville and High-Bridge Line, 

Avenue A Line, 

Bowery and First-av. Line, 

Third-av. Railroad Line, 

Tenth-av. Line, 



Total, 



Stages. 



189 
56 
20 
36 
30 
30 
21 
24 
21 
11 
40 
20 
32 
25 
18 
16 
20 
16 
18 
9 
10 



Horses. Drivers. 



1,295 
856 
230 
252 
200 
200 
147 
150 
140 
80 
250 
116 
200 
180 
125 
112 
150 
108 
120 
66 
69 



4,546 



270 
56 
40 
85 
85 
40 
25 
30 
25 
12 
45 
26 
40 
37 
30 
20 
25 
25 
25 
9 
15 



865 



Mechan- 
ics. 

iss" 

80 
36 
84 
28 
63 
20 
25 
24 
15 
85 
25 
25 
27 
17 
15 
20 
20 
13 
10 



466 



Average 

daily 
receipts. 

$1,750 

425 

300 

250 

815 

325 

147 

200 

168 
80 

280 

170 

287 
Unknown. 

255 

130 

200 

154 

189 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 



5,625* 



Exclusive of Madison-avenue, Third-avenue Eailroad, and Tenth-avenue Lines. 



784 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



City Railroads : That some idea may be formed of the extent of the rail- 
road business in New Yorlf, in comparison with the stage business, we sub- 
join the principal statistics: 



Eoads. 


Cars. 


Conductors. 


Drivers. 


Horses. 


Mechanics. 


Average 
daily rec'ts. 


Harlem Railroad, 

Sixtli-av. " 

Eightli-av. " 

Third-av. " 

Second-av. " 

Total, 


29 
30 
40 
50 
29 


29 
60 
65 
125 
45 


58 
60 
65 
100 
90 


130 

462 
450 
575 
850 


35 
50 
35 
66 
60 


$ 

250 
750 
850 
850 
600 


178 


324 


373 


1,987 


246 


3,300 









NEW" YORK CITY — Public Improvements during the past Four Years. A 
statement made by Mr. A. T. Lawrence, the Street Commissioner, and pre- 
sented to the Common Council at the final meeting, shows the following 
aggregate of the city improvements made and paid by assessments from 
the year 1851 to 1854 inclusive: 





1851. 


1852. 


1853. 


1854, I 




Cost. 




Cost. 




Cost. 


If 


Cost. 


Streets opened, . . . 
Streets graded, etc. 
Flagging sidewalks 

Fencing lots 

Public sewers 

Crosswalks 

Park i-egulated 

Park opened 

Filling lots (loads). 
Lamps and Posts 

(number) 

Wells and Pumps 

(number) 

Public Cisterns 

(number) 


27.794 

38,277 

12,236 

895 

8,660 

233 

275 

231 

20 

2 


$46,720 88 

127,034 97 

1,543 66 

312 10 

70,918 39 

94 65 

34,277 30 

"36 23 

2,032 97 

6,448 04 

1,485 27 


56,502 
34,633 
16,t^63 

1,057 

39,820 

216 

15 

5 


$152,983 38 

117,028 0(1 

1,763 01 

3,626 36 

2,135 32 

2,998 82 
4,636 39 
8,687 45 


42,652 

5,830 
3,302 

419 

29 

6 


$73,543 85 
148,859 71 

22,284 44 
1,110 83 

54.239 45 

8,636 51 

11,397 40 

4,531 64 


77,265 
20,316 

7.051 
615 

61,798 

279 

34 

3 


$144,774 02 

330,318 69 

2,331 30 

38,142 56 

261 77 

5,046 06 

3,310 71 

15,907 40 

2,191 17 


Total 




290,904 41 


288,748 73 


324703 83 


597,233 63 



NEW MEXICO. This Territory, according to the census returns, 1850, has a 
•white population of 61,632; colored, 17. Farms in cultivation, 3,750; manu- 
factories producing annually $500 and upwards, 20. 

NINEVEH LENS AND GLASS. Sir David Brewster has described to the 
British Association, an object of so incredible a nature that nothing short of 
the strongest evidence was necessary to render the statement at all probable: 
— it was no less than the finding in the treasure-house at Nineveli of a rock- 
crystal lens, where it had for centuries lain entombed in the ruins of that 
once magnificent city. It was found in company with several bronzes and 
other objects of value. He had examined the lens with the greatest care, and 
taken its several measurements. It was not entirely circular in its aperture, _ 
being 1 6-lOths inches in its longer diameter, and 1 4-lOths inches in its 
shorter. Its general form was that of a plano-concave lens, the plane side 
having been formed of one of the original fades of the six-sided ci-ystal quartz, 
as he had ascertained by its action on polarized light — this wa's badly pol- 
ished and scratched. The convex face of the lens had not been ground in a 



ADDEND,\. 785- 

disli-sliaped tool in the manner in which lenses are now formed, but was 
shaped on a lapidary's wheel, or in some such manner. Hence it was un- 
equally thick, but its exti^eme thickness was 2-lOths of an inch, its focal length 
being 4^ inches. It had twelve remains of cavities which had originnlly 
contained liquids or condensed gases; but ten of those had been opened, 
probably in the rough handling whieh it had received in the act of being 
ground; most of them, therefore, had discharged their gaseous contents. Sir 
David concluded by assigning reasons why this could not be looked on as an 
ornament, but a true optical lens. Sir David then exhibited specimens of tiie 
decomposed glass found in the same ruins. The surface of this was covered 
with irridescent spots more brilliant in their colors than Peacock copper-oi'e. 
Sir David stated that he had several years since explained how this process 
of decomposition proceeded, on the occasion of having found a piece of de- 
composed glass at St. Leonard's. It had contained manganese, which hnd 
separated from the silex of the glass, at central spots round which circles of 
most minute crystals of true quartz had arranged themselves ; bounded by 
irregular jagged circles of manganese, these being arranged in several con- 
centric I'ings. When this process reached a certain depth in the glass it 
spread off laterally, driving the glass into very thin layers, and new centers 
seemed to form at certain distances, and thus the process extended. 

NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The Investigator and Enterprise, Sir James Pvoss's 
vessels, arrive in London, on their return from their fruitless Arctic Expe- 
dition, Nov. 11, 1849. Another expedition, under Captains Coliinson and 
McClure, sails from Woolwich, Jan. 11, 1850. Another, under Capt, Penny 
and Capt. Stewart, from Peterhead, April 13, 1850. Another imder Capt. 
Austin, 4 vessels from Greenhithe, May 4, 1850. Another, under Sir John 
Ross, from Lochyran, May 24, 1850. Oct. 7, 1853, Captain Inglefield of the 
Phoenix, arrives at the Admiralty from the Arctic regions, with the news of 
the discovery of the Northwest Passage, by Captain McClure of the Investi- 
gator, Oct. 26, 1850. 

NORTH SEA, Tides, Beds, and Coasts of. Mr. John Murray, in a paper 
on this inquiry, commences by remarking that great similarity of outline 
' pervades the western shores of Ireland, Scotland, and Norway ; he then 
observes that the great Atlantic flood-tide wave, having traversed the 
shores of the former countries, strikes with great fury the Norwegian coast 
between the Lafoden Isles and Stadland, one portion proceeding to the 
north, while the other is deflected to the south ; Avhich last has scooped out 
along the coast, as far as the sleeve at the mouth of the Baltic, a long chan- 
nel from 100 to 200 fathoms in depth, almost close in shore, and varying 
from 50 to 100 miles in width. After describing his method of contouring 
and coloring the Admiralty chart of the North Sea, he traces the course of 
the tide-wave among the Orkney and Shetland Islands, along the eastern 
shores of Scotland and England to the Straits of Dover, and along the west- 
ern shores of Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands, to the same point. 
He then remarks that the detritus arising from the continued wasting away 
of nearly the whole line of the eastern coasts of Scotland and England, caused by 
the action of the flood-tide, is earrried by it, and at the present day finds a rest- 
ing-place in the North Sea; and that this filling process is increased by the sand, 
shnigle, and other matter brought through the Straits of Dover by the other 
branch of the Atlantic flood-tide. Hence, he remarks, the gradual shoaling 
of this sea, and the formation of its numerous sand-banks ; the silting np the 
mouths of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt; the formation of the nu- 
merous islands on the coast of Holland, that country itself, and much of 
Belgium ; the deposits at the mouth of the Baltic, the islands in the Catte- 



786 THE world's progress. 

gat, and indeed the whole country of Sleswig, Denmark, and Jutland. The 
author then takes a vieAv of the tides, and their effects upon the Baltic and 
its shores, before the course of the tide-wave was checked by these shoals 
and low lands. He considers that, previous to these great changes, the 
flood-tide entei:ing the North Sea between JSTorway and Scotland, would 
make directly towards the German coast, and necessarily heap up the 
waters iu the Baltic considerably above their present level ; and that a 
great part of Finland, Rxissia, and Prussia bordering upon that sea, would 
thus every twelve hours be under water, in the same way as the waters now 
rise in the Bay of Fund}-, at Chepstow, and other places, much above their 
ordinaiy level in the open sea ; that the current outward, on the receding 
of the tide which these accumulated waters would occasion, combined with 
the rivers which fall into the Baltic, when checked by the following flood- 
tide, would cause deposits in the form of a bar tailing towards Sweden ; and 
that an increase to these deposits would form shoals, drifts, and islands, and 
eventually a long sand-bank in outline, like the coimtry of Denmark. He 
further considers that the tide being by these means prevented from enter- 
ing the Baltic, may account for the subsidence of the waters of the Gulf of 
Bothnia better than can the upheaval of the northern part of Scandanavia. 
The author then remarks that the great shoal of the North Sea is the 
Dogger Bank, and that its peculiar form is produced by the meeting of the 
cotidal waves, of which he traces the coui^se. After bearing testimony to the 
value of the Admiralty chart of the southern portion of the North Sea, made 
under the direction of the late Captain Hewitt, he reverts to the importance 
of contouring such maps in order to obtain something like a correct notion 
of the bottom of the sea ; and in conclusion expresses a hope that the Admi- 
ralty will be induced to continue the survey of the North Sea, so well begun 
by Captain Hewitt. — Proceedings of the Royal Society. 

OCCUPATIONS OF PEOPLE m the United States and Great Britain. The 
number of persons in the United States engaged in commerce, trade, and 
manufactures, is 1,596,265; agriculture, 2,400,583; government offices, 
24,966. In Great Britain, engaged in commerce, trade, and manufactures, 
3,092,781; agriculture, 1,490,785; government offices, 16,865. 

OCEANS. Edrisi, the Nubian, writing in the 12th centur}'', of the Atlantic, 
says : " There is no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters, or if 
they have done so, keep along its coasts, fearful of departing from them." 
— Irving's Columbus. Lieut. Goldsborough, (U. S. ship Saratoga,) in Dec, 
1850, found soundings in the Atlantic 128° 21' south, at 3^ miles; but Sir 
James Ross in 1848, in lat. 15° 3' south, long. 26° 14', run out 4,600 fathoms, 
or nearly 5^ miles without finding a bottom ; this appears to be the greatest 
depth satisfactorily obtained. In May, 1851, Lieut, llodgers, U. S. Navy, in 
Gulf Stream, 30 miles S. W. from Key West, sounded at 730 fathoms ; but at 
another point at a depth of 3,000, the line was cut off, supposed by a sword- 
fish. The entire surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions of square 
miles, the Pacific covering 78 millions, the Atlantic 25 millions, and the 
Mediterranean one million. The waters of the Mediterranean and the Red 
Sea are exactly on a level. Mr. Stephenson, (Brit. Ass., 1850,) from actual 
experiment, found the force of the waves is 1-^ tun per square foot, in the 
German Ocean ; and nearly double that force in the waves of the Atlantic. 
Dr. Scoresb}' (Brit. Ass., 1850) stated the hight of the waves of the Atlantic, 
from the trough to the crest, to be 43 feet, and their average velocity a 
fraction over 32 miles an hour; thus confirming Mr. Scott Russel's observa- 
tions in 1845. 



i 



ADDENDA. ^QO- 

^^f t?f ^^"^.^J^- ^^'^' achievements on sea quietly and ffraanallv ejected hv 

sT ucted at th 8 offit f„, H t, r '"" °°'""'' ''^^ '^">"' """ >""'« been con- 
to H.Ih.I, '"'*'°*'=<' f» tlie Atlantic ocean, would produce an annual savina- 

(iioO.OOO,) and for British commerce in all seas of S1 nun nnn „ ,™. -i ■ 
estimate was based on thecondition of shortening theTotalonlfon; ten T 

^^hp^lh-S^n J' ,?^^.^f,^'"TY OF, WITH THE AuRORA BoREALis. As Hiaffnets emit 

oTv 5 • 1 . ^ '. -^'f^' ' '^ ^^'' ^"^•"^' ^^'"^^^ i« ^ ^^«st magnet, ^em . s 
Odjlic hg-ht; which, m consequence of the great size and eiTornous power 

Dor el-r Tt '; "'i u "^^ ''^'-^^ ^^ ascertain. This is not a mere h>^ 

po , esis._ It IS supported by a series of the most beautiful experiments 

I^roorf^^^^^^^^^ ^<>^^'«^-ted a lar^e h-on globe 

two oi three feet m diameter, into a powerful temporary magtet by causing 
an electric cun-ent to traverse a wire coiled round a bar^^oS passing" on? 

abtlu'te^: dal'';: '""''T ''^'f " '''' ^^^^^ ^'^^ ^^P-^^^ in tfe ti^'i an 
ausoiutely daik room the sensitives saw the Odylic light in the most ex- 
quisite beauty, and with all the peculiar characteristics^f the avLm bore- 

light'mo,^"blue"aTH;'"^'t"' ^' '""''^ ^""'^ ^PP--^ ^ ^^i^<^^ 
bf ^^h nil tLV Y'^^^^^'n^ ^'"^ ^* ^^'^ southward pole, but at 

be owards whir'' "" ^T'' ?' 'V"''' ^^^ '''^'^''^ ^T '^ l"-i"Ous 
De T, to waidb which, on or close above the surface of the splei-e lines of 
hgl t constantly streamed from the polar circles. In the polar Circles as 
well as m the streaming lines, the colors were arranged so Xt red pre 
dominated in one quarter, the south, blue in the opposite and ye ow in afe 

Odvi"^-'P^^''^'' '' ^'' ^'""^^ ""' '^'' ^^--^^ «f ^^^or, white \;^nd rail 1 e 
Odjdicrainbows, a narrow stripe of red appeared neLr the gray at the e d 

matV'^f 'TiZT^'"''^ J'^ ^''"-^'i ""'^ ^^ ^'^-^ --^ Laiitiful e^nfir 
mation ot bn Dav d Brewster's analysis of the spectrum. The delicate 

coToiTt^h "\r' '^"'^^^^ '^^'^^'' P''''^ ^y ^"^^^^^^le gradations from ot: 
color to the other, so that any two contiguous lines appeared to ha ™ th^ 
same color yet on looking a little farther°on, the color^grldual y c aLed 
bellow"' ' ^\"^' '^ f^' ^'"^"^^^ ^^^^^ '^PP^-^^ i" theifordeiVil orange' 

he Jaf But tt' n"^'^'' r'''' "".^ ^"^' '' ^'' '''' ^-'^11 ^-^ stHpe fd 
tlie gia.v But the passage from red to orange, or from oi-ano-e to ye low 

etc was not sudden, but slow and gradual, so that all the Interm^ iT^ 

tin s were seen. Nor was this all, for in the air, above each pole % pea,td 

otir^n n'''''^ri!'r^'^,"^.^''s'^^' ^^^-^ ^lue at the north wm•d,^Ze4i 
at the southward, but exhibiting also all the colors, and sending towards 
the equator splendid streamers of many-colored light dancing and hZTuT 
lengthening and shortening, just as the finest northern streanfeis do o^ h^^ 
del gjited eye of the observer. I cannot here enter into a full des^ript on 

^^Z"'^!^'^-^''''''-'^' ^''' -'-M^roduced; but I may recorcfn (C - 
vict.on that this experiment gives to that theory which regards the aurom 

othei "thSo f of'thT't '' P^^^^^b^lit/ f-' g-^ter than 'attaches to any 
othei theory of that phenomenon. I may observe also, that the aurora 



788 THE world's progress. 

does not cease to be a magnetic phenomenon : and that it should affect the 
needle is to be expected, since, in magnets, Odvlic influence and Odylie 
light are found associated with the ferro-magnetic influence. 

OHIO. The total population of this State ia 1850, was 1,980,408 , v^iz., white, 
1,956,000; colored, 24,300. Farms in cultivation, 143,887; manufacturing 
establishments producing annually over $500, 10,550 ; houses, 336,098. — 
Censrcs Returns. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 
bushels. April, 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white 
settlers entered Ohio. 

PAL^ONTOLOG-Y. Dr. Guido Sandberger has read to the German Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, a communication respecting "Tiie 
Nature and importance of Paleontology," After stating that the pe- 
riod in which we live — viz., since the creation of man — is but a small portion 
of the history of the development of our earth, he called attention to the 
science of Palseontology, as that branch of natural history which alone 
affords any mixed chronology respecting the long chain of events which took 
place on our planet before the existence of the human race. A science of 
recent date, it owes its importance to the progress which it has made during 
the last ten years. But it has many difficulties to contend Avith ; above all, 
it requires a knowledge of ph^'sics and of chemistry. Physical science 
may indeed be called the universal natural science ; zoology, botany, mi- 
neralogy, geology, and cosmology, all depend upon ph3'sics as the funda- 
mental science. The task of palaeontology is to make us acquainted with 
the animal and vegetable life of a former world. It may be called the 
zoology and botany of pre-existing organisms. But as we have been forced 
to separate chemistry from ph^^sics, we must not confound pure Palaeontology 
* with zoology and botany. However close the connection may remain, 
Palaeontology as a simple independent science occupies an intermediate po- 
sition in the natural history series of geology, mineralogy, botany and 
zoology. But looking further into the question, strict palaeontological in- 
quiry must examine internal and external structure, the form of their organs 
and the typical general habitus ; secondly, it must investigate the vital 
functions dependent on these organs, and their peculiar combination, the 
history of their development, and how they became what they now are ; 
thirdly, it must inquire into their habitat, their extension, and their natural 
conditions. The author observed, that although it might be difficult to 
answer many of these questions with regard to now-living animals and 
plants, palseontological inquiry could only gain by endeavoring to solve all 
those points which cannot be ovei'looked in the accurate investigation of the 
animals and plants of the present world. After pointing out the other du- 
ties of Palaeontology, and sketching the histoi-y of the science from the pe- 
riod when its phenomena were explained by such mysterious terms as Iuhxis 
naturcR, nixiis formatiuus, vis 2^lci^tica, etc., he concluded by observing that 
the study of the oldest fossiliferous deposits, the palaeozoic formation, Avas 
now everywhere most actively carried on, and that the difficulties attending 
it were proportion ably great; it possessed, nevertheless, a peculiar charm, 
inasmuch as it dealt witli the first creatures which inhabited our planet, and 
to a certain degree with the origin of organic life on the earth, and at- 
tempted to unravel the organization of the oldest forms of life. In this 
respect, the Rhine provinces, a great portion of Nassau, the Eifel, and West- 
phalia, contributed no small contingent to the fauna and floi-a of the palaeo- 
zoic age. He concluded with the'remark of Alexander von Humboldt, re- 
specting the importance of the science : " Palaeontological researches have. 



ADDENDA. 



789 



j»s with an animating breath, given grace and variety to the stiidy of the 
solid structures of the earth." 

Pat^'ER, Manufacture of, Messrs. Persse and Brooks, of New York, have re- 
cently finished and put in operation at Windsor Locks, Conn., a new paper- 
oiill (the Pacitio), 300 feet long, 42 wide, two stories high besides t]^e 
basement, built in eighteen months, at a cost of about .$200,000. In this and 
their old mill (the Anclior), which is of about half the capacity of the ncAV, 
they constantly employ 130 men and boys, to whom they pay" about $2,500 
nionthl}'; and will produce, Avhen all their machinery is in, about seven and 
a half tuns of paper dail}^ worth some $1,800, or at the rate of over $500,000 
a year. This is presumed to be the most extensive manufactory of paper in 
America, or perhaps in the world. The product is almost exclusively print- 
ing paper, mainly news. 

PAPtLTAMENT, British. The Parliament of Great Britain consists of a House 
of Lords and a House of Commons. The present is the loth Imperial, or 5th 
Reformed Parliament. House of Lords. — The House of Lords consists of lords 
temporal, who are peers of the i-ealm, and whose honors, immunities, and 
privileges are hereditary; and lords spiritual, consisting of archbishops and 
bishops. All the members of the five orders of nobility of England, viz., 
dukes, marquises, eai'ls, viscounts, and barons, who are 21 3'ears old, and la- 
bor under no disqualification, have a right to sit in the House of Lords ; and 
in addition to these, 16 representative peers from Scotland, 28 representative 
peers from Ireland, 2 English archbishops, 24 bishops, 1 representative Irish 
archbishoj\ and three I'epresentative Irish bishops. House of Commons — 
Elected July, 1852. — The House of Commons consists of the representatives 
of the counties, cities, borouo-hs, and of the three universities of the estab- 
lished church in the United Kingdom. The representatives of counties are 
chosen b}" the proprietors and occupiers of land; those of the cities and 
boroughs b}' the mercantile and trading part of the community ; and those 
of the universities by the doctors and masters of arts. Since the union with 
Ireland (Januar}^ 1, 1801), the number of members has been 658, this number 
being retained on the passing of the Reform Acts. They are elected by the 
following constituencies : 



England, 


Counties. Boroughs. 


Universities. 


Total. 


144 
15 
30 
64 


823 
14 
23 

39 


4 
'2 


471 
29 
53 

105 


Wales 


Scotland, 


Ireland, 




253 


899 


6 


65S 



But the English members have been reduced to 654 since the year 1844. 
King Henry VIII. added to the House of Commons 38 members'; Edwai^d 
VI., 44 ; Queen Mary, 25 ; Queen Elizabeth, 62 ; James I., 21. In the pre- 
sent House of Commons (1855), more than 150 members were unseated for 
bribery, or petitioned against under that head. 

PATENTS, American. The number of patents granted by the office at Washing- 
ton, from 1790 to 1850 inclusive, is 16,296. In 1838, the office issued about 
600 patents. The annual issue was about the same down to 1849, when it 
rose to 1,000. At that rate it remained till 1854, when it reached 1,800; and 
probably more than 2,000 patents will bear the date of 1855, as already 500 
have been issued during the first quarter. Thus far, over 12,000 patents'have 



790 THE world's progress. 

appeared since 1836. Taking into account that more than one-half of the 
annual applications have been rejected, it appears that within the last 18 
years, nearly 25,000 persons have strained their mental faculties to contrive 
some novel means to save the human hand mechanical labor, or enhance its 
effectiveness; to increase the means of communication and intercourse; and, 
in fact, more or less directly, to bring comfort in all possible shapes within 
the reach of the many. 

PAVEMENTS. The only substance that can be profitably employed for street 
pavements in a crowded city, is iron. An iron pavement has the advantages 
of being more durable, less costly, more easily laid down and taken up, bet- 
ter for horses and pedestrians, noiseless, dustless, and mudless. The iron 
pavement in question has already been thoroughly tested in Boston, and we 
learn -is about to be introduced into London and Paris by Fox, Henderson, 
and Co., the great engineering firm of England who built the first Crystal 
Palace. The invention of the iron pavement is the work of a countryman of 
our own, whose name we should be most happy to mention, if Ave knew it; 
and we doubt not that in its practical results it will hardly rank second to 
the iron railroad. A member of the firm of Sir Charles Fox, Henderson, and 
Co., as we understand, has been over here and made a contract with the i)ro- 
prietors of the iron pavement for the privilege of putting it down in London 
and Paris. Early in 1855, a small part of Nassau-street, New York, op- 
posite the Post Ofiice, was laid down with the new pavement; and though 
the cobbles on each side of it have been twice repaired since, yet it looks as 
firm, as smooth, and as solid as the day on which it was laid. One of the 
great advantages of the iron pavement is, that at the end of ten years' use, 
the material of which it is composed will be more valuable than when it was 
laid down, so that the cost of paving the streets will only be so much money 
invested which may at any time be realized by selling the rough material. 
But the saving to the city in a thousand other respects, which would result 
from the iron pavement, would be incalculable ; and the greater comforts of 
our streets, the increased healthiness of our atmosphere, would more than a 
thousand times repay the cost of the iron pavement, if it were a thousand 
times greater than the cobble-stone, instead of being less. 

PENCILS. Gessner first describes the "pencil of plumbago in wooden handles," 
in 1565. — {Fossils.) Pettus (Fleta Minor) speaks decidedly of pencils "in- 
closed in fir or cedar," in 1683. M. Conte, of Paris, made great improvements 
in 1795. Mordan's "ever-pointed pencil" was patented about 1820. Philip 
Crabbe, the first manufacturer of lead pencils by machinery, died in his 100th 
year, in London, May, 1851, 

PENS, STEEL. The largest factors are Gillot's, of Birmingham, who employ 
nearly 1,000 hands for the conversion of 2^ tuns of steel into 35,000 gross of 
pens weekly! In 1820-1, the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale 
for £7, 4s. ; in 1851, a superior article could be furnished at 3s. 6d. to 5s. per 
gross, while the commonest pens can be rendered at Uvopence the gross ! Gil- 
lot's house exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851, a giant pen of thirty-six 
inches in length, and close to this was a small glazed frame containing 15,840 
steel pens, the whole weighing only 07ie ounce. The greatest number of these 
pens are sent to the United States. 

PENNSYLVANIA. The population exhibited by the 7th census, 1850, was 
2,311,681; the banking capital, $18,675,484 14; tax on dividends, $153,877 
14 ;_ tax on corporation stocks, $70,008 86; ratio of tax, 12; in' 1849 the 
ratio was 14. — Herald. Total revenue for the year ending November 



ADDENDA. 



791 



so, 1851, was $5,645,678 '74; total expenditures during the same period, 
$4,780,667 53. 

PENSIONS, U. S. The amount actually paid out by the United States Pension 

agents for the year ending June 30, 1854, was: 

Fur Eevolutionaiy sei-vices, $908 270 96 

For lialf-pay to widows and orphans, 395,992 00 

For Invalid, 444, 694 27 

Total amount, $1,548,957 23 

Amount of funds in the hands of Army Pension agents at the date of their last 

returns (Sept. 89. 1854), was ^^oT'i^ii f^A 

And in the hands of Navy Pension agents, 31,969 04 

The number of army pensioners on the roll who have been paid at the Pen- 
sion agencies in the several States within the "fourteen months" preceding 
June 30, 1854, and the annual amount of pensions payable to them, is: 

1,C69 Eovolutionary soldiers, ^^t'l^i oi 

7,990 Widows (of all classes), ^-X?^ o? 

5,006 Invalid, 404,1 id 87 

14^065 Total, $1,172,651 63 

Same of the Navy, Sept. 80, 1854. 

871 Invalid ^23^185 85 

462 Widows and Orphans, 94, 603 52 

"S33 Total, *....." $117,783 87 

Whole number of pensioners, June 30, 1853, was 11,867. Annual amount 
payable to them, $1,070,079 52. Same, June 30, 1854, 14,065, and annual 
amount payable to them, $1,172,651 63. 

Number of Kevolutionary soldiers on the roll, June 30, 1858, .... 1-395 

June 30, 1854, . . . 1,069 

There have been taken from the rolls of the army pensioners during the year 
ending June 30, 1854, by death, 643; by transfer to the Treasury Depart- 
ment, as unclaimed pensions, 883— total, 1,526. Of the navy pensioners for 
the year ending Sept. 30, 1854, 24 are reported dead, and 38 transferred to 
tiie Treasury Department as unclaimed pensions. Of those transferred to the 
Treasury Department, but few are again restored to the roll. 

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. By the census of 1850 this city and suburbs con- 
tains 406,353 inhabitants. Increase in ten years, 148,221, or about 57 per 
cent. In the city and county there are 258 public schools, with 45,383 chil- 
dren, under the instruction of 81 male and 646 female teachers. The total 
school expenditure for the year 1850 was $332,433 21, being an average of 
$6 46 each child. Manufacturing capital of this city in 1850, according to 
census returns, was $33,000,000, and the annual products $6 1,000,000. Duties 
received at custom-house, 1851, Jan. to Nov. inclusive, $3,532,982, against 
$3,213,031 in corresponding period of preceding year. 

PHOTOGRAPHS. Mr. H. Fox Talbot, inventor of the calotype process, feeling 
himself unable to pursue the different applications that have opened out in 
this beautiful art, generously surrendered his patent, offering it as a free pre- 
sent to the public, "in all its "branches, excepting that of taking calotype por- 
traits for sale. The calotype process was made the subject of a patent in 
1841, and on the 10th of June in that year a paper was read before the Royal 
Society, giving an exact description of the manipulatory processes. This 
paper was not published, as a law of the Society excludes the publication of 
all matters which are the subjects of patents. In 1842, Mr. Talbot obtained 
a second patent Ibr sundry improvements in the calotype, which had refer- 



792 THE world's progress. 

ence more particularly to the fixing of the picture. More recently another 
patent was obtained by Mr. Talbot for photographic pictures on porcelain 
tables, and for sundry' improvements by Mr. Malone in the use of albumen on 
paper and glass; and lastly, the same gentleman patented his so-called "In- 
stantaneous process," of which he published an account in 1851. This art is 
making a progress which would seem to endanger the popularity of daguerreo- 
type, more especially in its application to landscapes and architecture. 

PHYSICIANS were formerly ecclesiastics. It was during the nunciate of Car- 
dinal d'Etouteville in France, in 1452, that he obtained permission for them 
to marry. — Menage. Sir William de Butts, physician to Henry VIII., and 
mentioned as such by Shakspeare, was paternal ancestor of Mrs. Sherwood, 
the popular authoress, 'vvho died in Sept., 1851. 

PHYSICIANS, Female. It is no longer doubtful whether women can study 
medicine and succeed in its practice among their own sex and children. Ex- 
periments to this end have been tried, and under unfavorable auspices, and 
their results have uniformly proved most encouraging. The institution in 
Boston was founded in 1848, and mainly through the efforts of Dr. Samuel 
Gregory, who from that time to the present has continued to be its secretary 
and principal agent. The whole number of young women who have attended 
the college since its commencement, is over a hundred, who have come from 
all the New England and several other States.^ The Female Medical College 
of Pennsylvania was founded in 1849, principally through the exertions and 
influence of Wm. J. Mullen, Esq. Its success has far exceeded the most san- 
guine expectations of its friends. The class has increased in number every 
year, as shown by the annexed table of bona fide students at each session, 
which does not include a considerable number of ladies who were not regular 
students. The period to be occupied by the next session is also given, and 
the number regularly graduated as Doctors of Medicine: 

1—1850, Sept.— Dec 16 weeks, 12 students, - graduates. 

2— 1851, Sept. 1— Dec. 30 17 " 24 " 8 " 

3— 1S52-3, Sei)t. 13— Jan. 27 19 " 28 " 9 

4— 1853-4, Oct, 1— Feb. 25 21 " 80 " 4 " 

5— 1854-5, Sept. 30— March 10 23 " 35 " 6 " 

6—1855-6, Oct. 3— Feb. 27 21 " — " 27 

PISCICULTURE. It was proved many years ago, that a great addition might 
be made to the quantity and quality of our food, by taking advantage of the 
physiology of fishes, and that our rivers, lakes, and ponds might become the 
source of considerable emolument, by a proper attention to this branch of 
domestic economy. The ancient Greeks and Romans were evidently possessed 
of some method of breeding fish artificially; for it is related that Octavius 
bred "giltheads" in the sea, "like corn upon the ground." Witliin our own 
time, several highly successful experiments have been made, proving that fish 
may be produced in the greatest abundance, and even transplanted from dis- 
tant countries. Thus the goramy of the Indian continent, a delicious fresh- 
water fish, has been introduced with the greatest success by the French into 
the Mauritius, and we may also cite the gold and silver fish of China, which 
have been naturalized both in England and in many parts of Europe. Pro- 
fessor Agassiz, who has paid much attention to the artificial produccion of 
fish, declared some years ago, that the ova of all fish, when properly impreg- 
nated, can be conveyed across the Atlantic as safely as if it were naturally 
deposited by the parent fish, so that any quantity of salmon or other spawn 
can (after impregnation) be carried to other streams, however distant. And 
Sir F. Mackenzie, of Conan, Ross-shire, in a paper published in 1841, details 
experiments which he made in 1840, for breeding salmon and other fish arti- 



ADDENDA. 793 

ficially, which were attended with such remarkable success, that it is sur- 
prising they were not followed up on a large scale. It appears, according to 
the present publication, that about the same time as the date of the above 
experiments, the diminution in the number of fresh-water fish in France 
aroused the serious attention of two humble fishermen, named Gehin and 
Remy, living in the obscure village of La Bresse, in the department of the 
Vosges, in France. They do not seem to have been aware of the labors of 
scientific ichthyologists, and, utterly ignorant of the nature of previous ex- 
periments, hit upon precisely the same method of artificially producing fish 
as had been discovered by Sir Francis Mackenzie. Their fii-st experiment 
was crowned with extraordinary success. This was in 1841, only one 3'ear 
after those of the Scottish baronet. In 1842, 1843, and 1844, they again re- 
peated their experiments, and in each case in the most triumphant maimer. 
In the latter year they were rewarded by receiving a medal and a sum of 
money from Societe cf Emulation des Vosges, and in the course of a short time 
succeeded in stocking the waters of that part of France where they resided 
Avith " millions of trout." At the end of a few years, their operations be- 
came of such magnitude and importance as to command the attention of the 
French government. Gehin and Remy were accordingly summoned to Paris, 
and taken at once into the employment of the state, at good salaries; their 
duties being, first, to stock with 6sh, by their system, such rivers as should 
be pointed out to them, and next, to teach that system to the peasantry. The 
prodigioiis success of their labors may be estimated from an official report 
made to the Academy of Sciences in 1849, by which it appears that they had 
formed a piece of water, in which they had between Jive and six million trout. 
aged from one to three years, and the production of that year was expected 
to increase that vast number by several hundred thousand. Since Gehin and 
Remy have been taken into the service of the French government, they have 
stocked streams and rivers in several departments of France, and have 
created abundance of good food where the greatest scarcity prevailed. 

PLANK ROADS. The first plank road in Canada was laid down in 1836, and 
in New York in 1837. Plank roads in operation, Jan. 1, 1851 : 

Canada. New York. 

Number of roads, ...... — 19 

Number of miles, 442 2,106 

Average cost per mile, $1,750 $1,833 

Total cost, $773,.500 $3,860,292 

Very nearly four million of dollars have been expended in New York upon 
these roads, and the resulting advantages are immense. The Troy and Lan- 
singburg road pays 10 per cent, dividend, which is generally believed to be 
the case with all the others, with the exception of tlie LTtica and Burlington, 
which yields 20 per cent. None of the stocks are in the market. 

POET-LAUREATE (England). Alfred Tennyson, appointed Nov. 1850. 

POPULATION OF THE GLOBE. 

Africa, variously estimated from . . . . . 60.000,000 to 100,000,000 

America, 58,252,882 

Asia, including Islands, 626,000,000 

Australia and Australian Group of Islands, 1.445,000 

Europe, 263,517,521 

Polynesia (a mere estimate, as there are few or no data), . . . 1,500,000 

Total population of the Globe, . . , . , . 1,050,715,408 

POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN~(see Census). 

84 



794 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



POPULATION OF THE AMERICAN STATES. 

GOVERNMENTS OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Governments. 






Danish America (Greenland) 

French Possessions (St. Pierre, etc.) 

Russian America 

New Britain 

Canada "West 

Canada East 

New Brunswick 

Nova Scotia, etc 

Prince Edward's Island . . . 

Newfoundland 

Vancouver Island and British Oregon 

United States of America 

United States of Mexico 

San Salvador 

Nicaragua 

Honduras 

Guatemala 

Costa Eica 

Mosquitia , 

Honduras (Biitish Colony) 

The Bay Islands (British Colony) 



Total. 



Area ia 
Square Miles. 



380,000 

118 

394,000 

1,800,000 

147,832 

201,989 

27,700 

18,746 

2,134 

57,000 

213,500 

3,306,834 

1,038,865 

14,000 

49,000 

72,000 

28,000 

17,000 

23,000 

62,740 



7,854,458 



Population. 



9,400 

200 

66,000 

180,000 

"999,847 

890,261 

200,000 

300,000 

62,848 

120,000 

7,500 

23,191,876 

7,200,000 

365,000 

896,000 

310,000 

935,000 

140,000 

6,000 

11,066 



35,370,498 



Capitals. 



Liclitenfels. 

St. Pierre. 

N. Archangel. 

York Factory. 

Toronto. 

Quebec. 

Fredericton. 

Halifax. 

Charlotte Town. 

St. John's. 

Ft. Langley. 

Washington. 

Mexico. 

San Salvador. 

Leon. 

Chiquimula. 

N. Guatemala. 

Cartago. 

Blewiields. 

Balize. 



GOVERNMENTS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 



Governments. 


Area in 
Square Miles. 


Population. 


Capitals. 


Venezuela, Eepublic 


416,600 

880,000 

325,000 

374,480 

580,000 

170,000 

927,000 

120,000 

82,000 

74,000 

2,300,000 


1,356,000 

2,200,000 

005,000 

1,700,000 

1,400,000 

1,200,000 

2,000,000 

250,000 

80,000 

260,000 

7,560,000 


Oaraccas, 

Santa Fe tie Bogota. 

Quito. 

Chuquis/ica. 

Lima. 

Santiago. 

Buenos Ayres. 

Montevideo. 

Badrtja. 

Aconcion. 

Eio de a"a;..eiro. 


New Granada, " 


Ecuador, " 


Bolivia, " 


Peru, " 


Chili, » 


Argentine Eepublic 


Uruguay, Eepublic 


Entre Eios, " 


Paraguay, " 


Brasil, Empire of 





ADDENDA. 



TfOS 



POPULATIOiS' OF THE x\MERICAN STATES. 

GOVERNMENTS OF SOUTH AMERICA C07ltinued. 



Governments, 



Guiana (British). 
Juiana (Dutcb).. 
Guiana (Frencli). 

Patjigonia 

Falkland Islands 



Total 

Grand Total of America 



Area in 
Squaro Miles. 



76,000 
8S,500 
21,500 
880,000 
16,000 



6,'2S1,(;80 



14,027,350 



Population. 



Capitals. 



127,695 Geor<?etown. 

64,270 [ Paramaribo. 

80,000 I Cayenne. 

120,000 I 

500 I Port Louis. 



19,018,405 



58,252,SS2 



"WEST IXDIAN GOVERNMENTS. 



Governments. 



I San Dominco \ ^ , !'. 

J " I Republic . . . 

>• Spanish -j 

\ 



British 



Ilayti 

Dominica 

Cuba 

Porto Eico, 

Jamaica ) 

Trinidad \ 

Windward Islands. 

Barbadoes 

Grenada, etc 

St. Vincent 

Tobago 

St. Lucia 

Leeward Islands. 

Antigua 

Moil tserrat 

St. Christopher and Anguilla 

Nevis 

Virgin Islands 

Dominica 

Bahama Islands 

Turk's Island 

Bermuda Islands 

Guadalupe, etc \ 

Martinique >• French 

St. Mariin's, N". side * 

St Martin's, S. side t ^^ , , i 

Dutch \ 
Cnracoa, etc S i 

Santa Cruz, etc \ i 

St. Thomiis I Danish J. 

St. Juhii's.... ) ' 

St. Bartholomew's (Swedish) 



Total. 



Area in 
Square Miles. 



11,000 

18,000 

42,383 

8,865 

5,468 

2,000 

166 
155 
131 
187 
225 

168 
49 

103 
30 

137 

291 
5,422 

400 
47 

534 

322 
21 
11 

580 
SI 
37 
72 
25 

91,812 



Population. 



800,000 
200,000 
1,007,624 
500,000 
379,690 
60,319 

135,939 
28,923 
27,218 
13,208 
24,500 

36,178 

7,365 

24,508 

10,200 

4,027 

22,469 

27,519 

3,400 

14,000 

134,544 

121,145 

2,200 

3,500 

26,311 

35,000 

8,(100 

3,000 

9,000 

3,868,919 



Capitals. 



Cape Haytien. 
San Domingo. 
Havana. 
San Juan. 
Spanish Town. 
Puerta d'Espanola, 
Bridgetown. 



Kingston. 
Scarboro'. 
Castries. 
St. John's. 



Basseterre. 
Charlestown. 

Itosseau. 
Nassau. 

Hamilton. 
Basseterre. 
Port Ru3'al. 



Willi emstadt. 

Christianstadt. 



La Cftxenage. 



796 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



POPULATION" OF THE EUROPEAN" STATES. With the form of govern- 
ment and square miles, according to McGuUocKs Geograpldcal Dlctioiiary, with 
corrections ; and the popuhition (chiefly), from the Almanack de Gotha for 1853. 



States and Titles. 



Andorra, Pyrenees, Republic 
•Anljalt-Bernburg, Duch}'.. 
*AnhaIt-Ci3tbent " 

* An halt-Dessau " 

♦Austria, Empire 

*Baden, G-rand Ducby 

*Bavaria, Kingdom 

Belgium " 

*Bremen, Free City 

♦Brunswick, Duchy 

Church, States of. Popedom. 

Denmark, Kingdom 

France, Empire 

♦Frankfort, Free City 

Great Britain, Kingdom 

Greece, Kingdom 

*Hamburg, Free City 

♦Hanover, Kingdom 

♦Hesse-Cassel, Electorate. . . 
♦Hesse-Darmstadt, G. Duch. 
♦Hesse-Homburg, Landgvte. 
Holland, with Luxemburg.. 

Ionian Islands, Republic 

♦Licli enstein. Principality . . 
♦Lippe-Detmold " 
♦Lippe-Bchaumburg " 

♦Lubec, Free City 

♦Mecklin.-Schwerin, G. Due. 
♦Mecklenburg-Strelitz " 
Modena and Massa, Duchy . 

Monaco, Principality 

♦JSfassau, Duchy 

♦Oldenburg, Grand Duchy.. 

Parma, Duchy 

Portugal, Kingdom 

♦Prussia 

*Reuss, Principalities of 

:l:Russla (in Europe) Empire 

San Marino, Republic 

Sardinia, Kingdom 

♦Saxony " ..... 

♦Saxe-Altenburg, Duchy 
♦Saxe-Coburg and Gotha " 
♦Saxe-Mein.-Hildburgh. " 
*Saxe-Weim.-Eisenaoh " 
♦Schwarzburg-Rudolst., Pr. 
♦Schwarzburg-Sondersb., " 
Sicilies, The Two, Kingdom 
Spain, Kingdom 

NTrt"-::: [Kingdom 

Switzerland, Republic 

§Turkey, Empire 

Tuscany, Grand Duchy 

*Waldeck, Principality 

*Wurtemberg, Kingdom . . . 



Form of Government. 



With two syndics and a council 
States having limited powers. . . 



Absolute monarchy 

Limited sovereignty ; two chambers 
Limited monarchy ; two chambers. . 



Republic ; senate and assembly 

Limited sovereignty ; one chamber 

Absolute sovereignty 

Limited monarciiy ; with pro v. states. 
Constit. mon.; senate andlegislat. body 

Republic ; senate and assembly 

Limited monarchy ; lords and commons 
Limited monarchy ; two chambers. . . . 

Republic; senate and assembly 

Limited monarchy ; two chambers. . . . 
Limited sovereignty; two chambers. . 

Absolute sovereignty; one chamber . . 
Limited monarchy ; two chambers. . . . 
Under Brit, protec; council and chamb. 
Limited monarchy ; with one chamber 



Republic ; senate and assembly 

Limited sovereignty; wtth one chamb, 



A-bsolute sovereignty 

It i( 

Limited sovereignty; two chambers .. 



Absolute sovereignty , 

Limited monarchy ; two chambers. . . . 

Limited sovereignty ; one chamber ... 

Absolute monarchy , 

Senate and council of ancients , 

Limited monarchy ; two chambers . . , 

Limited sovereignty ; one chamber . . , 
Lim. sov. ; one chamber for each duchy 
Limited sovereignty ; one chamber ... 



Absolute monarchy 

Limited monarchy; Avith a legislature. 

" \ 

Confederation of republics ; a diet 

Absolute monarchy 



Limited sovereignty : one chamber 

Limited monarchy ; two chambers. 

Total 



Sq. Mis 



I'JO 

839 

31S 

36( 

255,226 

5,712 

28,435 

11,313 

112 

1,525 

17,043 

21,856 

203,736 

91 

116,700 

18,244 

149 

14,600 

4,430 

3,761 

206 

13.890 

1,097 

52 

445 

205 

142 

4,701 

997 

2,073 

50 

1,736 

2,470 

2,184 

34,500 

107,300 

588 

2,12C,397 

21 

28,830 

5,705 

491 

790 

968 

1,403 

405 

358 

41,521 

176,480 

170,715 

121,725 

15,261 

189,920 

8,712 

455 

7,563 



Pop. 



7,000 

50,411 

43,120 

63,70C 

36,514,466 

1,362,774 

4,519,546 

4,359,091) 

79.047 

268,943 

2,908,115 

2.296,597 

35,781,6-28 

70,244 

27,435,325 

998,266 

188,0.54 

1,758,847 

754,590 

852,524 

24,203 

3,267,638 

230,000 

6,351 

104.()74 

28;S37 

47,742 

543,328 

96,292 

586,458 

7,000 

428,218 

278,030 

497.343 

3,412,500 

16,346,625 

112,175 

60,362,315 

7,600 

4,916,087 

1,894,431 

131,780 

149,753 

163,323 

261,370 

69,650 

60,002 

8,631,289 

14,216,219 

3,433,803 

1,328,471 

2,390,116 

15,500,000 

1,761,140 

58,219 

1,802,252 



Date. 



1850 
1850 
1849 
1851 
1849 
1850 
1849 
18-19 
1846 
1S42 
(/1S50 
.')1S51 
1849 
1851 
1851 

1848 
1846 
1819 
1846 
1851 
1852 
1842 
1849 
1848 
1851 
1851 
1848 
1850 

1851 
1851 
1851 
1841 
1849 
1846 
1846 

1848 
1849 
1850 
1849 
1849 
1851 
1849 
1849 
1851 
1849 
1849 
1845 
1850 
1844 
1851 
1850 
1850 



8,768,506 263,517,5211 



* Member of the Confederation of Germany. 

t United to An halt-Dessau and Bernburg, since November 23, 1847. 

X Including Poland and Finland. 

§ Including Wallachia, Moldavia, and Servia, containing respectively 2,600,000, 1,400,000 and 

1,000,000 inhabitants, 
a Exclusive of Iceland, with a population of 60,000. and an area of 32,000 square miles. 
6 Exclusive of Algeria, which contains a pop. of 246,581, and has an area of 100,0<J0 sq. miles. 



ADDENDA. 



797 



POPULATION" OF RUSSIA. The first census of All the Russias, or as the 
Eussians themselves call it, "The first Revision of the Population," was 
ordered by Peter I. in 1Y20, and from that time to 1851 seven revisions liave 
taken place, according to which the variations of the total population of 
Russia at different epochs may be stated as follows : 



3722, . . ... 14,000,000 
1742, .... 16,000,000 
1762, .... 19,000,000 



1782, . 
1796, 



28,000,000 
36,000,000 



The population of Russia according to the census of the year 1851, is as follows ; 



Divisions. 


Area in geo. 
square miles. 


Population, 


Density of 
population on 
square miles. 


European Russia, 


100,429.46 

247,736.48 

27,247.33 


60,098.821 

5,060,768 

54,000 


598 
20 

2 


Asiatic Russia, 


Russian America, 


Total Russian Empire, 


375,413.27 


65,213,589 


174 





As to the population of the towns, there exist, according to the recent census, 
in the whole Russian Empire but thirty-four towns with more than 20,000 
inhabitants. "We give a list of these towns after the tables in the St. Peters 
burg Almanac for 1854: 



Towns. 



St. Petersburg, 

Moscow, 

Warsaw, 

Odessa, 

Pviga, 

Tula, 

Wilna, 

Ki3if, 

Astrachan, 

Woronesli, 

Kischinew, 

Saratow, 

Kasan. 

Sevastopol, 

Nikolaje, 

Berditschew(Gov.Kieff,) 

Simbirsk, 

Taroslawl, 



No. inhab. 



583,241 

873,800 
167,000 
71,392 
57,906 
54,626 
52,286 
47,424 
44,793 
4.3,800 
42,613 
42,237 
41,304 
41.153 
39,338 
35,592 
35,474 
34,913 



Year. 



1852 
1850 
1847 
1850 
1849 
1850 
1850 
1842 
1849 
1842 
1849 
1842 
1842 
1842 
1850 
1842 
1851 
1842 



Towns. 



No. inhab. 



Tiflis, 

Nishnij-Novgorod, 

Kursk, 

Witebsk, 

Kaluga, 

Charkow, , 

Ismael or Tutshkow, . . 

Orel 

Cronstadt, 

Telez (Gov. Orel), 

Oherson, , 

Reval, 

Minsk, 

Taganrog, 

Poltawa, 

Lodsi, , 



30,925 
30,710 
80,469 
29,832 
29,580 
29,895 
26.243 
25,630 
25,120 
24,340 
24,338 
24,041 
23,602 
22,472 
20,071 
20,000 



Total pop. of 34 towns. 



2,175,662 



Year. 



1848 
1849 
1849 
1851 
1850 
1842 
1849 
1851 
1849 
1851 
1850 
1842 
1842 
1842 
1851 
1841 



This last table afi*ords a striking illustration of the social condition of Russia. 
In the United States, for instance, a country much newer than Russia, and 
with only about one-third of her population, there are thirty towns of 20,000 
and upwards, whose aggregate population is 2,291,609. This contrast shows 
how exclusively the people of Russia ai'e still devoted to agriculture, and 
how much must be done in order to raise them to a high place in the list 
of civilized nations. These figures are given in German geographical square 
miles, each of which is equivalent to 21.2325, or nearly 21^ square English 
miles. The figures given as geographical square miles are for European 
Russia 100,429^46, for Asiatic Russia 247,736.48, and for Russian America 
27,247.33 ; total, 375,413.27. Multiply each of these sums by 214, and you have 
the areas in square English miles. The difference between the German and 



798 



THE world's progress. 



English square miles will be better appreciated, when seen in juxtaposition, 
as follows : 



Divisions. 


Area in square miles. 


Population in 
1851. 


Population to sq. mile. 


German. 


English. 


German. 


English. 


European Eussia, . . 

Asiatic Eussia, 

Kussian America, .. 

Total, 


100,429.46 

247,736.48 

27,247.33 


2,132,363.5 

5,260,064.8 
578,528.9 


60.098,821 

5,060,768 

54,000 


598 

20 

2 


28.18 
0.96 
0.09 


375,413.27 


7,9711,962.2 


65,213,589 


174 


8.18 

1 



POPULATION OF THE U^'ITED STATES. 



States. 



1790. 



Maine 

New Hampshire. 

Vermont 

Majjiiclinsetts . . . 
Ehode Island.... 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North Carolina. .. 
Soutli Carolina. .. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Ti^nne.ssee 

Kentucky 

Olno 

Micliig m 

Indinna 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Dist. of Columbia 
California 



93,54!) 
141,899 

85,416 
378,717 

69,110 
233,141 
840.12.) 
184,139 
434,373 

59.1)98 
819,723 
748,3j8 
893,751 
249,073 

82,543 



3f),791 

73,077 



1800. 



151,719 
183.762 
154.465 
423 245 

69,122 
251,002 
586,756 
211,949 
602,365 

64,273 
841..543 
8S"),200 
478,103 
845,591 
162,101 



8,853 



105,602 

22:),955 

45,365 

4,875 



14,093 



1310. 



223,705 
214 36) 
217,713 
472,040 

77,u31 
262,042 
959,949 
249,555 
810,091 

72.674 
33 i;546 
974.642 
555,500 
415,715 
252,433 

20,845 
40,352 
76,556 



261.727 

406,511 

230.76 ) 

4,762 

24,52 ) 

12,232 

20,845 



24,023 



1820. 



293,335 
244,161 
235,764 
523,237 
83,U59 
275,202 

1,372.812 
277,575 

1,049,458 

72,749 

407,350 

1,065,379 
638,329 
502,741 
840,987 

12Y.9ai 

75,448 

153,4)7 

14,273 

422,813 

564,317 

581,434 

8,-96 

147,178 

55.211 

68,536 



33,039 



1830. 



390,955 
269,328 
280,652 
610,4)8 
97,199 
297,665 

1,918,603 
320,823 

1,343,238 

76,743 

447,04) 

1,211.405 
737,937 
581.185 
616.823 
84,73) 
8)9,:V27 
136, (i21 
215,739 

3o',33S 
681,9 14 
637,917 
9:57,903 

81.639 
343,031 
157,455 
140,415 



39,834 



1340. 



501,793 
284,574 
291,943 
737,699 
103,33') 
339,978 

2,423,921 
373 306 

1,724,033 

78,-: '.85 

470.019 

1,239.797 
753,419 
594,393 
691.392 
54,477 
590,756 
375,651 
352,411 

97.574 

829,210 

779,323 

1,019.-167 

212.267 

635.866 

476,183 

833,7)2 

3\945 

43.112 

43,712 



1350, 



533,169 
317.976 
314,120 
994.514 
147.545 
370,792 

8,097.894 
489.555 

2,311,736 

91.532 

533,034 

1,421,661 
869,039 
663,507 
9 6.135 
87,445 
771,623 
6 ;6;526 
517,762 
212.592 
2i9.397 

1,002.717 
932,405 

1,93 \329 
397.654 
933.416 
851.470 
632,044 
8 5,391 
192.214 
.5i;637 
92,597 



Total 3,929,372 5,3)5.952 7,239,314 i 9.633.131 '12.363,920 17,063,353 123,191.376 

SLAVES IN THE UNTrED STATKS. 



States. 


1790. 


1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1839. 


1840. 


1850. 


"Maine 



158 




8 
















1 






New Hampshire. 


Vermont 


17 




















Ma.ssaclrisett3 . . 























Rhode Island 


952 


831 


103 


43 


17 


5 





Connecticut 


2,759 


951 


810 


97 


25 


17 





New York 


21,324 


2\343 


15,017 


10,083 


75 


4 





New Jersey 


11.423 


12,423 


10,351 


7,657 


2.254 


674 


*23) 


Pennsylvania 


' 8.737 


1.7 6 


795 


211 


4 8 


64 





Delaware 


8,337 


6,153 


4,177 


4,5 9 


3,292 


2,6 ;5 


2,29' 



* Apprentices by the State Act to abolish slavery, of April 18, 1846' 



ADDENDA. 



799 





SLAVES IN THE UNITED 


STATES — continued. 






states. 


1790. 


1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 


1840. 1850. 


Man-land 

Virginia 

North Carolina.. 
SiiLitli Carolina... 
Florida 


103,036 
203,427 
100,572 
107,094 

29,264 

3,417 
11,830 


105.635 
345.796 
133,296 
146,151 

59,404 

3,489 

13,584 
40,343 

'iss 

3,244 


111,502 
392,518 
168,824 
196,365 

105,218 

17.088 
34,66!) 

44',535 
80,561 

'"24 

287 

168 

3,011 

5',395 


107,898 
425,153 
295,017 
258,475 

149,656 
41,879 
32,814 
69,064 

l',617 

80,107 

126,732 

"l90 

117 

10,222 

6,877 


102.294 
469,757 
2.35,601 
315,401 

15,501 
217,531 
117,549 

65,659 
109,588 

4,576 

141,603 

165,213 



82 



747 

25,081 

6,119 


89,737 
448,9S7 
245,817 
827,038 

25,717 
280,944 
253,532 
195,211 
168,452 

19,935 

183.(!59 

182,258 

3 



3 

831 

58,240 

11 

16 

*4^694 


90.363 
472,528 
288.548 
884,984 

39,310 
381,682 
342,844 
3i,9,878 
244,809 

58,161 

47,100 

239,459 

210,981 



I 


87,422 



3,687 

8,204,313 


Georgia 


Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 


Arlcansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Oliio 


Micliigan.... .... 

Indiana 


Illinois 


Missouri 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 


California 

Dist. of Columbia 


Total 


697,897 893,041 


1,191.364 


1,588,064 


2,009,081 


2,487,355 



population of some of the principal cities, according to the several censuses of the United States. 



Cities. 


1790. 


1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 
12,601 


1840. [ 1850. 


1855. 


Portland, Me., - - 




3,677 


7,169 


8,581 


15,218 


20,81.5 




Bangor, " - - 






850 


1,221 


2,867 


8,627 


14,432 




Manchester, N. H., 






615 


761 


877 


8.235 


18,932 




Boston, Mass., - 


18,038 


24,627 


32,250 


43,298 


61,392 


93,383 


186.881 


160,660 


Lowell. " - - 











6,474 


20,796 


83,383 




Springfield, " 






2,767 


3,914 


6.784 


10,985 


11,766 


.... 


Salem, " - - 


7,921 


9,457 


12,618 


12,721 


13,886 


15,082 


20,264 


.... 


Worcester, " 












7,497 


17,049 




Providence, R. I., - 




7,614 


10,071 


11,767 


16.832 


23,171 


41,513 




Ne'A- Haven, Ct., - 






5,772 


7,147 


10,180 


14,89;> 


20,345 


.... 


Hartford, " 






3,955 


4,726 


7,074 


12,793 


13,555 




New York, N. Y., 


33,131 


60,489 


96,863 


123,706 


203,007 


312,710 


515,547 


706.660* 


Brooklyn, " 




8,298 


4.402 


7,175 


12,042 


86,238 


93.838 




Albany, " 


3,498 


5,349 


9,356 


12,630 


2-1,238 


83,721 


50,763 


57,883 


Buffalo, 






1,508 


2,095 


8.653 


18,218 


42,261 




liociiester, " 








1,502 


9.269 


2.1,191 


36,403 


44,403 


Williamsburg, " 










1,620 


5,680 


30.780 


.... 


Troy, 






3,885 


5,264 


11,401 


19,834 


28,785 


38,279 


Syracuse, " 












6.502 


22.271 


25,226 


IJtica, " 








2,972 


8,328 


12,78-i 


17,565 


32,183 


Newark, N. J,, - - 








6,507 


10.953 


17.29) 


38,894 




Paterson " 












7,596 


11,384 




Philadelphia, Pa., - 


42,526 


70,287 


96,664 


10S,ii6 


167,188 


253,037 


408,762 




Pittsburg, " 




1.565 


4,768 


7,248 


12.542 


21,115 


46,601 




Biltimore, Md., - - 


18,503 


26,614 


46,555 


62,738 


80,625 


102,.313 


169,054 


.... 


Wasliinirton. D. C, 




3,210 


8,208 


13,247 


18,827 


23,364 


40,001 




Richmond, Va., - - 




5,537 


9,735 


12,046 


16,060 


20,153 


27,570 




Charleston, S. '^j., 


16,359 


18,712 


24,711 


24.480 


3:-t,2S9 


29,261 


42.985 




Savannah, Ga., 








7,523 


9,748 


11.214 


15.312 




Mobile, Ala., - - 











8,194 


12,672 


20,515 




Nasiiville, Tenn., - 










5,566 


6,929 


10,478 




Louisville, Ky., - 






1,857 


4.012 


10,352 


21,210 


43,194 


.... 


Cincinnati, Ohio, - 




750 


2,540 


9,644 


24,831 


46,338 


115.436 




Columbus, " 










2,485 


6.048 


17,882 




Cleveland. " 






•547 


606 


1,076 


6,071 


17,t!84 




Detroit, Mich., 








1,422 


2,222 


9,102 


21,019 




Chicago, 111.. - - - 












4,479 


29,963 




Milwaukee, Wis., 












1,700 


20,061 




St. Louis, Mo., - - 








4,598 


5,852 


16,469 


77,860 




New Orleans, La., 






17,242 


27,176 


46,310 


102,193 


116,375 




San Francisco, Cal., 














15,000 






800 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



POST OFFICE. English. — London, in a radius of twelve miles, has five hundred 
BRANCH Post Offices. The town of Manchester, loith about half the population 
of New York, has over a hundred. The English people write about five times 
as many letters in the aggregate as we do, and in cities and towns, from 
twenty to one hundred times as many. In an English city, a letter mailed 
before 8 o'clock in the morning will be forwarded to any part of the city 
bounds, and an answer obtained before twelve by regular course of mail. So, 
if mailed before ten or twelve o'clock, an answer may be expected in four 
hours. The charge is one penny on each letter. There were mailed in Lon- 
don alone in 1853 over 9*7,000,000 letters — as many as in the whole United 
States ; the proportion is over 41,000 to every thousand inhabitants ; and the 
population of cities like Liverpool and Manchester write 31,000 to every 1,000 
people, while the proportion for the same number of people in New York, 
Philadelphia and Baltimore are, respectively, 23,000, 14,000 and 10,000. This 
difference is almost entirely among what are known as " drop letters,"' though 
our " drop letters" pay a postage of only one cent while the English are 
charged two. The whole number of letters mailed in London was 97, 218, 33*7, 
and the entire postage on all mailable matter was $5,641,414. This would 
give for the London District Post, the sum of $2,246,762. As the foreign 
letters pay a higher postage than those in the kingdom, let us make an allow- 
ance of (say) $146,762, and this would leave for the circulation of mailable 
matter in London $2,100,000. It cannot be far from that. According to the 
report of our Postmaster-General for 1851, the only year we have a report 
on the subject, there were 715,428 " drop letters" in the Avhole United States! 
As these had each a postage of one cent, just enough to pay for the trouble of 
handing them out, the profits on them may be stated in round numbers at — 
nothing. And what are the financial results of the English system ? We 
have seen that $2,100,000 are received for local mail matter in London. Now 
there are in the entire kingdom 8,721 letter-carriers, and 8,561 receivers, and 
these are paid, annually, the sum of $1,879,420, showing that the money re- 
ceived on letters and papers, distributed in that city alone, pays more than 
$2,000,000 beyond the entire salaries of all the carriers, receivers and sub- 
Postmasters throughout the kingdom. We subjoin the figures in detail. It 
will be observed that the last three columns give respectively the entire 
number of persons employed in the jurisdiction of the Post-Ofiices named, in- 
cluding sub-Postmasters, carriers, clerks, stampers, and sorters; the entire 
expenses of the principal as well as the sub-offices attached, both salaries and 
incidental charges ; and the gross receipts for postage and postage stamps sold. 



Places. 


Population. 


Letter-Carriers. 


Letter-Receivers 

and 
Sub Post-Masters. 


Number. 


Salaries. 


Number. 


Salaries. 


London, 


2,362,236 
54,240 
232,841 
187,828 
84,690 
375,955 
316,213 
829,097 


1,335 
47 
64 
53 
46 
82 
123* 
134 


$ 
470,275 

6,000 
11,670 

9,200 

7,685 
21,985 
28.460 
28,630 


498 
70 
41 
90 
51 
56 

107 
77 


$ 
91,485 
8,580 
4.930 
6,655 
3,100 
5,050 
9,765 
6,080 


Bath, 


Birmingham, 


Bristol, 


Hull, 


Liverpool, 


Manchester, 


Glasgow, 


Total, '. 


8,892,600 


1,934 


578,805 


990 1 130,605 


United Kingdom, 


27,833,501 


3,721 


1,405,935 


8,561 1 173,435 



ADDENDA, 



801 



POST OFFICE, ^^GUSH—cojitimted 



Places. 


Total Carriers, Eeceivers, 

and 

Sub Post-Masters, 


Total 

persons. 

employed. 


Expenses. 


1 
Receipts. 


Number. 


Salaries. 


London, 


1,883 
117 
105 
143 
97 
188 
230 
211 


561,710 
9.590 
16.600 
15.855 
10.685 
27,035 
88,225 
29,710 


2,782 
129 
144 
172 

lis 

231 
283 
257 


$ 
1,078,290 
16,830 
86,820 
80,790 
19,500 
70,145 
63.825 


.$ 

6,106.831 

68,945 

180,530 

151.411 

90.455 

484,740 

fi96_9-tS 


Bath, 


Birmingham, 

Bristol, 


Hull 

Liverpool, , . 


iM anchester, 


Glasgow, 


50,480 291,137 


Total, , 


2,924 


709,410 


4,111 


1,366 680 7,779,'7S7 


United Kingdom, . . . 


17,282 


1,879,420 


20,007 


3,333.520 13,933. -183 



The gross revenue, cost of management, net revenue, and number of letter^, 
in the first and last years of penny postage system, is as follows: 



• Tear. 


Gross. Eev. 


Expenses. 


Net Revenue. 


No. of Letters. 


1840 
1853 


$ 
6,797,330 

12,872,040 


$ 
4,293,385 

7,003,400 


2,508,945 
5,868,640 


168,768,344 
410,817,489 



Here is an increase of gross revenue, in thirteen years, of 89 per cent., an in- 
crease of expenses of 63 per cent., of net revenue of 134 per cent., and an 
increase in "the number of letters of 143 per cent. This gives an average 
annual increase, in gross revenue, of about 7 per cent., and an annual increase 
of expenses of not quite 5 per cent. The average annual increase of net 
revenue was 10 per cent., and in the number of letters written the increase 
was 11 per cent, annually. If we go back to the year 1839 — the last year of 
the high rates of postage — the increase of letters is stillmore remarkable; 
for in that year the number sent by mail was but 7o,907,o72. During all 
this enormous increase of correspondence and postal revenue in Great Britain, 
the population of the kingdom in ten years, (from 1841 to 18.51,) increased 
only about 3 per cent. The increase in the net revenue of the Post-Office 
during that time was about 100 per cent. 

The establishment of the Money Order system was attended by a like extraor- 
dinary growth. During the first fourteen years after it was brought itito 
"Use, the business increased from an insignificant sum to .f50,0(KJ,000 per year, 
paying to the Government, in commissions, more than $434,000, with a clear 
profit of $70,000. In the "whole round of financial history, of banking and 
mercantile operations, there is not a case presenting so pi-osperous and suc- 
cessful a result ; and all of it has been accomplished without risk, revulsion, 
or "hard times," and with the most constant and uniform success. The 
following figures are given to show the enormous increase in the business 
of a single quarter. The result is the number and amount of orders issued 
and paid : 
34* 



802 THE world's progress. 

POST OFFICE, English— co?2^Mi?<e(?. 



Quarter ended : 


England, Wales. 


London. 


No, of orders. 


Amount. 


No. of orders. 


Amount. 


April 5, 1839, 

Jan. 5, 1842, 


54,623 
766,672 


$ 
463,670 

8,146,880 


9,428 
161,582 


$ 
87,008 

1,851,975 



The following table gives the progress of the Money Order business ; the 
amount of orders issued in the United Kingdom, each year, from 1839 to 
1853, inclusive: 



Date. 


Number. 


Amount. 


Date. 


Number. 


Amount. 


1889 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 


188,921 
587,797 
1,552.845 
2,111.980 
2,501.523 
2.806,830 
8,176,126 
3,515,079 
4,031,185 


$ 
1,565,623 
4,804,678 
15,687.538 
21,685,889 
25.564,204 
28,476.977 
32,066,805 
35,355,284 
39.515,886 


1818 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1852 
1853 

Total,.... 


4,203,651 
4,243,191 
4,489,713 
4.661,025 
4.947.825 
5,215,290 


$ 
40,756,475 
40,763,219 
42,472,498 
44.402.104 
47,191,389 
49,580,976 


48,188,654 


469,«39,740 



This is the whole machinery : as simple and regular as clock-work. Publishers, 
merchants, or others, living in cities, and having an account with a banker, 
can indorse over their Money Orders, send them into the banks as so much 
money, and the banker's clerk calls at the Post-Office, and gets them caslied 
in gold and silver at par. A Money Order for $10 (£2) costs six cents com- 
mission or exchange, which is paid by the person taking out the Order. Add 
to this the postage of his letter — two cents — and it costs him eight cents to 
remit the $10. It is just the same for a less sum. Over $10, and not more 
than $25, costs a commission of 12 cents — sixpence sterling. No Money 
Order is granted for a larger sum than £5 ($25) ; but if more money is to be 
remitted, any number of Money Orders can be obtained at the same time. 
It will be seen that the '•' exchange" on sums of any amount over $20 is about 
a half of one per cent. The commissions received on Money Orders through- 
out Great Britain, in the year 1853, amounted to $484,370. The clear profit 
to the Post-Office Department, arising from the business, was ; 



In 1850, 
In 1851, 



$16,180 
87,185 



In 1852, 
In 1858, 



$58,445 
70,745 



Previous to Nov. 20, 1840, the commission on Money Orders was one sliilling 
and sixpence sterling for all orders from two to five pounds, and sixpence for 
those not over two pounds. At that date the commission was reduced to 
sixpence and threepence, as it now is, and since that they have been in almost 
universal use. There are about 2,000 Money Order Offices in Great Britain. 
Every Post-Offiee has one connected with it ; but the Sub-Post-Offices — some 
five or six thousand in number — have very few of these offices. There are 
between eighty and ninety of them among the Sub-Offices and Receiving- 
Houses of London — within the "twelve-mile" "circle." As a general rule, 
towns containing three or four thousand inhabitants ormore have Money Order 
Offices. They are of two kinds — major and minor. Major offices draw 
Orders direct on every major or minor office in the Kingdom ; but the minor 



ADDENDA. 803 

offices have to send their "Money Orders Advice" through the General 
Post-Office of the Kingdom where drawn— ^London, Edinburgh, or Dublin — 
to get the stamp, of that office on it before it can be paid. This occasions a 
delay of one, two, or three days. The major offices are not restricted in the 
amount of the business they do, while the minor offices are. The latter are 
not allowed to issue Orders exceeding £50 in the aggregate in one day. The 
smaller offices are constantly accumulating money, from the greater number 
of Orders issued above those that are paid, while in the larger offices the re- 
verse is the fact. It might be supposed that the Mone}^ Order system would 
run into competition with the regular banking and exchange business of the 
country ; but it does not. On the contrary, the banks themselves use 
it constantly. 

POST OFFICE, U. S. A. The whole number of post offices in the United States, on 
the 30th of June, 1854, was 23,548. Of this number 257 are offices the annual 
commissions from which amount to one thousand dollars or upwards, and the 
appointments at these offices are therefore made by the President, by and 
with the advice and consent of the Senate, agreeably to the provisions of the 
act of 1836. The number of offices established during the last fiscal year 
was 1,842, and the number discontinued 614, showing a net increase in one 
year of 1,228. The number of which the sites and names have been changed 
in the course of the year was 499. The number of postmasters appointed 
during the year was 8,618. Of these, 4,185 were appointed to fill vacancies 
occasioned by resignations; 1,977 by removals; 320 by deaths; 294 by 
change of names and sites; and 1,842 on establishment of new offices. Tlie 
total number of offices on the 1st of December, 1854, was 23,925. On the 
30th June last there were in operation 6,697 mail routes. The number of 
contractors was 5,167. The length of these routes is estimated at 219,935. 
The total annual transportation of mails was 63,387,005 miles, costing 
$4,630,676, and divided as follows, viz. : 21,267,603 miles by modes not 
specified, at $1,092,833, about 5 cents per mile; 20,890,530 miles by coach, 
at $1,290,095, about 6 cents per mile; 15,433,389 miles by railroad, at 
$1,758,610, about 11 cents 4 mills per mile: 5,795,483 miles by steainbocit, at 
$489,138, about 8 cents 4 mills per mile. Compared with the services of the 
30th June, 1853, there is an increase of 1,494,463 miles of transjiortation, or 
about 2-^ per cent., and of $134,708 cost, being about 3 per cent. The in- 
crease of railroad service is 2,446,684 miles, and the expense $157,'281, being 
19 per cent, in transportation, and not quite 1 per cent, in cost. The in- 
creased transportation by modes not specified is 377,157 miles, or about 1 per 
cent., at a cost of $37,520, or 3 35-100 per cent. The transportation by 
coaches is less by 439,796 miles, or about 2 per cent., though at an increased 
cost of $83,137, or 6 88-100 per cent. The increased cost foi' a diminished 
amount of such service may be accounted for from the fact that the new 
contracts in New England and IS^ew York, commencing 1st July, 1853, were 
made at largely enhanced rates, increasing the aggregate exj^ense, while the 
amount of service was largely reduced. The steamboat transportation during 
the past year was reduced 889,582 miles, or 15f per cent., at a reduced cost 
of $143,230, or 29 7-10 per cent. This is accounted for by the discontinuance 
of service between Wilmington, North Carolina, and Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston, and Detroit, and Buffalo, and the 
suspension of service on the Arkansas and White livers, owing to thefaihu-es 
of the contractors. Several steamboat routes were also dispensed with at tiie 
lettings of new contracts for New England and New York. The cost of tlie 
service for the last fiscal year on the several United States mail steamship 
lines, and across the Isthmus of Panama, is as follows: 



804 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS 



New York to Liverpool, Collins line, tweuty-six round trips, . . , 

New York, via Southampton, to Bremen, eleven round trips, 

New York, via Cowes, to Havre, eleven round trips 

New York and New Orleans to Aspinwall, twenty-four round trips, including 

same number of trips between New York and New Orleans, via ilavana, 
Astoria, via San Francisco, to Panama, twenty-four round trips, 
Charleston, via Savannah and Key West, to Havana, twenty -four round trips, 
New Orleans to Vera Cruz, twenty-four round trips, omitting Tampico, . 
Aspiuwall to Panama, 



$858,000 00 
183.833 26 
137,500 00 



Total, 



289,000 00 
348,250 00 
50,000 00 
37,200 00 
119,727 03 

$2,023,010 29 



Number of Post Offices, Extent of Post Eoutes, and Eevenue and Expenditures of the Post 
Office Department ; with the Amount paid to Postmasters and for Transportation of the 
Mail, since 1790. 





No. of 


Extent of 

Prist 


Eevenue 


Expenditures 


Amount 


paid for 






Year. 


Post 


Eoutes in 


of the 


of the 


Compensa- 


Transporta- 




Offices. 


Department. 


Department. 


tion of 


tion of the 






XU.11CO* 






Postmasters. 


Mail. 


1790 


75 


1,875 


$37,935 


$32,140 


$8,198 


$22,031 


1795 


453 


13,207 


160,620 


117,893 


30,272 


75,;369 


1800 


903 


20,817 


280,804 


213,994 


69,243 


12S,(;44 


1805 


1,558 


31,076 


421,373 


377,367 


111,552 


239,635 


1810 


2,300 


36,406 


551,684 


495,969 


149,433 


327,966 


1815 


3,000 


43,748 


1,043,065 


748,121 


241,901 


487,779 


1816 


3,260 


48,673 


961,785 


804,422 


265,944 


521,970 


1817 


3,459 


52,089 


1,002,973 


916.515 


303,916 


589, 1 39 


1818 


3,618 


59,473 


1,130,235 


1,035,832 


346,429 


664,611 


1819 


4,000 


67.586 


1,204,737 


1,117,861 


875,328 


717,381 


1820 


4,500 


72;492 


1.111,927 


1,160,926 


352,295 


732,425 


, 1821 


4,650 


78,808 


1,059,087 


1,184,283 


337,599 


315,631 


1822 


4,709 


82,763 


1,117,490 


1,167,572 


855,299 


738,613 


1823 


4,043 


84,860 


1,130,115 


1,156,995 


860,462 


767,464 


1824 


5,182 


84,860 


1,197,758 


1,188,019 


883,804 


763,939 


1825 


5,677 


94,052 


1,306,525 


1,229,043 


411,183 


735,646 


1826 


6,150 


94,052 


1,447,703 


1,866,712 


447,727 


835.100 


1827 


7,003 


105,336 


1,524,633 


1,468.959 


486,411 


942,345 


1828 


7,530 


105,336 


1,659,915 


1,689,945 


548,049 


1,086,313 


1829 


8,004 


115,000 


1,707,418 


1,732,132 


559,237 


1,153,64'> 


1830 


8,450 


115,176 


1,850,533 


1,932,708 


595,234 


1,274,009 


1831 


8,686 


115,486 


1,997,811 


1,936,122 


635,023 


1.252.226 


1832 


9,2!)5 


104,466 


2,258,570 


2,266,171 


715,481 


1,482.507 


1833 


10,127 


119,916 


2,617,011 


2,930,414 


826,283 


1,394,633 


1834 


10,693 


119,916 


2,823,749 


2,910,605 


897,817 


1-925,544 


1835 


10,770 


112,774 


2,993,356 


2,757,850 


945,418 


1,719,007 


1836 


11,091 


118,264 


3,408,323 


8,841,766 


312.803 


1,633,052 


1837 


11,767 


141,242 


4,236,779 


3,544,630 


891,352 


1,996,727 


1838 


12,519 


134.818 


4,238,733 


4,430,662 


933,948 


3,131.308 


1839 


12,780 


133,999 


4,484,657 


4,636,536 


980,000 


8.285,622 


1840 


18,468 


155,739 


4,543,522 


4,718,236 


1,023,925 


3,296.876 


1841 


13,778 


155,026 


4,407,726 


4,499,528 


1,013.645 


3,159,375 


1842 


13,733 


149,732 


4,546,849 


5,674,752 


1,147,256 


8,087,796 


1843 


13,814 


142,295 


4,296,225 


4,374,754 


1,426,394 


2,947,319 


1844 


14,103 


144,687 


4,237,283 ' 


4,296,513 


1,358,316 


2,933,551 


1845 


14,183 


143,940 


4,289,841 


4,320,732 


1,409,375 


2,905,504 


*1846 


14,601 


152,865 


3,487,199 


4,084,297 


1,042,079 


2,716,673 


*1847 


15,146 


153,818 


8,955,893 


3,979,570 


1,060,228 


2,476,455 


*1848 


16,159 


163,208 


4,371,077 


4,326,850 




2,394,703 


*1849 


16,749 


163,703 


4,905,176 


4,479,049 


1.820,921 


2,577,407 


•1850 


18,417 


178,672 


5,552,971 


5,212,953 


1,549,376 


2,965,786 


*1851 


19,796 


196,290 


6,727,867 


6,278,402 


1,781,686 


3,533,064 


*1852 


20,901 


214,284 


6,925,971 


7,108,459 


1,296,765 


4.225,811 


*1853 


22,320 


217,743 


5,940,725 


7,932,757 


1,406,477 


4;906,308 



* The returns for 1846, 1847, 1848, 1849, 1850, and 1851, are for the six years under the lai* 
of March 3, 1845. Those for 1852 and 1853 are for the two vears under the new law. 



ADDENDA. 



805 



The expenditures of tlie department for the past year, including payments for 

foreign postages, were, as already stated, $8,577,424 12 

The revenue of the year, including foreign postages and the appropriation for 

free matter, amounted to 6 9»5,5S6 22 

Deficiency, $1,621,837 90 

PYEAMIDS. M. Persigny, in his "Destination," etc., "Des Pyramides," lately 
published in France, conjectures that they were intended as a barrier to ar- 
rest the progress of the sands from the desert, and thus to preserve the culti- 
vated fields of Egypt from destruction. The great Pyramid at Gbizeh, it is 
stated, was first opened by the Caliph Al Mamoun, *in the expectation of 
discovering treasure ; when the people murmured at their disappointment, 
he ordered a sum of money to be secretly deposited, which, on its discovery 
by the laborers, is said to have satisfied'their cupidity. 

RAILROADS, Great Britain. During the year 1849, about 870 miles of new 
railways were opened in the United Kingdom, viz. : 630 miles in England, 
108 in Scotland, and 132 in Ii-eland. The following table gives the progress 
of railways since 1844, with the average receipts per mile per week : 



Years. 


Miles open. 


Per mile 
per week. 


Years. 


Miles open. 


Per mile 
per \veek. 


1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 


1,770 
2,033 
2,498 
3,375 


£ 
64 
67 
64 
56 


1848 
1849 
1850 


4,178 
4,983 
6,075 


£ 
50 
46 
44 



The number of railroad passengers in England and "Wales in 1846, was* 
35,000,000; in 1850, 53,000,000; total United Kingdom in 1850, 66,000,000.— 
The great Eussian railroad, from Moscow to St. Petersburg, was opened 
J^ovember 13, 1851, the distance, 420 miles, being run through in 18 hours, 
23^ miles per hour, 

RAILROADS ix the United States, In ISTew York : 



Eoads. 


Length, 


Capital 

stock 

paid in. 


Funded 
and float- 
ing debt. 


Cost of 
construc- 
tion and 

equip- 
ment. 


Eeceipts 
for year.* 


Payments 
for other 

than con- 
struction 
and 

dividends. 


Hudson Kiver, 


miles. 
144 
464 
534 


$ 

8,727,827 

10,091,000 

22,213,983 


$ 

8,344,439 

22,853,895 

11,564,034 


$ 
11,780,951 
31,224,834 
22,044.529 


1,298,617 
4,484.986 
3,570,187 


$ 

1,481,048 
3,554,290 

2,105,757 

1 


New York and Erie, 

New York Central, 



* Year ending September 30, 1853. 



Koads, 



In Pennsylvania: 
Pennsylvania, (Ilarrisburg to Pittsburg,) .. 

In Maryland : 
Baltimore and Ohio, (to "Wheeling, Va,,) . . , 

In Michigan: 

Central, (Detroit to Chicago,) 

Southern Michigan and Northern Indiana, 

(Monroe to Chicago,) , . 



Length. 



miles. 
252 

380 

278 
247 



Cost. 



15,600,000 

19,542,807 

8,856,834 
6,000,000 , 



Gross -c, 

Receipts, ^^^T'"' 
1852-3. ^^^'-^ 



1852-3. 



1,943,827 

2,026,212 

1,145,537 
1,100,000 



1,326,801 

8,645,609 

556,721 
770,000 



806 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



RAILROADS in the Uxited States — continued. 



ir< P" 1^ f 1^ 



^. e- -. 3' P- 



^ ^ a "■ ■* a 

. O hrl ,-I> Oj ^^ 

> 5 ?i :: » 3 

5" >^ 3 II 2 " 



^ 2 ^ 

3 n 

2 S » 

5 ■" ti. 

n3 o o 



? 3 



5 5-' i! 



^ iliPlfil^lill^ 


?] 13 153 5C « W SJ 

S S i ^" - s S S £ i,' 

S?r2-^"ocoor 

• 3S=-o= = = = - 






. ++5'-? P-5 3 = 3 ® 


1 


'. 5 
p. 

■ i 


p-5 r» E, 

1: =^i 
s : : ^ - 

= ::">■ 


a. a. 






^ : 


3 


fa 


» 

a. 


-<- 


I: i ^i 


_~ 














„ 








Road coniple- 














^ 










KS 


m ui <x> — oi cc >:» -4 a- o >p fo :>:■ — to ys -^ o 05 -J ji. oi ^ cji H- — . 


Length of road. 








"* 


ex3000jc'-*;;iyiowjLCJi:ow: — c--— 04-005 — oi -i^/= 




to 


... ^ .>^.-„,- ^- ■ ^^~'^^c^ B 


Lengtli o'" dou- 


«= 


"■: : ; .'". r'r'' i*^' ^ p- s*?^- '• f*^?' t' i^'- — 


ble track. 


00 


CO*. — coo O W OO OWOisO-l 




, . ^ . *_. • frC' »-* '5 


Length of 






Bniiicliiis. 




. . hh::- • • -J • to • • • bo • M -^ ■ : • b b b -J cB . J 


>tx 


OO Ci» Ol tn OS— 'W ^OOiO-3 




'-'01*0 t-* >-» to CO'-' to w »o »t-tOJ*^ 






'— -i to to to"ls. it>.'cD '— Oi o:. to ►o":J''b tO~00 U."b f^'oi — o'V 3> 


Tot.al capital 
paid ill. 




■ioioo^T — oi-tooootooooo .- — w — ooosoo'^ 




















s 


OOO — «TC^OOO-00*^00-400 0<OOOOt-0 




■"•enCO t-itotO M— M ^-'^ "f*- ^Jp'-J* 


Total cost of 






itiad and 














"uT to^/s"^ b&b 05 CM'Vb'to OS '— ' OD"b *i. -ito ^ to"^''o co"bT"b 


eqiiipnit;iit. 


a-J 


.^ VO CO 33 to --O JO en 00 05 Ot 00 -X> O O Ot i2 -J. 0> -J O' — OS o 






'-■CO^-'-'W-tO-J- " !-• iP-to to 00 — Ot *> -^ to 1 












4i-X'tO- it-p- Jf^«0- J-J-- to — 53 ■-'J-05 -J_0 O to p OS ■ 


D.'bt. 














— 


OlOCt 00 0000 OOOCDOOOOOO. 't'4*0t0 0-00 




^ J^ ^-4 KO MW--— 05tO i35tOW OOOt^cix 








learnings in 








1853. 






1 ^ ^ WJ5 - X. ./5 - .JV t- cr. ,» a-. O - = . -JJ ^ O -J *. o o 












O-^COiCO'-'tOOtJ; 'C*OtOt0^05C3 0too^-'OOOOtO" 


Expense of 
woiking. 


















c:: 00 /.v CO -JD CO rf:^ oi Ot W to OD O' OS J ' c:. - 0-. —^ ^ -< 3-. to 












ooji.^to_totoio — J:-2g^j;g;o bSSmw — SS''^ 






Net Earnings. 




































Dividends. 














— 


<oo WJ COOOOJOOO OWOOOO-OSOO 




_ to _^ -4 — — 












-J 00 ; to; ^i. ; rf:. -^p CO to o5jDj-a ; ut rf^ eo ^ cc ^-; to to ; 


Surplus. 
















00 o> -* -.- X. OS :o x> -3 -» =0 — • o:> -J O) *^ to 






... 7 


Dividt-ndlor 




W -a • 00. 05 OS • .p.. *^ OC Oa OS 0> 00 . OS *^ .p. OS -1 OS . . . ^ 


1853. 




•c 


Amount divi- 




; _ ; ^ ; ^ ^ -, ; ; ~ 


dends paid 




— o>. to. totO'-'-.oi..-' — -JOi- O't'.'-^i-^t.oto. . oo'; 


since road 




^lv--.S|h- tJl.- (OlM(0;h-Mi.-i Nji-'MlMOTli-'aoiZt ^ 


I'OmmMii-ed.* 






1 S,'-. d |,as„.n«. 


- 


CO 00 Wt O! >-* OS 00 O" to J^ . i — '-' ^M Ot — ot 01 rfi. OS Ci .,, 

NJM to;.- 


1 tra'iis pi-r lin;u'. 


3 


1 Sp -ed fif freiglit 










1 I'JIIIP, 




. o- to. OS. ^i-i. . . . Goto. lOi-.. . tT't'IOCO. 


1 F,-itaI. 


p 




^ 


1 Not 




^" ^4. ■ fl ■ ■ ■ OS -■ ■ ■ 


1 fi.tal. 1 . 1 



ADDENDA. 



807 



The following is a comparative statement of the railways of the United 
States on January 1, of the four years stated: 





1852. 


1853. 


1854, 


1855. 


Miles in operation, 


11,565 
11,228 
$335,150,848 


13,847 

10,418 

$408,103,109 


17,811 

12,898 

$508,588,038 


21,310 

16,975 

$621,816,303 


Miles in construction, 

Capital invested, 







The above is not strictly correct, but is, probably, a close approximation to 
the true figures. The following figures will show very nearly the number 
of miles opened throughout each year for the past four years : 



■ 


1851. 


1852. 


1853. 


1854. 




1,278 


2,282 


3,964 


3,599 





"We find in The American Railway Times the annexed railway statistics, made 
up to the close of 1854 : 



States. 



Maine, 

New Hampshire, 

Vermont, 

Massachusetts, . . . 
Ehode Island,.. . 
Connecticut,. ... 

New Tf)rk, 

New Jersey, 

Pennsylvania, . . 

Delaware, 

Maryland, 

Virginia, 

North Carolina,. 
South Carolina, . 

Georgia, 

Florida, 

Alabama, 

Mississippi, 

Louisiana, 

Texas, 

Tennessee, 

Kentucky, 

Ohio, 

Indiana, 

Illinois, 

Michigan, 

Missouri, 

Iowa, 

Wisconsin, 

Total, 



Number 

of 
Eailways. 



12 

16 

7 

39 

1 

12 

32 

11 

69 

2 

2 

23 

5 

10 

16 

2 

6 

7 

8 

1 

12 

10 

47 

39 

31 

5 

6 

4 

11 



444 



Number of 

miles in 
operation. 



477 
512 
419 

1,293 

50 

638 

2,625 
437 

1,992 
16 
512 
887 
381 
700 
930 
54 
221 
239 
169 



517 

228 

2,927 

1,453 

2,667 

601 

50 

115 

283 



21,310 



Number of 
miles in course 
of construction. 



35 
34 
59 
36 



51 

801 



1,4C6 

43 

80 

1,095 

243 

874 

452 



659 

755 

293 

72 

946 

572 

1,681 

2,608 

1,556 

888 

903 

1,815 

746 



16,975 



Cost. 



$ 

13,749,021 

15.860,940 

17,993,835 

59,167,781 

2.614,484 

25.2-24,191 

111,882,503 

13,840,030 

94,657,675 

600,000 

2,654.338 

16,466,250 

6.847,213 

13.547,093 

17,084,872 

250,000 

8,9H6.208 

4,520,000 

1,731,000 

"'io.436.6i6' 

6.179,072 

67.798,2(11 

29,585.933 

55,fi68.6.->6 

22,870.897 

1,000,000 

!J^OO,000 

5p)0,000 



621,316,303 



No one ever imagined, befoi'e these roads were built, that the freight busi- 
ness would exceed the amount received for passengers. It is remarkable, 



808 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



also, that the money for freight comes from some of the heaviest articles, as 
may be seen in the following aggregate upon three of these roads: 



Eoads. 


1 
Flour, Coal. 


Pork and 
beef. 


Iron. 


Lumber. , 


Kaltimore and Oliio, 

Pennsylvania Central, 

New York and Erie, 

Total, 


bbls. 
666,160 
205,000 
850,000 


tuns. 

225,574 
4,000 
5,000 


bbls. 

42,000 

85,000 

150,000 


tuns. 

14,000 
1,000 
2,000 


tuns, 

48 

1,000 

100,000 


1,221,160 


254,5T4 


277,000 


17,000 


101,048 ; 



The freight carried on the New York and Erie Eoad amounted to 650,000 
tuns, an amount greater than all the aggregate of the above articles. When 
we look at the enormous freights, especially in coal and flour, on the Balti- 
more and Ohio Koad, and of lumber and merchandise on the New York 
and Erie, we perceive at once two great facts — that the modes of traHspovta- 
tion have changed, and that the amount transported exceeds all common 
belief But there is another effect of these great railways, which has special 
reference to the Central West. It is the surplus produce of the West, 
which chiefly makes up these enormous freights ; and just in proportion aa 
their facilities have increased, has the value of western produce increased. 
They have the entire surplus of both agricultural and mineral wealth in the 
Valley of the Ohio, saleable to market. The cost of freight on a barrel oi 
flour, (which may be taken as a standard for other freight,) from Cincinnati 
to New York, is from $1 to $1.10, or, in other words, about 60 cents for 100 
poxmds, on western produce, for a distance of over 700 miles. 

South America, The first railway in Peru, from Callao to Lima, six miles, 
was opened November, 1850. 

RAILROADS, Transportation of Mails by. 

PRINCIPAL routes. 



Termini. 


Length. 


Annual 
Pay. 


Pay per 
Mile. 


Jour- 
neys in 
a year. 


Miles run. 


Pay per 

Mile. 

Cts. 


Portland to Boston 


110.^ 
242L 
460 
102 
144 
321 
185 
257 
2S2.V 
380" 
357i- 
90 
102 
40 
98 
226 
171 
139 
359 


$16,161 
53,348 
92,000 

117,217 
32,400 
64,200 
43,720 
69,390 
42,375 
91,387 
71,325 
34,088 
37,500 
12,000 
30,050 
67,800 
40,612 
3-3,012 
84,437 


$147 
220 
200 
169 
225 
200 
236 
270 
150 
240 
200 
379 
368 
300 
306 
300 
237 
237 
235 


1,248 
1,976 
1,976 
1,248 
1,976 
2,600 
1,352 
1,352 
1,248 
1,040 
1,456 
1,976 
1,976 
2,704 
1,456 
1,456 
728 
1,456 • 
1,456 


14.3.520 

479,180 
908,900 
127,296 
284,544 
834,600 
250,160 
347,464 
852.-560 
395,200 
520,520 
177,840 
201.552 
108,160 
142,688 
329,056 
124,488 
202,384 
522,704 


11 

11 

10 

13',- 

11 

m 

20 

12 

23 

13^ 

19 

18^ 

11 

21 

20.^ 

.32i 

16" 

16 


Boston to New York 

New York to Dunkirk 

Springfield to Albany . . 

New York to Albany 

Albany to Buifalo 


Buffalo to Cleveland 

Cleveland to Cincinnati 

Detroit to Chicago 


Baltimore to Wheeling 

Philadelpliia to Pittsburg. . . 
New York to Philadelphia. . 
Philadelphia to Baltimore . . 
Baltimore to Washington. . . 

A. Creek to Petersburg 

Petersburg to Wilmington. . 
Wilmington to Kingsville. . 

Charleston to Augusta 

Augusta to Montgomery . . . 

Total First Class 

Balance in the Union . 

Total in the Union 


4,067 
10,373 


933,022 

825,588 


229 

80 


1,586 
866 


6.452,876 

8,9Slt,513 


14} 


14,440 


1,758,610 


122 • 1,069 ' 15,433,389 


m 



ADDENDA. 



809 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS in the United States, according to the 
Census of 1850. 



Denominations. 


No. of 
Churches. 


Aggregate Ac- 
commodations. 


Av'age 
Accom- 


Total Yalue of 
Church Pro- 


Average 
Value of 








odat'ns. 


perty. 


Property. 


Baptist, .... 


8,791 


3,180,878 


356 


$ 10,931,382 


$ 1,244 


Christian, . 






812 


296,050 


865 


845,810 


1,041 


Congregational, 






1,674 


796,177 


475 


7,973,962 


4,763 


Dutch Eeformed, 






324 


181,986 


561 


4,096,730 


12,644 


Episcopal, 






1,422 


625,213 


440 


11,261,970 


7,919 


Free, . 






361 


108,61 '5 


300 


252,255 


698 


Friends, . 






714 


282,823 


396 


1,709,867 


2.395 


German Eeformed, 






327 


156,932 


479 


965,880 


2,953 


Jewish, . 






31 


16,575 


534 


371,600 


11,987 


Lutheran, . 






1,208 


531,100 


441 


2,867,886 


2,833 


Mennonite, 






110 


29,900 


272 


94,245 


856 


Methodist, . 






12,467 


4,209,833 


337 


14,636,671 


1,174 


Moravian, 






831 


112,185 


338 


443,347 


1,339 


Presbyterian, 






4,584 


2,040,316 


445 


14,369,889 


3,135 


Eoman Catholic, . 






1,112 


620,950 


558 


8,973,838 


8,069 


Swedenborgian, . 






15 


5,070 


338 


108,100 


7,206 


Tunker, . 






52 


35,075 


674 


46,025 


88.5 


Union, 






619 


21-3,552 


345 


690,065 


1,114 


Unitarian, 






243 


137,367 


565 


8,268,122 


l;],449 


Universalist, , 






494 


205,462 


415 


1,767,015 


3,576 


Minor Sects, . 






325 


115,347 


354 


741,980 


2,283 


Total, . 






36,011 


13,849,896 


384 


$ 86,416,639 


$ 2,400 



RICE. First planted in South Carolina, 1693, and has been grown in that State 
every year since that period. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS, the Civil List of, for 1854 : 

For His Majesty's privy purse, $10,000 

" royal state, . .... 4,000 

" medical attendant, . .... . 2,000 

For Her Majesty the Queen, 1,000 

For His Eoyal Highness (heir apparent), 3,000 

For Prince "Kamehameha, Gen. of Division and Privy Counsellor, 800 

Total, $20,800 

The whole receipts of customs amounted, in the year 1853, to $155,640.1Y, 
from which is to be deducted the cost of collection, leaving the net assets at 
a small figure. 

SCHOOLS — originally kept in the porches of churches. Even so late as 1624, 
John Evelyn, then four years old, was taught by "one Frier at the church- 
porch of Wotton." — jE's Diary. The ragged schools, for the instruction of 
destitute children in England, originated with John Pounds, a poor crip]:)le 
and shoemaker at Portsmouth, who, while laboring for his daily sustenance, 
found time to instruct the vagabond children of his neighborhood. He died, 
"deplored by all his scholars and their relatives, Jan. 1839." Infant scliools 
originated about 1180, with Oberlin, pastor of Waldbach (Germ.); and in 
England were first put in operation in 1815, by James Buchanan, one of the 
masters engaged by Robert Owen at Lanark. Wilderspin's plans were sub- 
sequent to the above. — West. Revieio. Sabbath schools were partially in 
operation previous to the great effort of Mr. Raikes, through the instrumen- 
tality of Miss Walker, a Quaker lady of Tottenham, near London, and the 



810 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



Rev. Mr. Lindsay and wife, of Catteriek, Yorkshire. — Nor. of Scot. Gaz. The 
first Sabbath school in the United States is said to have been established by 
Mrs. Archibald Lake, in the stockade in Marietta, Ohio, March 1791. [See 
Military School and Naval School.] 

SCHOOLS. Normal, in the United States. Normal schools are special seminaries 
for the instruction and practice of school teacliers in the science of education, 
and in the art of teaching and governing. It is surprising that although 
nearly every State in the Union has established free schools, only a very 
few of them have provided for the proper education of teachers. In this re- 
spect we are surpassed by several European nations, in which public schools 
are established and supported by law, and where normal schools form pro- 
minent parts of their respective systems. The following is a list of the prin- 
cipal American institutions of this character. The}'^ are all organized and 
conducted upon neaidy the same plan; in each tuition is free, based upon 
the pupil's declaration of an intention to pursue the business of teaching. 
Nearly all of them have schools of practice attached. 

PRINCtPAL NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES. 



1 

^ 1 



Location. 


Founded. 


Wliole No. 
of Pupils. 


Graduates. 


Framinffliam, Massachusetts 


1S39 
1839 
1S40 
ia55 
1844 
1849 
1854 
1849 
1852 
1S52 


81-3 
930 
854 

2',5a6 
681 
538 

'121 
47 


598* 
'534 
'800 
'182 


Westfleld, " , 


Brido'e water, " 


Villein " 


Albany, New York 


New Hvitain Connecticut 


Pliiladelulii;!, Pennsylvania 


l^eeil s Ferry. New llainpsliire 


Ypsilanti, Micliigau 


Oskaloosa, Iowa 



SCULPTORS, Wandering. A moderate estimate gives us two hundred makers 
and venders of images in the city of New York. Of these, perhaps one-eightli 
have fixed habitations and shops where they carry on their business. The 
remainder are itinerants who manufacture their own wares and vend them 
through the streets of the city and the country villages. They are exelu 
sively of Italian origin — coming mostly from the shores of the lovely Lake 
of Como, in Lombardy. They usually emigrate in small parties — forming 
on their arrival here into companies, and constantly cherishing the idea of a 
return to their native land. Many of them will wander througli this strange 
country for from five to twenty years — existing on the humblest food, and 
often, in the summer months, trusting to the bountiful earth for a lodging- 
place — thus of their own choice encountering difficulties and privations un- 
known to any other class of our population, and all that they may return to 
their early homes and die in competence among the loved scenes of infancy. 
Those who die during this term of self-exile intrust the little Avhich they have 
accumulated to a companion, who transmits it safely to the family or friends 
of the deceased in Italy. And rarely indeed is this trust violated ; for these 
poor people are characterized by as high a sense of honor as of amor patri,(£. 
In fact, these Italian emigrants are much superior in a moral point of view 
to the generality of those thrown upon our shores. The industry of the 



* Females only. The other schools include both sexes. 



ADDENDA. 811 

"sculptoi's" is most praiseworthy. They will return from their wanderings 
of the day to toil during the gi^eater part of the night in completing a stock 
of images to take out on the succeeding morning. One bed answers for the 
entire " firm," which is usually composed of three or four members. Their 
food is simple, and of the poorest quality. They usually remain in this 
country about ten ^-ears ; in that time some accumulate as much as five 
thousand dollars, although that is greatly beyond the average. As a con- 
sequence of their long term of residence in this country, the emigrants return 
to their native land much improved in their mental condition. Many of 
them arrive here ignorant of everything appertaining to social and political 
progress, and return tolerably well informed. 

SEWING MACHINES. Invented 1848, and brought to general use by the large 
tailoring establishments. A machine, with the attention of one girl, will sew 
six overcoats per day. — Sci. Am. 

SHANGHAI. The population trading with this Chinese port is between 
60,000,000 and 80,000,000. The teas grown here are the finest in the world, 
and its supplies to foreign countries are about seven-eighths of the whole 
product exported from the empire. The amount sent forward from China in 
1850, is given officially as follows; to Russia, 7,000,000 lbs. ; France, 2,000,000 
lbs. ; Holland, 3,000,000 lbs.; Great Britain, 52,000,000 lbs. ; and the United 
States, 30,000,000 lbs. ; the total valuation of which shipments cannot fall 
far short of $30,000,000. The rich silk fabrics of Suchan are brought to 
Shanghai, as well as numerous other articles of valuable traffic, all of which 
may be more readily purchased here than at Canton, which poi't receives 
its principal export supplies from the former. The importance of Shanghai 
as a port of entrance for the American merchant offers incalculable ad- 
vantages. 

SHIPPING, U. S. Tunnage of the principal cities of the U. S. : 

Tuns anrl 95ths. 

The city of New York has of registered, enrolled, and licensed tunnage, . 1,262,798.08 

Boston " " " " . 495.879.51 

Piiiladelphia " " " " . . 268,746.62 

New Orleans " " " " • 188,818.08 

Baltimore " " " " • • 170,8:35.35 

New Bedford " " " " • 165.910.28 

« Batli " " " " • . 154,501.'.^7 

" Portland " " " " • 123,672.48 

Wuidsborongh » " " " . • 122,735.80 

No other city in the United States reaches 100,000 tuns. 

The ag2;res;ates are, of registered tunnage, ..... 2,333,819.16 
Of enrolled and licensed tunnage, ....... 2,469083.47 

Total, 4,802,9^)2.63 

The number and class of vessels built in the principal ship-building States of 
the United States during the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1854. The totals 
in some of the States are us follows : 

Maine, the largest number, .... . S4f^ 

New York, next largest number, ..... 300 

Pennsylvania " ...... 237 

Massachusetts, " ..... 180 

Maryland " 122 

No other State reaches the number of 100. 

The aggregate number of all the vessels, of every class, built in the several 
States and Territories, is 1,774, of which 334 were ships and barques. Their 
tunnage amounted to 535,636.01 95ths. 



812 



rHE world's progress. 



SHIPPING, U. ^.—continued. 

A Comparative View of the Regisftred and Enrolled Tannage of the United States, shoM-ing 
the tunnage employed in the Whale Fishery; also, the proportion of the enrolled and 
licensed tunnage employed in the Coasting Trade, Cod Fishery, Mackerel Fishery, and' 
W"hale Fishery, from 1S15 to 1854, inclusive. 











Eegis- 


Tunnage 


Proportion of the Enrolled Tun- 




Eegis- 


Enrolled 


■ Total 


tered 


employ- 


nage employ 


ed in the 




Teara. 


tered 
Tunnage. 


tunnage 


ed in 










Tunnage. 


Tunnage. 


in 

Whale 

Fishery. 


Steam 
Naviga- 
tion. 


Coasting 
Trade. 


Cod 
Fishery. 


Mack- 
erel 
Fishery. 




1815 


854,294 


513,833 


1,368,127 




435,066 


26,510 




1,229 


1816 


800,759 


571,458 


1,372.218 






479,979 


37,879 






1,163 


1817 


809,724 


590,186 


1,399,921 


8,471 




481,457 


53,99C 






849 


1818 


606,088 


619,095 


1,225,184 


16,134 




503,140 


58,551 






614 


1819 


612,930 


647,821 


1,260,751 


31,700 




523,556 


65,044 






686 


1820 


919,047 


661,118 


1,280,166 


35,391 




539,080 


611,842 






1,053 


1821 


619,896 


679,062 


1,298,958 


26,070 




559,435 


51,351 






1,924 


1822 


628,150 


696,548 


1,324,699 


45,449 




578,080 


58,405 






8,133 


1823 


639.920 


696,644 


1,336,565 


39,918 


24',879 


566,408 


67,621 






535 


1824 


669; 972 


729.190 


1,389.163 


33.165 


21,609 


589,223 


68,419 






180 


1825 


700,787 


722,323 


1,423,110 


85,379 


23,061 


587,273 


70.626 








1826 


737,978 


796,210 


1,534,189 


41,757 


34,058 


666,420 


63,761 






226 


1827 


747,170 


873,437 


1,620,607 


45.653 


40,197 


782,937 


74,048 






328 


1828 


812,619 


928,772 


1,741,391 


54;621 


39,418 


758,922 


74,947 






130 


1829 


650,142 


610,654 


1,260,797 


57,284 


54,036 


508,858 


101,796 








1830 


576,675 


615,311 


1,191,776 


38,911 


64,471 


516,978 


61,554 


35,973 


792 


1831 


620,451 


647,394 


1,267,846 


82,315 


34,445 


539,723 


60,977 


46,210 


481 


1832 


686,989 


752,460 


1,489,450 


72,863 


90,813 


649,627 


54,027 


47,427 


877 


1833 


750,026 


856,123 


1,606,149 


101,158 


101,849 


744,198 


62,720 


48,725 


478 


1834 


857,438 


901,468 


1,758,907 


108,060 


122,815 


783.613 


54.403 


61,082 


864 


1835 


885,520 


939,118 


1,824,940 


97,640 


122,815 


792,301 


72,874 


64.44;3 




1836 


897,774 


984,828 


1,820,132 


144,630 


145,556 


878,023 


62,307 


64,425 


1,573 


1337 


810,447 


1,086,238 


1,896,685 


127,241 


154,764 


956,980 


80,551 


46,810 


1,894 


1838 


822,591 


1,173,047 


1,995,639 


119,629 


193,413 


1,041,105 


70,064 


56,649 


5,229 


1839 


834,244 


1,262,234 


2,096,478 


181,845 


204,938 


1,153,551 


72,258 


85,988 


439 


1840 


899,764 


1,280,99<) 


2,180,764 


136,926 


202,339 


1,176.694 


76,085 


28,269 




1841 


845,803 


1,184,940 


2,130,744 


157,405 


175,088 


1,107,067 


66,551 


11,321 




1842 


975,358 


1,117,031 


2,092,890 


151.612 


229.661 


1,045,753 


54,804 


16,096 


877 


1843 


1,009,305 


1,149,297 


2,158,601 


152,374 


236,867 


1,076.155 


61,224 


11.775 


143 


1844 


1,068,764 


1,211,330 


2.280,095 


168,298 


272,179 


1,109,614 


85,224 


16,170 


321 


1845 


1.095,172 


1,321,829 


2,417,002 


190,695 


326,018 


1,190,893 


69,825 


21,413 


206 


1846 


1,131,286 


1,431,798 


2,562,084 


189,980 


347.893 


1,289,870 


72,516 


86,463 


439 


1847 


1,241,312 


1,597,732 


2,839,045 


193,858 


404;841 


1,452,623 


70,177 


31,451 


• • 


1848 


1.360,886 


1,793,155 


3,154,041 


192,179 


427,891 


1,620,988 


82,651 


43,558 


432 


1849 


1.438,941 


1,895,073 


8,334,015 


180,186 


462,394 


1,730,410 


42,970 


73,853 




1850 


i;535,711 


1,949,743 


3,535,454 


146,016 


525,946 


1,755,796 


85.646 


58,111 




1851 


1,726,307 


2,046,123 


8,772,439 


181,614 


583,607 


1,854,317 


87,475 


50,539 




1852 


1,899,448 


2,238,992 


4,188,440 


193,797 


643,240 


2,008,021 


102,659 


72,546 




1853 


2,103,674 


2,303,336 


4,407,010 


193,203 


514,097 


2,134,256 


109,227 


59,850 




1854 


2,333,819 


2,469,083 


4,802,902 


181,901 


676,607 


2,273,900 


102,194 


35,041 





SHIPPING OF THE WORLD. 



Countries. 



Years, 



British Empire, 1844 

1854 

United States, I 1854 

France, | 1850 



Number 
of vessels 
possessed. 



35,960 
14,354 



Tunnage 
of vessels 
possessed. 



5,043.270 

5,661,416 

688,130 



Number 
of vessels 
entered 

and 
cleared. 



838,039 
342,854 



Tunnage 
of vessels 

entered 
and 

cleared. 



32,426,837 

42,573,369 

40,000,000* 

6,610,719 



• Estimated. 



ADDENDA. 



8i; 



SHIPPING- OF THE WOKLD—cwitinued. 



Countries. 



France, 

Spain and Colonies, . 



PorUig.al, 



Sardinia, Tuscany, Papal States, 

and Naples, including Sicil}^ . 
Austria, 



Greece, 

Turkey, 

Eevpt, 

Mexico, Brazil, and all the States 

of Central and South America, 
Sandwich and Society Islands,. 
Belgium, 



Years. 



Number 
of vessels 
possessed. 



Holland, . 



Hanover and Oldenburg 
Hamburg, 



Lubeck, 

Bremen, 

Mecklenburg, 
Prussia, 



Denmark, 
Norway, . . 
Sweden, .. 
Eussia, . . . 



1854 
1850 
1854 
1848 
1854 

1854 
1849 
1854 
1854 
1S54 
1854 

1854 
1854 
1850 
1854 
1850 
1854 
1854 
1852 



1849 
1854 
1852 
1851 
1852 
1852 



14,354* 
7,606 
7,986* 
789 
836* 

17,066t 
6,083 
7,600* 
3,970 
2,220 
230 

1,530* 
100 
149 
No incr'se. 

1,793 

2,048* 
500* 
369$ 

2,000§ 
70* 



Tunnage 
of vessels 
possessed. 



150* 
1,531 

4,080* 
4,695 

""88611 
800 or less. 



716,000* 

361,401 

879.421* 

80,525 

86,156* 

546,021t 
259,583 
324,000'^ 
264,981 

182,000 
38,790 

193,735* 

3,000 
30,577 
86,000* 
896,924 
456,459* 
40,000* 
119,884 
101,664§ 
9,380* 

Unknown. 
2.88,638 

368,800* 

189,190 

368,632 

147,92811 



Number 

of vessels 

entered 

and 
cleared. 



10,977 
11,526 



Tunnage 
of vessels 

entered 
and 

cleared. 



4,792 

13,986 
15,771* 

" 8,920 

" 2.400* 
8,000* 
1,000* 

10.315 

107,571 

19,447 



10,000,000* 
1,387,468 
1,456,841 



706,605 



17,0221" 



2,236,835 
2,472,075* 



1,686,749 



430.000* 

430,000* 

Unknown. 



1,063,736 

1,074,108 
1,928,022 
1,872,672 
3,090,81 4f 



The floating tunnage of the whole civilized world, (excluding only China 
and the East,)' may consist of nearly 136,000 vessels of 14,500,000 tuns. 

SHIPWRECKS. The shipwrecks of the eighteen months, ending May 1855, count 
' up near eight thousand dead. Among the most prominent in the great loss 
of life are the following : /Siemners— Birkenhead, 700 ; City of Glasgow, 500 ; 
San Francisco, ^00 ; Arctic, 330 ; Yankee Blade, 40 ; Forerunner, 14 ; Launch, 
24 • Pearl 18 Sailmg t;esse/s— Olympus and Trade Wmd, 24 ; Walter Clax- 
ton 13- ship E. Z., 19; cutter Hamilton, 15 ; Tayleur, 370; Staffordshire, 
180'- Favorite, 201; Mary Jane, 144; Santa Anna, 70; Powhattan, 330; 
New Era 277; Johannes, 84; Abadish, 701; Mercedes, 731; W. H. Davis, 
29; Annie Jane, 375; Europa, 18; Waldron, 85; Leviathan 28; Warren, 
14 Total 5 534. The full extent of losses on vessels which have met with 
disasters reported in American papers, in some way connected Avith Ameri- 
can trade, embracing inland trade, exceeds 4,000 in the last twelve months, 
(1853-54.) The whole reported from every part of the world is over 10,000. 
Up to 1850 the average losses reported from every section reach 3,000 per 



* Estimated. 

t Reported, but not officially. 

% Sea-going. 



§ Coasting. 

B Exclusive of coasting trade, 

t Eussian vessels and tunnage about on*-eigntQ. 



814 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



annum. The losses of the last twelve months exceed those of any three 
previous years. Over fifty ves.sels in that time have not been heard from. 
Among the missing vessels the last year not heard from are: 



Packet-ships Constitution and Waterloo, full cargoes, . 
Steauier City of Glasgow, total loss, . . . , 

■WRECKS. 

Loss by fog— Steamer Humboldt (Halifex Harbor), 
" Steamer Franklin (Long Island), 

" Siiip Montezuma, .... 

" Sliip C. Jerome, . . . , 

" A Bremen ship— 300 passengers, . . 

" Steamer Arctic, . . . . , 

Total, .... 

The steamer San Francisco, with troops, and many others. 



. $200,000 
1,000,000 



. 1,200,000 
1,500,000 



2,000,000 



. $7,500,000 



The losses paid by Marine Insurance Companies for the year 1854, in New 
York alone, exceed $12,000,000. Two hundred and one vessels were reported 
in a single week in the Journal of Commerce. The losses on land by fire and 
storm,s, for the year 1854, are not less than $18,000,000 — making not less, in 
all, than $30,000,000. 

SLAVES STATES OF U. S.— Educ.\tion in. There are in the slave States 
2,867,567 native whites over 20 years of age, of whom 494,161, or just 17.23 
per cent, are returned as " illiterate," while in the free States there are 
6,649,001 of the same kind of population, of whom 273,623 are returned as 
"illiterate," or just 4.12 per cent. The slave States show more than seven- 
teen persons in a hundred, over 20 years of age, who cannot read and write. 
In New England, only one person in 400, over 20 years of age, is incapable 
of reading and writing ; while in the slave States, the ratio is one in twelve. 



States. 


Native 
Whites. 


Whites at 
School. 


Per cent, 
at Scliool. 


Arkansas 


159,946 
514,566 
266,000 
871,393 


23,332 

76,914 

39,993 

109,500 


13.33 
14.95 
15.03 
12.26 




Soutli Carolina 

Virginia 





On the other hand, take four free States, similarly situated as to the amount 
of population : 



States. 


Native 
Whites. 


Whites at 
School. 


Per cent, 
at School. 


Wisconsin 


193,478 
549,674 
279,383 
819,044 


45,441 

182,770 

88,656 

209,854 


23.48 
33.25 
31.73 
25.62 


Maine 


Vermont 


Massachusetts 



In every case we find that the free States have nearly double the number at 
school of the slave States, and in some instances more than double the nura- 



ADDENDA. 



815 



ber. The same result may be exhibited by the comparative circulation of 
the newspaper and periodical press. In New England, the circulation of 
literary papers is in the ratio of 5.30 to each person of the white popula- 
tion ; in the Middle States 8.24; and in the Southern States 1.05. Of poli- 
tical papers, the circulation in New England holds a ratio of 16.38 to each 
person; in the Middle States 16.30; and in the Southern States 6.18. _ The 
ratio cf religious papers in New England is 2.28 to each person ; in the 
Middle States 3.13, and in the Southern States 0.70. The Southern States 
here spoken of are Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and 
Florida, excluding the South-western slave States, which would greatly ag- 
gravate the ratio. The whole number of periodicals, of all kinds, religious, 
political, literary, scientific and miscellaneous, printed in the slave and free 
States, foots up in this wise : 

-p No. of Copies 

■" Printed annually. 

California, 761.200 

Connecticut, .... 4,267.932 

Illinois, 5.102,276 

Indiana, 4,316,828 

lo^va 1,512,800 

Maine, 4,203,064 

Massachusetts, .... 64,820.564 

Michigan, 3,247.736 

New Ilainpsliire, .... 3,067.552 
New Jersey, .... 4,098.678 
New York, .... 115.385.473 

Ohio, 30,473 407 

Pennsylvania, . . . .84 898.672 
Kliode Island, .... 2,756,950 

Vermont 2,567,662 

Wisconsin, .... 2,665,487 

Total, .. . 333,997,082 

The copies printed in the free States are more than four times the number 
printed in the slave States. The number of whites in the slave States, in 1 850, 
was 6,222,418, and in the free States was 13,330,650 ; showing that while 
the latter does not double the former, the papers printed in the latter more 
than quadruple the former ! About the same proportion holds in regard to 
the public libraries — school, college, and church libraries included — of these 
districts. The States of New York and Pennsylvania each print more pe- 
riodicals in a year than all the slave States together, (New York about 
double,) and Massachusetts alone nearly as many. The volumes open to the 
use of the public in New York more than double all the volimies in all the 
slave States, though New York has only one-half their white population. 
Virginia has a white population of 894,800, and Massachusetts of 977,154; 
but^he public volumes of Virginia are only 88,464, while those of Massa- 
chusetts are 684,015. The State of New Hampshire, with less than half the 
white population of Virginia, has more than double the number of libraries, 
with a nearly equal number of volumes. The little State of Rhode Island, 
no bigger than a Virginia corn-field, has more public books by some 14,000 
than ail Virginia; and Massachusetts has more than all the fifteen slave 
States. 
SLAVE-TRADE. Official returns made to the foreign office in London show 
that from the year 1840 to the year 1848, inclusive, 594 vessels, containing 
37,824 slaves, were captured by the British squadron, and 556 of them con- 
demned. It has been estimated by the English statician McQueen, that the 
loss sustained by slave-traders in consequence of the captures or presence of 
African cruisers, from the year 1800 to 1847, was £30,240,000. 



„, No. of Copies 

^'^'^®- Printed annually. 

Alabama 2,662,741 

Arkansas, 377,000 

Delaware, 421.200 

Florida, 319,800 

Georgia, . .• . . . 4.070.866 
Kentucky, .... 6,582,833 

Louisiana, 12.416,224 

Maryland, 19.612,724 

Mississippi, ],752.5'^4 

Missouri 6,195.560 

North Carolina, .... 2,020.564 
South Carolina, . . . 7.14,5,930 

Tennessee, 6,5'4O,750 

Texas 1,296.924 

Virginia, 9,223,068 

Total, . . 78,738,693 



816 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



SOVEREIGNS (REIGNING) OF EUROPE. 



Name. 



Oscar I 

Alexander II.. 
Frederic 711.. 

Victoria I 

William III.... 

Leopold I 

Fred. Wm. IV. 

John 

George V 

Fred. Francis. 

George 

Peter 

William 

Adolphus . . . . 
Clis. Alexander 

Ernest II 

Bernard 

Ernest 

Leopold 

Alexander .... 

Guntlier 

Guntlier 

Henry XX 

Henry LXIL.. 

Leopold 

George 

Ge-orge Victor. 

Ferdinand 

Frederict 

Frederic Wm. . 

Louis III 

Clias. Antony:): 

Frederic:}: 

Alovs. 

William I 

Maximilian II. 
Fran. Joseph I. 
Napoleon III.. 

Isabella II; 

Pedro V.§ 

Vict. Eman. II. 
Leopold 11. . . . 

Robert 

Francis V 

Pius IX 

Ferdinand II.. 

Othol 

Abdul Medjid 

Florestan 

Stirbevll 

Gbikail 



TiUe. 



King . . . 
Emperor 
King . . . , 
Queen . . - 
King..., 



Grand Duke 

a 

Duke 



Prince 



Landgrave . 
Prince Reg. 

Elector 

Grand Duke 
Prince 



King .... 
Emperor. 



Queen 
King . 



Grand Duke 
Duke 



Pope 
King 



Sultan . . . 
Prince . . 
I-Iosi)odar 



State. 



Sweden and Norway . . 

Russia 

Denmark 

Great Britain 

Holland or Netiierlds. . 

Belgium 

Prussia 

Saxony 

Hanover 

Mecklenbui'g-Scliwer. 
Mecklenburg-Strclitz . 

Oldenburg 

Brunswick 

Nassau 

Saxe- Weimar-Eisen . . 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. . . 

Saxe-Melningen 

Saxe-Altenburg 

An bait-Dessau 

Anhalt-Bernbnrg 

Schwarzburg-Rudolst. 
SchwaizbbrgSonder'n 

Reuss, Elder Line 

Reuss, Younger Line. 

Lippe-Detmold 

Lippe-Scbauniburg. . . 

Waldeck 

Hesse-Homburg 

Baden 

Hesse Gafisel 

Hesse-Darmstadt 

HohenzoPn-Sigmar'n . 
Hohenzorn-Hechin'n . 

Licbenstein 

Wurtemberg 

Bavaria 

Austria 

France 

Spain 

Portugal 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Parma 

Modena and Massa. . . . 
States of the Cburch. . 

Two Sicilies 

Greece 

Turkey 

Monaco 

Wallachia ,. . . 

Moldavia 



Date of 
Binb. 



July 4, 1799 Mar, 8, 



Oct. 6, 
Mav 24, 
Feb. 19, 
Dec. 16, 
Oct. 15, 
Dec. 12, 
May 27, 
Feb. 28, 
Aug. 12, 
July 8, 
Apr. 25, 
July 24, 
June 24, 
June 21, 
Dec. 17, 
Sept. 16, 
Oct. 1, 
Mar. 2, 
Nov. 6, 
Sept. 24, 
June 29, 
May 31, 
Sept. 1, 
:Dec. 20, 
Jan. 14, 
iApr. 26, 
Sept. 9, 
'Aug. 2D, 
'June 9, 
Sept. 7, 
Feb. 16, 
May 26, 
Sept. 27, 
Nov. 28, 
Aug. IS. 
Apr. 20, 
Oct. 10, 
Sept. 16, 
Mar. 14, 
Oct. 3, 
July 9, 
June 1, 
May 13, 
Jan. 12, 
June 1, 
Apr. 23, 
Oct. 10, 



Date of 
Accession. 



45 



1S17 
1818 
1818 
1800 
1826 
1794 
1805 
1793 
1801 
1794 
1785 
1821 
1784 
1831 
1783 
1825 
1S02 
1806 
1811 
1801 
1796 
1781 
1811 
1830 
1808 
1830 
1837 
1820 



1808 Jan. 20 
181 9, June 20 
ISUiMar. 17 
1790 July 21 
1795|June 
180l!Aug. 10 
1819 Nov. 18 
1823 Mar. 
1779 Nov, 
1327 Feb. 27 
1806 Apr. 25, 
Aug. 20 
Julj 
Jan. 29 
Dec. 24 
Aug 
Aug 
Mar. 24 
Apr. 28 
Sept 
Oct. 
Apr. 
Jan. 
Feb. 
May 15. 
Sept 
Mar. 30 
Nov. 21 
June 16 
Aug. 27 
Sept 13 
Apr. 20 
Oct. 
Mar. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Sept. 29 
Nov. 15 
Mar. 23, 



1848 



30 



1797 June 18 



Mar. 



21 
1819 Jan. 21 
1792 June 21 
1810:Nov. 8 
1815May 7 
1823 July 2 
1785 Oct. 
June 16 
'June 16. 



1844 

1855 
,1848 
, 1837 
, 1849 
,1831 
, 1840 
, 1854 
,1851 
, 1842 
,1810 
, 1858 
, 1831 
, 1839 
, 185 
,1844 

:, 1803 

;, 1853 
, 1817 
, 1834 
, 1807 
!, 1835 
, 1836 

; 1818 

., 1851 

;, 1787 
., 1845 
., 1848 
, 1852 
', 1847 
., 1848 
, 1843 
, 183S 
, 1836 
,1816 
.. 1848 
, 1843 
, 1852 
, 1838 
s 1853 
:, 1849 
1824 
, 1854 
, 1846 
, 1840|54 
;, 1830 20 
,183217 
, 1839 16 
, 1841 56 
, 1849 
., 1849 



Religion. 



Lutheran 

Greek Cbur. 

Lutlieran 

Prot. Ei)is. 

Reformed 

Lutlieran* 

Evangelical 

Catholic* 

Evangelical 

Lutheran 



Evangelical 
Lutheran 



Evangelical 
Lutheran 



Reformed 

u 

Evangelical 

Reformed 

Evangelical 

Reformed 

Lutlieran 

Catholic 



Lutheran 
Catliolic 



Catholic* 
Mahometan* 
Catholic 
Greek Chur, 



* The King of Belgium is a Protestant, though his subjects are mostly Catholics; the King 
of Saxony is a Catholic, though the greater pari; of his subjects are Protestants ; and the King 
of Greece is a Catholic, thoush most "of his subjects are of the Greek Church. Of the 15,500,000 
European subjects of the Saltan of Turkey, 11,370,000 are of the Greek Church, and 260,000 
are Catholics. Only 3,800,000 are Mahometans. 

t Tlie Grand Duke of Baden is Louis, born Aug. 15, 1823, who is under guardianship by 
reason of insanity. 

i Dec. 7, 1349. These two princes abdicated in favor of the King of Prussia. 

§ The regent of the kingdom is Ferdinand, husband of the late queen, a prince of Saxe 
Coburg. 

i Under the sovereignty of Turkey, and the protection of Russia. 



ADDENDA. 



SI? 



STAGES. In 1749 there was a daily stage route between ]^ev>^ark. N. J., and 
New York, during tlie summer months only. The number of passengers in 
one season was considered large at 3,000 ; the number of passengers over" the 
railroad to the same place was, in 1850, 959,000! 

STEAMBOATS, Report for 1854 of the Board of Supervising Inspectors of in 
U.S. 





o ® 

05 OS 




f accidents, of such 
cter as to come 
the cognizance of 
that have occurred 
t report. 


a) 


t3 
to 


to 

OS 


• CO 

S3 




steam 


Local Districts. 




1-2 


If 
1.1 


a 
^1- 


■» . 

C 4) 

« O 


f pilots ant 
o whom li 
3n refused. 


IS 

c »- 

.-- CD 
" Hi 

= -EL 


o 

S3 s^ 




^•s« 




^ fe d ^^ 




u 






C "-" 

*^.i2 1 




a? n 


0) - •" c« „ 


05 >■ 




4> C 






C iJ 






,0.2 






rO 

a- 




- © t* 

B ® 03 


5? 


1 ^ 




5 ^^ 


P 4) 


<s Pt^-Z 


i:! 


S «3 


C3 ?^ — 


~ C5 


S f 




^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


125 

12 


t5 


1^ 


;^ 


<^ 


1 — Portland 


8 




2 




17 




4,447 


Boston 


26 
19 






2 


28 
21 


33 
19 


1 




11,289 

7,707 


New London . . . 


2— New York 


112 




3 




159 


338 






68,210 


Philadelphia*... 










53 


83 


3 


3 




8— Baltimore 


81 


2 


1 


2 


57 


57 


13 


1 


12,G40 


Norfolk 


11 








15 


18 






2,164 


Charleston 


15 




i 


i 


34 


36 






5,050 


Savannaht 




















4 — New Orleans 


91 




9 




255 


310 




18 


30,694 


Mobile 


80 
10 


2 
8 


21 
2 


13 


111 
13 


99 
19 


2 


5 
2 


7,644 
1,450 


Galveston 


San Francisco*. . 


25 


2 




1 


11 


75 


X 






5 — St. Louis ; . . 


100 


12 


33 


5 


385 


345 


7 


20 


82,267 


6 — Louisville 


88 




3 


4 


150 


205 


6 


8 


28,104 


Nashville 


39 


1 


1 




78 


81 


2 


8 


9,571 


7— Pittsburg 


69 


4 






133 


J 79 


12 


6 


14,144 


Wheeling 


28 




2 




82 


135 




1 




Cincinnati 


68 


27 




3 


242 


220 


7 


19 




8— Chicago* 


9 


2 


3 




23 


23 








Detroit 


30 
IT 


8 
2 


2 
2 


5 
1 


63 
29 


48 
27 


'i 






12,612 
2,129 


Supervising .... 


9— Butfalo 


43 
12 




1 


1 


94 

46 


102 
24 








40,150 
6,999 


Cleveland ...... 


Oswego 


5 








25 


19 








4,185 


Burlington 


7 








16 


12 








4,600 



STEAMBOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, 
gives the following aggregate of the number of steamboats built in the United 
States since 1824 — thirty years — in periods of five years each: 



From 1824 to 1829. 
" 1829 to 1834, 
" 1834 to 1839, 
" 1839 to 1844, 



194 

304 
504 
522 



From 1844 to 1849, 
" 1849 to 1854, 

Total . 



960 
1,203 

8,695 



STEAM ENGINE. A patent was granted in England in 1618, for a steam— or 
as it is there designated, a "fire-engine, for taking ballast out of rivers and 
for raising fresh water." It is supposed to have been an invention brought 
from Italy, where it is stated to have been anteriorly used. Brancas, an 



* Beport not complete. 
32 



t No report" received, on account of prevalence of yellow feven 



818 THE world's progress. 

Italian philosopher, published at Koine, in 1629, a book on the subject. — 
Wade's Brit. Hist A complete steam-engine, weighing only three fourths of 
an ounce, and capable of full motion, was finished and intended for exhibition 
at the Crystal Palace by an ingenious mechanic of Saddleworth, Yorkshire, 
in Feb. 1851. The tubular boiler was invented by Col. John Stevens, Hobo- 
ken, K J., 1805. 

STEAM ]S"AVIGATIOK The steamer Atlantic, 3,500 tuns, the first of Collins' 
line, sailed for Liverpool, from New York, April 27, 1850. Steam com- 
munication between Philadelphia and Liverpool opened by tlie "City 
of Glasgow," arrived at Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1851. The first steamer that 
ever crossed the Atlantic was the "Savannah," 350 tuns, from Savannah, 
Geo., to Liverpool, which port she reached 20th July, 1819. — Marimde's Com-. 
Report. The first steamboat that ascended the Mississippi was commanded 
by Capt. Henry M. Shreeve, who subsequently invented the steam snag-boat ; 
he died in 1851. The number of steamboats on the Western waters in 1850 
was estimated at 575, investing a capital of $60,000,000, and employing 
15,000 hands. The annual cost to the U. S. government of the Steam Mail 
Service in 1854, was distributed as follows: — Collins' line. New York and 
Liverpool, $858,000 ; Ocean Steam Navigation Company, New York and 
Bremen, $183,333.26 ; do., do., do., do., New York and Havre, $137,500 ; New 
York, Havana and New Orleans, $289,000; Panama and Oregon line 
$348,250; Charleston and Havana line, 50,000. —Total, $1,866,083^26. The 
fii'st steamer on Lake Nicaragua began its trips January, 1851. Duty paid by 
Cunard Steamers at Boston, in 1847, was $1,199,971 78; in 1850, $1,322,383 
30. Marine Steam Force of Great Britain in 1851 Avas — 147 ships, including 
8 in Canada, and 32 iron steamers, 11 ranging from 1,547 to 1,980 tuns. A 
discovery in 1851 of a work in the archives of Venice, of a treatise on 
" Navigation by Fire," by M. Gautier, Mem. Roy, Soc. Paris, shows that the 
professor's plans for steam navigation were exhibited by him to the Venetian 
Republic in 1756. 

STEAM AND POWDER EXPLOSIONS. The most fatal accident of this 
nature in 1849 was that of the steamboat Louisa, at N. O., Nov. 15, when 
60 persons were killed and 92 wounded and missing. During 1850 the 
number of steamboats lost in the Western waters was 53, and 64 seriously 
injured. Nearly 700 persons lost their lives, and $1,500,000 of property 
was destroyed from January to June, 1854. The whole number of steamers 
destroyed was 63, the number of lives lost 516, and the amount of property 
lost $2,244,500. The causes of the accidents were collision 10, fire 17, ice 5, 
snagged 23, explosion 8. 

SUEZ CANAL. M. Lesseps, formerly French Consul in Egypt, and uncle to the 
French Empress, has obtained from the Viceroy, Said Pacha, a firman, 
granting to a company, of which he is a director, the applied-for authority 
to make a ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez, connecting the Mediterran- 
ean with the Red Sea. The canal, seventy -five miles long, is to be com 
pleted in twelve years, the company having the right of levying a toll on 
all vessels passing through for ninety-nine years. Tiie capital is to be raised 
by shares, and M. Lesseps expresses himself as being promised the support of 
eminent bankers in France and Germany. Egypt will not be called upon 
to make any outlay ; the Viceroy is to have fifteen per cent, of the net pro- 
fits, and at the expiration of the l^ase, the works are to become the property 
of this Governnient. 

SUGAR. A hundred years ago the Jesuits brought a few bundles of cane from 
Hispaniola, and planted them in the second municipality of New Orleans. 



ADDENDA. SI 9 

In 1759 the first sugar-mill was erected. In 1840 the number of slaves em- 
ployed in the sugar culture was 148,890, and the product was 119,947 hogs- 
heads, of 1,000 pounds each, and 600,000 gallons of molasses. — Mobile 
Meglsfer. 

TEA. Quantit}^ imported into Great Britain in 1849, 53,460,751 lbs. The duty 
upon it amounted to £5,471,671. This is an increase of nearly 50 per cent. 
. over the imporfs of 1840. 

TELEGRAPH, Electric. The crude idea was started by Schwenter. a German, 
in 1636. In 1684 the celebrated Hooke presented a communication to the 
Royal Society, '• showing how to communicate one's mind at great distances, 
not by souncihui by sight!" In 1774, Le Sage of Geneva submitted a plan 
for an electric telegraph, to Fi'ederick the Great, as " the monarch best cap- 
able of realizing it." In 1787, Lomt^nd, of Paris, exhibited to Arthur Young, 
" an alphabet of motions" appertaining to an electric telegraph ; the dis- 
tances to be accomplished by which, Young expressly states, " depended 
solely on the length of the wires." In Jan. 1851, twevty-two thorisand miles 
of a continuous telegraph route, extending from Halifax, N. S., to New Or- 
leans, and as far West as Dubuque, Iowa, was accomplished as follows : Pro- 
fessor Morse's principle, 12,000; Messrs. House and Bain, 10,000 miles. Dec. 
2, 1851, a dispatch of 34 words was sent from New York to New Orleans, a 
distance of 1,900 miles, and an answer received in less than five minutes ; the 
whole distance traversed being 3,800 miles. Bakewell's copying electric 
telegraph experimented on, Apr. 1851, gave fac-similies of autographs, at the 
rate of 120 to 150 letters per minute. The submarine telegraph between 
Dover and Calais, completed Oct. 17, opened f<n' public use Nov. 13, 1851. 
The President's Message (1854) was telegraphed, b}^ the Morse line through 
from New York to Buffalo — dropping at intermediate offices — in 5h. 30m. 
This was a great feat. 

TELEGRAPH, in Euuope. In Nov. 1854, the operation of laying down the Avires 
of the under-ground electric telegraph between Dover and the metropolis 
was completed ; and a junction having been effected with the submarine 
cable, a direct communication was at once established between the offices of 
the "European and Submarine Printing Telegraph Company" in Cornhiil 
and Paris. 

England and Ireland. — The Irish Electric Telegraph Company completed their 
work in ] 852 ; the cable being manufactured by Newall, Milnes, and Gordon, 
of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who supplied the Dover and Calais line. The Irish 
line was laid in eighteen hours ; and in another hour the cable was ashore, 
the connexion completed with the land wires; and the indicators at the 
Dublin terminus of the Drogheda Railwaj-, in Amiens street, were conversing 
with those at the terminus of the Chester and Holyhead Railway, in Holy- 
head. 

The Continent. — The lines of Electric Telegraph completed in the Netherlands, 
connect Amsterdam, Breda, Rotterdam, Haarlem, Dordrecht, and La Haye, 
now for the first time, with Great Britain, by means of the submarine wii-es. 
The following cities and towns, with others of lesser note, are also in com- 
munication with the offices in Cornhiil, London: — Agram, Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Amiens, Antwerp, Augsburg, Avignon, Baden, Berlin, Bonn, Bordeaux, 
Boulogne-sur-Mer, Bremen, Breslau, Bruges, Brunswick, Brussels, Calais, 
Cassel, Coblentz, Cologne, Cracow, Dantzic, Dieppe, Dijon, Dresden, Dun- 
kirk, Dusseldorf, Florence, Frankfort-on-Maine, Friburg, Ghent, Gotha, Ham- 
burg, Hanover, Havre, Kehl Strasbourg, Konigsburg, Leghorn, Leipsic, Lem- 
burg, Lisle, Lucca, Lyons, Metz, Magdeburg, Malines, Mannheim, Mantua, 



820 THE world's progress. 

Marseilles, Mayence, Milan, Municli, Modena, Ifantes, ]S"uremburg, Ostend, 
Padua, Paris, Pesth-Bude, Posen, Prague, Presburg, Parma, Rouen, St. Oaier, 
Stettin, Stuttgai'd, Strasbourg, Trieste, Venice, Verona, Vienna, Weimar. 
Piedmont. — A network of Telegraphic lines will soon be spread over the 
whole kingdom, for the use of the public at large ; and the best methods ap- 
pear to have been adopted to combine economy in the construction, with 
efficiency in the service. But the line between Turin and Genoa, which has 
been already completed, has a peculiar feature. From Turin to Arquata the 
suspended wires follow the railroad; but from the latter place to Genoa, a 
chain of the Appennines intervenes, and ther-e the real difficulties began. 
Mountains had to be bored, long tunnels constructed, deep ravines filled, and 
viaducts and bridges erected, before the railroad between Arquata and 
Genoa could be finished. Meanwhile, an immediate establishment of a tele- 
graphic communication with Genoa being urgently wanted, the engineer 
Bouelli, Director of the Electric Telegraphs in Piedmont, adopted a bold 
and novel expedient, by which he has successfully overcome all difficulties. 
He has thrown and suspended his wires from mountain to mountain at im- 
mense altitudes, and in straight lines, riding over deep ravines and valleys, 
without any intermediate supports, the poles being fixed on the summits at 
distances varying from 800 to 1,300 yards apart; occasionally, and when 
local circumstances require it, as in passing through villages and towns, the 
line is continued under ground, out of which emerging, and again meeting 
with high mountains, it resumes its flight, in the shape of a wire bridge from 
crest to ci'est; this again sinks under ground to travel below the streets of 
Genoa, till it reaches the station in the Ducal Palace. This picturesque line 
of telegraph is so well arranged, and the isolation of its wires so perfect, 
that, notwithstanding the adverse circumstances presented by nature, it has 
been at work daily and nightly during the worst part of the winter, and has 
constantly been the ready and faithful messenger of the incessant movements 
of the operator's hand. The French engineers had hitherto boasted of their 
successful adoption of long distances between the poles of the suspended 
wires, and their chef-d'ceuvre of the kind is the line between the Passage 
Jouffroy, in Paris, and the Palace of the Assembly, in which the greatest 
length of unsupported wire is 600 meters (equal to about 650 yards.) But 
in the Sardinian line, the same principle has been successfully and repeatedly 
carried to double that extent, under much more unfavorable circumstances. 

TELEGRAPH, Atlantic. The experience of the Black Sea telegraph, for in- 
stance, is thought to be conclusive, if shorter lines previously established 
were not. From Balaklava to Varna the wires stretch under water more 
than 350 miles, and not the slightest difficulty is experienced in using them. 
There can then be no difficulty in sending electricity across the Atlantic by 
the same means. The length of the wires from Ireland to ITewfoundland will 
be some 1,750 miles ; they will lie on the sandy plain, which the soundings of 
our Government have shown to stretch from land to land for the whole dis- 
tance, with the exception of about two hundred miles next to the Irish coast, 
where the bottom becomes irregular and the water deeper. The actual dis- 
tance is some 1,600 miles only, but it will be necessary to make a detour 
with the wires in order to carry them round the Banks Avhere icebergs 
often ground, and where the cable might be broken by their weight and 
friction. The line from Ireland to Newfoundland is to be constructed by a 
European Company, of which Mr. Brett, who has laid down most of the sub- 
marine telegraphs of Europe, is a prominent member. The capital of this 
Company is two millions sterling, and the contracts — already perfected — for 
the completion of the work, require that it shall be ready for operation by 



ADDEITDA. 821 

Jan. 22, 1858 — less than three years hence. The cable of this part of the 
line is to contain six telegraphic wires — like the great Mediterranean cable 
now being laid down — iind is to weigh eight tnns to the mile. In laying it 
down, of course several steamers will be required, as no single vessel could 
contain the enormous weight of the entire mass; but the ingenious manufac- 
turers, Messrs. W. Kaper & Co. of London, have contrived means of so splicing 
it as to render the joints quite as strong and quite as serviceable as any other 
part of the line. Thus, when one steamer has paid out her portion of the 
cable, the end will be spliced upon the coil on board of the next steamer, and 
so on till all is down. Should a storm arise during the process, the exceeding 
strength of the cable, formed as it is of a mass of heavy iron wires wound 
spirally around the thick tarred envelope and gutta percha cords which 
contain the electric conductors, will be sufficient to hold the steamer as if 
she were at anchor until the gale is over. Of course, the work will be done 
in the summer months, when there is little danger of interruption from tem- 
pests. The cable, when once sunk upon the bottom, will remain there for- 
ever, below the range of marine animals, and safe from all disturbance. It 
would be difficult to fix a limit to its duration after it is once successfully 
bedded. The Compan}' which has undertaken the cis-Atlantic portion of 
the work, is composed of some eight or more wealthy gentlemen, who pro- 
pose to build the entire line from St. John's, Newfoundland, to New York 
with their own resources. Peter Cooper is the President, and Moses Taylor 
the Treasurer of this Company. The American part of the line will be 
],200 miles in length, '71 of which will be under the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and the cost of t"he whole is estimated at a million and a half of dollars. 
The wires across Newfoundland will make 400 miles of the line, running 
throui^h a country hitherto unoccupied and unknown. In the cutting of the 
path ^xnd other preparatory labors, the Company have had 400 men em- 
ployed for a year (1854-5) in that island alone. They have been liberally 
aided with grants of land from that colony, and have obtained advantage- 
ous charts and grants elsewhere. 

TELEGRAPH, THE SNAIL. The actuality of telegraphic comraunication by 
medium of magnetism in snails, experimentally demonstrated by Prof. Gre- 
gory of Edinburgh, May, 1851. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The benevolent influence of these associations 
may be estimated from the fact that the amount of taxation in tlie State of 
New York, in 1850, occasioned by pauperism and crime resulting from in- 
temperance, was nearly $2,600,000, and the amount for the entire Union 
during that period, and resulting from the evils of intemperance, was over 
$16,000,000. The daily expenditure in the 5,000 drinking places in New 
York is calculated at over $40,000— in 1851. The revenues of Russia proper 
amounted, in 1847, to £24,794,737, under these three significant heads: 

Direct taxes. Indirect taxes. Brandt Monopoly. 

£7,275,458 £7,745,111 £9,774,167 

While the direct taxation of the rich town of St. Petersburg, only produces 
3,376,725 silver roubles, and the indirect some three millions more, the 
imperial monopoly of ardent spirits yields 7,158,544 silver roubles. In Mos- 
cow, this terrible monopoly produces the Czar 5,907,104 silver roubles, while 
both direct and indirect taxation do not return four millions. By a state- 
ment exhibiting the quantity of wine, spirits, etc., imported annually from 
1843 to 1854, inclusive, it appears that there were imported during the 
twelve years, of wine in casks, of all qualities, 51,867,411 gallons,^ or an 
annual average of 4,322,284^ gallons; that the aggregate value of this wine 



822 



THE world's progress. 



was $14,198,248, or an average yearly value of $1,183,18*7 33. That there 
were imported of distilled spirits 36,711,441 gallons, or an average of 
8,059, 286| gallons per annum ; the aggregate value of which was $22,'? 94,452, 
or an average yearly value of $1,899,5*77 66. That there were of beer, ale 
and porter, from England and Scotland, 3,594,455 gallons, the total value of 
which was $2,408,617. 
TIDES. The highest known are in the Bay of Fundy, Newfoundland, and the 
Bay of Tonquin, Cochin China. That of the former rises 60 feet ; the tide 
at Chepstow (Monmouth, Eng.) rises 70 feet. That of Baffin's Bay only 4 
feet. — Capt Ross, 1819. Seeds dropped accidentally into the sea in the W. In- 
dies, were subsequently found on the shores of the Hebrides. 

UNITED STATES. Table of the debts and resources of the principal cities of 
the [Jnion: 



Cities. 



New York, . . , 

Albany, 

Baltimore, 

Boston, 

Brooklyn, .... 
Cincinnati, . .. 

Cleveland, 

Chicago, 

Detroit, 

Jersey City, . . 
Louisville,. ... 
Milwaukee, . . . 
New Orleans, . 
Pliiladelpliia,., 

Pittsburg, 

St. Louis, 

Sacramento, .. 
San Francisco, 
"Wheeling, . . . . 



Year. 



Jan. 1, 1855 
May 1, 1855 
Jan. 1, 1855 
Jan. 1, 1855 
Jan. 1, 1855 
March, 1854 
June, 1855 
Feb'y, 1855 
J"ne 12,1855 
May, 1355 
Mar. 9, 1855 
March, 1855 
April 1,1855 
Jan., 1855 
Jan. 1, 1855 
May 1, 1855 
April 5,1855 
Jan. 1, 1855 
Jan. 1, 1855 



Debt. 



13,969,856 

2,68-2,016 

11,672,889 

7,779,855 

1,284,540 

2,929,000 

720,000 

728,000 

817.624 

700,000 

1,137,000 

1,031.550 

12,147,262 

19,870,035 

2,935,794 

3,905,096 

1,480,536 

4,509,000 

4,215,951 



Year. 



1855 
1855 
1855 
1S55 
1855 
18.55 
1853 
1855 
1854 
1854 
1854 
1854 
1855 
1854 
1854 
1855 
1852 
1854 
1855 



Popula- 
tion. 



700,000 

60,000 

200,000 

160,000 

200,000 

150,000 

31,000 

80,000 

40,373 

20,989 

70,000 

35,000 

160,000 

500,000 

62,000 

115,000 

10,000 

34,776 

l4,136 



Year. 



1854 
1854 
1850 
1854 
1854 
1854 
1853 
1854 
1854 
1854 
18.54 
1854 
1854 
1854 

1854 
1854 
1854 



Taxable 
value. 



$ 

462,285,790 
21,506,261 
80,237,960 

207,013.200 
88,923,685 
40,000,000 
18,510,779 
24.392,036 
12,518,115 
12,373,285 
35,000,000 
4,700,000 
72.247,420 

155,260,000 

51,223,859 

9,! 00.000 

34,296,195 



VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, etc., of Virginia, 
1850, was $530,000,000, viz. -.—Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves^ 
$147,000,000; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further 
show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read 
nor write! The new Constitution of this State, adopted 1851, in the 111th 
article has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote 
who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the ser- 
vice of the United States" Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 
slaves. 

WAMPUM. This material, as a representative circulating medium, was bor- 
rowed by the people of Plymouth, Mass., from the Manhattan Dutch, and 
was found very profitable in their traffic with the eastern Indians, and subse- 
quently among the colonists generally. Three of the black beads and six of 
the white, were considered as equivalent to a penny; and for convenience' 
sake, they were strung in lengths of certain value from one penn}- to five shil- 
lings, in white; and from two pence to ten shillings in black; as the quan- 
tity in circulation increased, the value depreciated, and t!ie number of beads 
to the penny was augmented. — See HildretKs U. S. America, 1850. 

WARLIKE ALLIANCES. The history of alliance among European nations 
for the purpose of war is a curious one. Of 140 considerable allianeea 



ADDENDA, 823 

since the Christian era, Y2 have succeeded, and 68 were defeated. Of 33 
cases of two nations leagued against one, 18 have succeeded and 15 failed. 
Of cases three to one, nine succeeded and four failed. Of four to one, sijf 
succeeded and three failed. Of five to one, three succeeded and five failed. 
In a single case of five to two, in two cases of six against two, and in one of 
seven to two, the larger combination was uniformly defeated. These facts 
seem to warrant the inference that the larger these warlike associations 
become, the more liable they are to defeat, and that even in their simplest 
forms, the chances of defeat are quite as strong as those of success. The 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were the periods when the greatest 
number of alliances were formed, especially against single powers, and when 
their success was most considerable. In cases of lone nations standing out 
against alliances, the results are about an even division of success and de- 
feat. England alone has succeeded against ten, and been defeated by seven 
such alliances; France has succeeded in seven, and been worsted in six 
cases ; Spain succeeded in one, and was defeated in three cases ; Prussia 
succeeded in two ; Turkey succeeded in two, and was defeated in five cases. 
Russia appears to have been in no case entirely alone against any combina- 
tion; at the time of Napoleon's invasion, he was engaged at the same time 
in hostilities with England, with whom Russia was in an alliance with 
special reference to that contest. Of alliances against a single power, 
forty-three Avere unbroken to the end, and nineteen were prematurely rup- 
tured, dissolution being usually the equivalent to defeat. Of greater alli- 
ance against less, nineteen were broken and nineteen dissolved before attain- 
ing their proposed object. There have been sixteen alliances formed for 
extinguishing the Protestant religion in Germany, France, and England, of 
which only three have partially succeeded, while the other thirteen liave 
been signally defeated. Subsidizing alliances have been especially unfortu- 
nate — eight out of nine of that character, formed by England, have resulted 
in failure. In view of these facts, it would seem that England and France 
have their own eff'orts to depend upon for success in this war, more than 
any possible combination of aid from the Continent. — N. Y. Cor. Alabama 
Journal. 

WARS, Indian. The expenses occasioned by the war with the Sac and Fox In- 
dians in 1832 amounted to more than three millions of dollars; the definite 
appropriations for the suppression of Indian hostilities from 1836 to 1841, 
inclusive, amounted to more than eighteen millions of dollars. Within the 
past six 3'ears large appropriations have been made for the same object in 
Texas, New Mexico, Utah, California, and Oregon. The aggregate of such 
expenditures in the last twenty-two j'eai's, independent of the regular appro- 
priations for the support of the army, is estimated at more tlian thirty 
millions of dollars — a sum sufficient to have maintained for the whole period 
a much greater force than that recommended in the Secretary'- of War's report 
of last year. This sum is independent of the expenditure for property de- 
etroj'cd, compensation to sufi^ering inhabitants, and on account of pensions and 
bounty lands, and, of course does not include the losses occasioned by the 
destruction of private property, nor those consequent upon the interruption 
of agriculture and of the progress of settlement. It has been stated by those 
conversant with all the facts, that if in 1831 a small mounted force had been 
at the disposal of the Wa*" Department, the Black Hawk war might have 
been prevented; and that in 1835, if a few additional companies had been 
sent to Florida, the Seminole war would not have oecured. This war cost 
the country more than 38 millions of dollars. 

WARS, Modern. Those of the llth century were wars of religion ; of the 18th 



824 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

century, of conquests and dynasties; of the 19th, of monarchs against the 
people. The wars of Europe, from 1783 to 1815, are estimated to have cost 
$15,000,000,000. The late Hungarian war left 25,000 widows, and 80,000 
orphans of soldiers, almost entirely without food, shelter, or clothing. Mr. 
Corwin, as Secretar}^ of the Treasury, in his report of December, 1850, pre- 
sented an account of the actual cost of the Mexican war to that time, the 
amounts further required to June 30, 1852, and estimates of subsequent 
expenses directly chargeable to the war— the total footing at $217,175,575.89. 
Mr. Corwin sa^^s : "This amount does not include many claims presented 
and to be presented, arising indirectly from the war, their great variety 
forbidding even an approximation either as to number or amount." It is 
said that there has been paid at least $472,758.90, directly caused by the 
war. Doubtless there is a much larger amount smothered up in the genei'al 
table of expenditures. Of the amounts chargeable in pensions, (the total 
list of which has for several years averaged $1,360,000,) in bounty lands, 
etc., we cannot immediatel}'^ make out a full schedule. 

WAR BETWEEN Russia and the Allies. The losses of the Russians in the 
campaign of 1854 amount in the active army, exclusive of Cossacks and of 
the army in Transcaucasia, to 111,132 men, of whom 29,204 are reported as 
killed in Turkey and in the Crimea; 16,156 died in the hospitals ; 55,304 
wounded ; while 6,460 are put down as deserters, prisoners, and missing. 
Adding to these numbers the 2,000 prisoners of Bomarsund, and the killed 
and wounded at Kola and Petropavlovsk, we get the enormous total of one 
hundred and eleven thousand and odd men sacrificed in one year. The total 
of the Turkish and Anglo-French victims cannot be smaller, if we remember 
that the English alone have lost above 30,000 men mostly by disease, and 
adding to these figures the victims of Oltenitza and Sinope in 1853, and the 
losses of Schamjd and of the Russians in Asia, we may safely say that the 
present war has so far destroyed the life or the health of at least 250,000 
able-bodied men, in the prime of life. The peasantry in France have, ever 
since 1789, been the great supporters of war and warlike glory. They are 
sure not to feel much of the pressure of the war; for the conscription, in a 
countiy where the land is infinitesimally subdivided among small pro- 
prietors, not only frees the agricultural districts from surplus labor, but also 
gives to some 20,000 young men, every year, the opportunity of earning a 
round sum of money, by engaging to serve as substitutes, A protracted 
war only would be severely felt. 

WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc- 
tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York, for $2,300, February 12, 

1850. 

WESTMINSTER, Archbishop of. Nicholas Wiseman, having been created Car- 
dinal by the Pope, is installed as Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westminster, 
Nov. 1850. This, in addition to Dr. Ullathorne's enthronement as R. C. 
bishop of Birmingham, in Oct., together with the parcelling out of all Eng- 
land into Roman dioceses, created great excitement, and petitions from every 
quarter of the United Kingdom were addressed to the Queen and govern- 
ment, praying their resistance to the " monstrous usurpation." 

WINE TRADE, Statistics of French. Mr. Goodrich furnishes the follow- 
ing statistics upon the vine-culture in Francfe. Nearly 5,000,000 acres 
of land are employed in the cultivation of the vine in France, from which is 
made annually 900,000,000 gallons of wine. The average value is 15 cents 
a gallon. The French wines have doubled or trebled in value within the 



ADDENDA. B25 

two past 3^ears. Average annual total value of the wine crop, a fraction less 
than ^100,000,000. ExporU. — 50,000,000 gallons are annually exported. 
The south-western and south-eastern districts of France are the most produc- 
tive. Brandy. — 12,000,000 gallons of brandy are annual!}^ exported. Excise. 
— The excise duty on wine's and their distillations in 1853 was $235,000. 
Laborers. — The number of persons employed in the cultivation of the vine 
and manufacture of Avine is a fraction short of 2,000,000; and 240,000 per- 
sons are engaged in selling wine. Most of the wine lands are untillable, 
sterile, and hilly. The wine culture does not average a return of more than 
1-i- per cent, annually. Disease. — The disease of the vine is pretty general 
throughout France, thougli the soutiiern section suffers most. This disease 
has prevailed for three or four years, and threatens to destroy the business. 

WORSHIP, Forms of. The Jews and Quakers wear their hats during worship, 
Protestants and Catholics remove them. — ^The Mohammedans wear their 
turbans, but put off their shoes on entering their mosques, evidently from 
their Prophet's adoption of many of the Jewish customs. — See Exodus Hi. 5. 
It is particularly worthy of remark that the Mohammedans invariably re- 
move from their persons all jewelry, and articles of adornment, previous to 
the commencement of their prayers. 

YACHTING. The Yacht America, built by Steers of New York, 204 tuns bur., 
after winning the "cup of all nations" atCowes, Isle of Wight, England, and 
out-sailing the British yacht Britannia, Aug., 1851, was sold by Messrs. 
Stevens to Capt. Blaquiere for £5,000. 

YANKEE. The derivation of this word is generally accredited to the Indian 
pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. — In New 
York it is applied to the New Englandei's ; in the South to all the North- 
eners ; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans. In a curious book on the 
Round Towers of Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the tei-m 
Yankee-Doodle, was said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki 
dotmiah, or "Inhabitants of the New World." Layard, in his "Nineveh," 
also mentions Yanghi-dunia as the Persian name of America. 

ZINC. The Soc. Indusf. Nationale in Paris, granted to M. Leclaire, 1846, a medal 
of gold worth 3000 francs, for his substitution of zinc for white lead in the 
formation of painters' color, the use of which latter has been attended with 
so much danger to health. — Art Journal. White paint prepared from zinc 
is much used of late in the United States, and has hitherto been greatly ap- 
proved. 



ADDITIOlSrS TO THE BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 

(including accidental omissions in the fobmbb editions.) 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOEN. 

Egypt. Abbas, Pasha, Viceroy of Egypt, grandson of MehemetAIi 

Ainer. Adams, C. B., geologist, 

Amer. Adams, Mrs. Louisa C , relict of J. Q. Adams 

Eng. Ade-aidc, Queen Dowager, widow of William IV. . . = . 

Eng. Adrian IV. (N. Break«;peare), the only English pope .... 

Gr. ^gineta, Paulus, writer on medicine ...... 

Eng. JSifric, Abp. Canterbury, autlior of Anglo-Saxon works 

Eng. Almon, Jolin, political writer and publisher 1738 

Scotch. Anderson, Christopher, author of Annals of Bible .... 1779 

Eng. Anglesea, marquis of, (W. H. Paget), Field Marshal Br. A. . . 176S 

Ger. Fr. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIIL of France 1604 

Ger. Fr. Arago, L. F. J., astronomer 1786 

Amer. Armstrong, S. T., book publisher and Lt. Governor of Mass. . . 1784 

Gr. Armenidos, pliilosoi>her of the Eclectic School 5th c. 

Amer. Arnold Lemuel H., Gov. of E. 1 1792 

Gr. Aspasia, celebrated courtesan— cause of the Pelop. war tew.p. Pericles. 

Amer, Audubon, John James, traveller and naturalist (b. at New-Orleans) 1780 

Ital. Bachi, Pietro, learned linguist and jurist 1787 

Eng. Baffin, Win., navigator— explorer of Baffin's Bay .... 1584 

Eng. Baillie. Joanna, poet and dramatist 1762 

Amer. Baldwin, Simeon, judge and legislator 1761 

Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez D., one of the first navigators to the W. Indies 

Amer. Ballon, llosea, Universalist clergyman 1771 

Hond. Barmudico, Jose, ex-pres. of Central America 1784 

Amer. Barron, James, Commodore U. S. Navy 1769 

Amer. Bartram, William, horticulturist 

Eng. Baskerville, John, celebrated printer, publisher, and type-founder . 1706 

Fr. Bastide, Jolin F. de, voluminous writer and editor .... 

Eng. Bates, William, non-conformist divine, and theol. writer . . . 1625 

Eng, Bates, Barnabas, advocate of cheap postage . . i . . 1787 

Amer. Beck, John B., writer on medicine, botany, &c. ..... 1794 

Amer. Beck, Lewis C, mineralogist and botanist 1790 

Ger. Beckmann, John A., author of History of Inventions . . . 1739 

Amer. Belknap, Wm. G., Gen. U. S. army 1794, 

Eng. Bell, Andrew, D.D., founder of national schools ..... 1753 

Scotch. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe . . . 1767 

Hung. Bem, Gen., military commander in the war with Austria . 

Jew. Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest modern travellers . . ' 

Ital. Bentivoglio, Guido, cardinal, and historian 1579 

Eng. Benger, Eliz. Ogilvie, biog. of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Scots, Ac. . 1827 

Euss. Behring, or Beering, Vitus, captain in Eussian navy who gave name 

to the " Straits" 

Eng. Behn, Aphra, female dramatist, temps. Charles II 

Swed. Berzelius J. J., chemist 1779 

Eng. Berrington, Joseph, author of History of Middle Ages 

Eng. Berry, Wm., author of work on genealogy and heraldry . . . 1774 

Eng. Berry, Marv, correspoiident of II. Walpole and author of " Comp. 

View of Social Cond. of Eng. and Scot." 1762 

Eng. Bexle)'-, Baron (Nich. Vansittnrt), Ex-Chancellor of Exclxequer . . 1766 

Eng. Bickersteth, (Eev. E.,) author of popular religious works 

Eng. Bickerstatf, Isaac, dramatic writer of ISth century .... 

Dutch. Bilderdyk, George, poet 1760 

Eng. Bingham, George, author of Ecclesiastical History — Christ. An tiq. . 1663 

Amer. Bird, llobert M., novelist and journalist 

Fr. Blainville, M. de, chemist and naturalist 1778 

Eng. Blanchard, Laman, essayist and magazine writer .... 1803 

Eng. Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar, ed. of Museum Criticum . . 1788 

Amer. Blunt, Nathaniel B., eminent law\'ei% . 

Moor. Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Grenada . . . . about 



DIED. 

1854 
185B 
1852 
1850 
11.59 
630 
1005 
1805 
1852 
1854 
1666 
1853 
1850 

B. C. 

1852 

B. c. 450 

185 1 

1853 

1851 
1851 
1517 
1852 
1854 
1851 
1823 
1775 
1724 
1699 
1853 
1851 
1853 
1811 
1851 
1832 
1830 
1851 
1173 
1641 



1741 
1689 

1848 
1827 
1851 

1852 
1S51 
1850 



1723 
1854 
1850 
1844 
1816 
1854 
1495 



828 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATION. 

Eus. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Er. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Aruer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Prup, 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amor. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

PoHsh. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Fr. Ital. 

Eng. 

Sp. Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital, 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eom. 

Mex. 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Fr. 



NA.ME AND PROFESSION. BORN, DIBD, 

Bodisco, Alex, de, E,, ambassador to U, S. 1S54 

Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library , . . 1544 1612 

Bonaparte, N. F. C. J., duke of Eeichstadt— only son of Napoleon 1811 1832 

B'.ioth, Junius Brutus, tragedian 1796 18.53 

Boleyn, Anne, second queen of Henry VIII 1507 1536 

Bos, Lambert, (ireek scholar, author of works on Greek Classics . 1670 1717 

Bowles, Eev. W, L., poet 1761 1850 

Boj'er, Abel (Fr. refugee in England), author of Fr. Dictionary . 1664 1729 

Brigham, Amariah, M. D., medical writer and philanthropist , , 1798 1840 

Brady, Hugh, Gen. U. S. army 1768 1851 

Brand, J., Author of " Popular Antiquities" 1743 1806 

Brinvilliers, Marchioness, notorious poisoner 1676 

Brooke, Geo. M., Gen, U. S. army 1851 

Brunton, Marj% novelist— "Discipline," &c 1778 1818 

Bryan, Michael, author of Diet, of Painters 1757 1821 

Buch, Leopold von, baron, eminent geologist 1774 lS.i3 

Backingliam, John Sheffield, duke of, military comm'r, poet . . 1649 1720 

Buckminster,,T. S., author of "Sermons," &c 1784 1H12 

Bulfum Thomas, politician and judge, 1777 1852 

BuUard, Henry Adams, judge, jurist, &c 1783 1851 

Burgess, Eistane, jurist and statesman 1770 1853 

Burgundy, Gliarles the Bold, duke of f. 1470 

Burnet, Jacob, jurist, statesman and historian 1771 1853 

Burnett, Waldo J., naturalist 1829 1854 

Buxton, T. Fowell, leading opponent of the slave trade . . . 1787 1845 

Bythner, Victorinus, author of Lyra Prophetica .... 1664 

Cadmus, founder of Thebes, introducer of letters . , . , f. b. c. 1700 

Cade, Jack, noted for his rebellion asainst Henry YI. . . , f. 1450 

Calhoun, John C, Senator of U. S. for S. Carolina-es-Sec. of State, &c. 1782 1850 

Calamy, Ed., numerous theological works 1732 

Cambridge, duke of, youngest son of George III 1774 1850 

Cannon, James S., Eev. D.D., prof, of metaphysics and pastoral and 

theological history 1776 1852 

Capo D'j'stria, John, Count of, diplomatist — ast^a/ismated ■ . . 1780 1831 

Castano, Gen., military commander with Wellington , . . 1747 1852 

Catharine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . . . 1503 1589 

Catharine Parr, 6th queen of Henry VIII 1500 1548 

Catharine of Arrason, 1st queen of Henry VIII 1483 1536 

Canlaincourt. A. A. L., Duke of Vicenza 1773 1827 

Cavallo Tiberius, author of works on nat. phil, in England . . 1749 1809 

Cave, Dr. William, author of " Primitive Christianity" . . . 1637 1713 

Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of Autobiography . 1500 1570 

Cliase, Philander, D.D., Prot. Episc. bishop of Illinois ". . . 1777 1S52 

Chastelleux, F. J., marquis, author of "Travels in America" . . 1738 

Childs, Tiiomas, Gen., militarj'- commander U. S. army . . . 1853 
Chitti, Louis, ex-Sec. of Finance to Murat, prof. pol. econ. at Brussels, 

patriot and exile , , . 1853 

Chillingworth, Wm., theologian — author of Eeligion of Protestants 1644 

Clarke, Mary Anne, mistress of duke of York 1789 1852 

Claudianus, Claudius, poet, temp. Emperor Theodosius, Arcadius, &c. 380 

Clavigero, F. S., author of the History of Mexico .... 

Clay, Henry, an eminent statesman i777 1852 

Clayton, Thftmas, judge and U. S. Senator 1778 1854 

Clemens, or Clement, of A.lexandria, one of the fathers of the church f, 189 

Clinton. Sir Henry, commander-in-chief British army in Amer, Eevol, 1795 

Clovis, first Christian king of France 511 

Cockburn, Henry T., lord, judge, and biographer of Lord Jeffrey 1854 

Codrington, Sir Edward, distinguished admiral . . . , 1770 18.il 

Codrus^ 17th and last king of Athens b. c. 1069 

Cogswell, Eev, Wm., D,D., theological and statistical writer , . 1788 1850 

Cogswell, Wm., D.D., pres, Gilmanton theol. sem. and author , 1787 1850 

Coleridge, Sarah, daughter of S. T., editor Lit Eeview . . . 1852 

Collier, Jeremiali, non-juring divine, author of Eccl. History , . 1650 1726 

Colton, Walter, Eev., author of several books of travel , . . 1851 

Commines. Philip de. historian, chronicler, statesman, and courtier 1445 1509 

Condorcet, John, A. N. C, marquis of, math, and philosopher . . 1743 1794 

Congreve, Sir Wm., inventor of Congreve rockets, &c. . , . 1772 1828 

Cooper, Benjamin, commodore U, S, navy ...... 1793 1850 

Cooper, J. Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian . . . 1789 1851 

Oorday, Charlotte, the executioner of the sanguinary Marat . . 1793 



ADDENDA. 



829> 



NATION. 

Ital. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Scotch. 



Amer, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eom. 

Pei-s. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fren. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 
Fr. 

Scotch. 
Fr. 

Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amei-. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 
Eng. 



667. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Cosmo L, Grand duke of Tuscany, promoter of the arts, &c. . . 151Q 

Cottenham, (C. C. Pepys) lord, Chancellor of England . . , 1781 
Courtenay, Edward H., L.L.D., prof, of matliematics in U. of Ya. 
Coverdale, Miles, one of the earliest English reformers — trans, of the 

Bible 1509 

Cowper, Wm., earl, lord high chancellor 

Crabbe, George, author of "English Synonymes," &c. . . . 1778 

Crafts, Sam. C, filled every ofllce in gift of Vt 1769 

Crichton, James, an accomplished gentleman — the "admirable 

Crichton" . 1560 

Croesus, 5th and last king of Lydia, famed for his riches 

Croswell, William, Rev.,''D.D., poet 1804 

Crowninsbield, Ben. W., ex-Sec. of Navy, and Congressman . . 1774 

Cumberland, duke of, king of Hanover, 5th son ol" George III. . 1770 

Curtis, William, botanist, author of " Flora Londinensis" . 

Curtius Marcus, who devoted himself for his country 

Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, conqueror of Lydia, Assyria, &c. 

Dacres, Jas. R., vice admiral Br. navy, com"r. of Guerriere in war of 

1812 

Daggett, David, jurist 1765 

Daguerre, perfecter of the daguerreotype process .... 1789 

Dale, Eichard, naval commander, associate of Paul Jones, &c. . 1756 
Dalmer, Thos., Lieut. Gen., C. B., Peninsular and Waterloo officer . 
Damon, Pythagorean philosopher, friend of Pythias — in Sicily . . 

Daniel, Samuel, poet-laureate on the death of Spenser, and historian 1562 

Danton, George James, sanguinary revolutionist (^guillotined) 1759 

D'Arusmont, Madame (Fanny Wright) 1795 

Daru, P. a. n. B., statesman, poet and historian .... 1767 

Davenant, Sir Wm., poet-laureate after Ben Jonson .... 1606 

Davis, Matthew L., politician, biographer of Burr .... 1766 

Davis, John, ex-Senator U. S., and ex-Gov. Mass 1787 

Davoust, L. N., duke of Auerstadt, marshal of France . . . 1770 

Dearborn, H. A. S., Gen., military commander in war of 1812, &c. . 1783 

De Kay, James E., nat. historian 1792 

Delolme, J. L., author of work on Englisli Constitution . . . 1745 

Denham, Sir John, poet 1615 

Denison, Ed., Bp. of Salisbury. 1802 

Denon, D. V., baron de, author of the great work on Egypt . . 1747 

Dewitt, John, an enlightened statesman 1625 

Dickerson, Mahlon, ex-Sec. of Navy, pres. Amer. Institute . . 1770 

Diodati, John, translator of the Bible into Italian .... 1589 

Dodslcy, Robert, bookseller, editor of Old Plays, and author . . 1703 

Dollond, Geo., astronomer and optician 1775 

Donne, John, a divine and poet . 1573 

D'Orsay, xilfred, count, mirror of fashion, and artist .... 1798 

Douce, Francis, antiquarian — " Shakspeare and his Times," &c. 

Douglas, David B., officer in the war of 1812, engineer, &c. . . 1793 

Downes, John, commodore U. S. navy 1785 

Drake, Daniel, eminent physician of Ohio 1785 

Drake, Nathan, essayist — "Mornings in Spring," &c. . . . 1766 

Drayton, Michael, poet — " Polyolbion," &c. 1563 

Drew, Samuel — "Essay on the Soul," &c. 1765 

Drummond, Wm., poet — friend of Ben Jonson .... 1585 
Drummond, Sir William, antiquary — " Origines," &c. 

Dugdale, Sir Wm., antiquary — " Monasticon," .fee 1605 

Dumont, Stephen, writer on legislation, &c 1750 

Dunbar, George, author of Gre'ek Lexicon 1773 

Dunlap, Alex., Major U. S. army, distinguished in bat. of Thames. 1786 

Durham, George, prof, philologist (G'k and Eng. Lex.) . . . 1774 

Dwight, Rev. S. E., biographer of Edwards, &c 

Dwight, Louis, Rev., philanthropist 1793 

Eaton, Wm., consul at Tunis — distinguished in war with Tripoli . 1764 
Eichliorn, John Geo., biblical critic, author of History of Literature 1752 
Elmore, Franklin H., lawyer, financier, and successor of J. C. Cal- 
houn in U. S. Senate 1799 

Ellenborough, lord, chief justice of England 1748 

Elliot, Eben, the Corn-law Rhymer 1782 

Empson, Wm., long editor of Edin. Rev., and prof, of law in East 

Ind. College . 1790 

Eschenberg, J. J.—" Manua,! of Classical Literaturei" . . . 1743 



f. B 



1)1 KD, 

1574 
1851 
1853 

1580 
1723 
1851 
1853 

1583 

c. 557 

1851 

1S51 

1851 

1799 

c. 362 

c. 529 

1854 
1851 
1851 
1826 
1854 

1619 

1784 

1852 

1829 

1668 

1850 

1854 

1823 

1851 

1851 

1806 

1663 

1854 

1825 

1672 

1853 

1649 

1764 

1852 

1631 

1852 

1834 

1849 

1854 

1S52 

1836 

1631 

J 833 

1649 

1826 

1688 

1820 

185^ 

185* 

1851 

1851 

1854 

1811 

1827 

1850 
1818 
1850 

1852 
1820 



«,»J0 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



WAT to 
Tr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eom. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Anaer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Brit, 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Brit. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Brit. 
Fr. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Bpau. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scotch, 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Carth. 

Eng. 

Ajner. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Mex. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 
Eng, 
Amer. 
Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Estaing, Cha.s, Henry., count de, naval coram, in Amer. war . 
Excelmans, marshal of France, distinguished under Oudinot in 1799 
Sxmoutli, Viscount, naval commander — at Algiers, &c. . 
Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian — works not extant 

f'scc'olati, author of Latin Dictionary 

fairfax, Edward, poet— translator of Tasso 

^i'alck, Victor, distinguished ornithologist 

Falkland, viscount, statesman and soldier in the civil war 

Farrar, John, astronomer and mathematician 

Feltliam, Owen, author of "Resolves, Moral," &c., about 
Ficlite, John Gotlieb, philosopher and metaphysician 
Fitch, John, one of the first experimenters in steam-boats . 
Fitzpatrick, Thos., veteran and venerable Indian agent . . about 
Flatnstead, John, astronomer 



1T75 
1757 

16S2 



1610 
1779 

1702 
1743 
17S4 
1646 



niKD. 

1798 
1852 
1833 
f. B. c. 225 
1769 
1632 
1S52 
1643 
1853 
1678 
1814 
1798 
1854 
1719 
1623 
1650 
1512 
1854 
1852 
1827 
1226 



Fletcher, Giles, poet 1.58S 

Fletcher, Phineas, brother of foregoing, poet 1582 

Foix, Gaston de, nephew of Louis Xli., warrior .... 1489 
Forbes, Edward, distinguished in-of. at Edinburgh .... 1815 
Forward, Walter, ex-Sec. of the "Treas. . . . 1786 

Foscolo, Ugo, writer of plays and essays, &c. . . . 1776 

Francis, Saint, founder of the Franciscan Friars . . 1182 

Fugger, the name of a noble and very wealthy family at Angsburg 15th and 16th o. 
Fuller, S. Margaret, marchioness d'Ossoli, essayist and critic , 1810 1850 

Fullerton, Lord, sound and learned Ij^wyer, lord of session » . 1776 1853 

Galhiudet, Thos. H., Rev., pioneer Instiuctor of deaf and dumb in 

America 1787 1851 

Gay-Lussac, N. F._, chemist ..... 1778 1850 

Geil, Sir Wm.. antiquary— "Pompeiana," and *' Rome" . . 1777 1830 

Gerard, Etienne M., marshal of France . . . 1778 1852 

Gioberti, Abbe, statesman, pres. of council of Charles Albert of 

Sardina, <fcc. 1807 

Godwin, Henry T., Sir, Gen, commanding in Buimah . . . 1785 

Goguet, Anth. Y,, advocate, author of "Urigia <>f L-aws," &c. 

Good, Jobn Mason, medical writer — " Book of Nature,*' &c. 

Gordon, lo.-*d George, author of the Anti-popery Riots in 1780 

Gore, ClirJstopher, Gov. of Mass., Senator of U. S. 

Godoy, Emanuel, don, "Prince of Peace," statesman 

GourgauJ, Gen. the baron, military friend of .Napoleon . 

Grahame, James, historian of the United States 

Grammont, Pliilitert, count of, famous wit at court of Charles II. 

Greenleaf, Si,jion, professor of law. Harvard College 

Grenville, Rt. Hon. W, Wyndham, lord, prime minister 

Grottefend, learned orientalist and philologist 

Gunnison, J. W., capt. corps of lop. engineers, U. S. army 
Gutzlaif, Rev. Charles, missionary to China, traveller and philologist 
Haldane, Robt. J., Rev., distinguished principal of St. Mary's college, 

St. Andrews 

Hall, Joseph, bishop of Norwich, the Christian Seneca . . 1574 

Hamilton, Anth., count, poet, courtier, and man of letters . 1646 

Hannibal, the Carthaginian general— invader of Italy . b. c. 247 B 

Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman, patron of Pope . 1661 

Harrington, Jonathan, fifer for minute-men of Lexington (19th April, 

1775,) and last survivor of that band 

Harris, James, Philologist, author of " Hermes," &c. 

Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord Chancellor for Queen Elizabeth 

Hays, Jacob, nearly 50 years high constable of N. Y. 

Heinecius, John G., jurist, civilian, professor of philosophy 

Heloise, or Eloise, celebrated for beauty and wit, and love' for Abelard 1101 

Herbelot, Bartholomew d\ learned orientalist .... 1625 

Herrera. ex-President of Mexico .... 

Herbert, Edward, lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and historian . 1581 

Hill, Aaron, poet ,.,... 

Hill, Rev. Rowland, a popular and eccentric preacher . 1744 

Hipparchus, ihe most eminent of ancient nstronomers . . f. about 150 B. c, 

Hobbie, Selah R., 1st assistant Postmaster Gen., noted for successful 

labors in his department 1797 

Hobhonse, Henry, ex-Under Sec. Home Department . . . 1777 
Hollis, Thos., bepefiictor of Harvard College, U. S. A, . 1720 

Holyoke, Edw, A., physician and man of science — lived 101 years . 1728 
Home, Sir Everard, author of Comparative Anatomy, &c. . . 1756 



1764 
17.50 
1758 
1774 
1783 
1790 

1783 
1759 



1803 



1852 
1853 
£1753 
1827 
1793 
1827 
1851 
1852 
1842 
1707 
1853 
1834 
1853 
1853 
1S51 



1769 
17U9 



1772 
16S1 



1854 
1656 
1720 
c. 183 
1724 

1354 
1780 
1591 
1850 
1741 
1164 
1695 
1851 
1643 
175f 
1833 



1854 
1854 
1774 
1829 
1882 



ADDENDA. 



831 



NATIOK. 

Araer. 

Auier, 

lioin. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Prus. 

Eng. 

Eng. 
Fr. 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 
f Amer. 
[ Amer. 

Swe. 

Fr. 

Hung. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amor. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eug. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ensr. 

Fr.^ 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 



BORN. 

1707 
1738 



DIED. 

17S5 
1791 
I. c. 49 
1700 
1705 
1814 
1666 
1850 
1783 
1793 
1849 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Hopkins, Stephen, statesman andjurist— signer of Dec. of Indep. 

Hopkinson, Francis, political writer— signer of Dec. of Indep. 

Hortensius, Quintus, eloquent orator arid writer 

Hoste, Paul, mathematician— author of Naval Evolutions . 1652 

Howe, John, non conformist divine and theol. writer . . 1630 

Howe, Sir Wm., British commander-in-chief in America 

Howell, Jas., author of Familiar Letters . . . 1595 

Huguenin, Daniel, Gen., distinguished officer in war of 1812 1791 

Hunter, Wm., anatomist .... 1718 

Hunter, John, anatomist, ..... 1728 

Hunter, W. L., diplomatist and senator . . . 1774 

Huntingdon, Henry of, historian . . . . f. 1150 

Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, founder of chapels, schools, &c. 1707 

Hurd, Richard, bishop of Litchfield— philologist and miscel. writer 1720 

Hutchinson, Anne, religious enthusiast — banished from N. E. . 

Hutton, Wm., an ingenious self-educated writer . . 1723 

Hypatia, a female philosopher of great attainments, in Alexandria 

Ignatius, St., eminent father of the Church, and martyr . 

Irenseus, St., bishop of Lyons, Christian father and martyr 

Irene, empress of Constantinople — famous for beauty, talent and crime 

Isabella of Castile, wife of Ferdinand of Arragon — patron of Columbus 1451 

lamblicus, a philosopher— author of Life of Pythagoras ... f. 300 

Jacobi, Carl G. J., celebrated mathematician .... 1804 1851 

Jenkyns, Richard, master of Baliol college. Ox., where he established 

the system of merit as the sole standard 

Jervis, John, earl St. Vincent, admiral— victor of Cape St. Vincent 1734 
Johanvey, Madame, venerable mother and founder of the order of 

St. Joseph, Cluny 1851 

John, Fred. L., inventor of mod. system of gymnastics . . . 1778 1852 

John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, warrior, &c 13— 1399 

John of Salisbury, bp. of Chartres, latin poet— promoter of literature f. 12th o. 

Johnson, Sir Wm., British commander in N. America . 1774 

Johnson, Richard M., Col. distinguished in war of 1812, Y. Pres. U. S. 1780 1850 

Joinville, John Sieur de, statesman and historian . . . 1228 131S 

Jones, Roger, Gen., distinguished in war of 1812 .... 1852 



1791 

1808 

1643 

1815 

415 

202 

803 

1504 



1854 
1323 



-victor in the " Wasp," &c. 



1773 
1768 
1813 

1788 



Jones, Samuel, distinguished jurist 

Jones, Jacob, commander in U. S. N 

Judd, Sylvester, novelist 

Judson, Emily, (Fanny Forrester of literature) .... 

Judson, Rev. Adoniram, D. D., missionary in Burmah 

Jugurtha, king of Numidia— conquered and put to death 

Justinian I., the Great, emperor of the East — famed for his Code . 483 

Kahn, Peter, naturalist— author of travels in America , 1715 

Kellermann, Francis C, duke of Valmy, marshal of Franco . 1735 

Kemenyi, baron, mil. commander and patriot in the struggle of 1848 1799 

Kent, Edward, duke of, 4th son of Geo. III., father of q. Victoria 1767 

Keppel, Augustus, viscount, admiral 

Kidd, John, scientific and medical writer 1775 

King, Wm., 1st Gov. of Maine, brother of Rufus K. . . . 1768 
King, Henry, Sir, Gen., had been a soldier for 60 years . . . 1777 
King, Wm. 11., Senator and Vice-Pres. of the United States . 
Kingsley, James L., philologist — editor of Latin text-books . 1778 

Kirby, Rev. W., entomologist .... 1751 

Knowles, Richard, author of Hist, of Turks, &e. 

Korner, Theodore, poet and dramatist . . . 1788 

Kyan, John H., inventor of " kyanized" wood .... 1775 

Lallemand, , surgeon and physician ...... 1789 

Lannes, John, Duke'ofMontebello and marshal of France . . 1769 

Larcher, Ph., classical philologist and translator .... 1726 
Laroche, Benj., translator of Shakspeare and Byron ... 1798 

Latham, John, M. D., ornithologist and antiquarian . . . 1740 
Lavrent, Auguste, chemist and philosopher . . 

Law, John, the originator of the " Mississippi Bubble" . . . 16S1 
Lawrence, Amos, eminent and opulent merchant and philanthropist, 1775 
Lawrence, Abbott, brother of above, similarly eminent, and as mi- 
nister to England ..... 1792 
Lee, Nathaniel, dramatic poet .... 
Lee, Harriet, novelist ..... 1756 
Lee, Samuel, Rev., Hebraist and orientalist , . . 1782 
L'Enclos, Anue or Ninon de, a noted voluptuary , . 1616 



1853 
1850 
1850 
1854 
1850 
c. 106 
565 
1779 
1820 
1852 
1820 
1786 
1851 
1852 
1854 
1853 
1852 
1850 
1610 
1813 
1850 
1854 
1809 
1811 
1852 
1837 
1853 
1729 
1852 

1855 
1692 
1851 
1852 
1705 



832 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, poet and novelist— born at New York . 1720 

Ire. Leslie, Charles, theological writer 

Ger. Lessing, GotiioUl EphiMim, miscellaneous writer . . 1729 

Eng. L'Estrange, Sir Eobert, polit. and controversial writer . , 1616 

Fr. Levesqiie, Eugene, author of travels in America. . . 1771 

Scotch. Leyden, John, i)oet and oriental scholar . . . 1775 

Leyden, John of 

Eng. Liflo, George, dramatist — " George Barnwell," &c. . . 1693 

Eng. Lill.v, TV m, astrologer . . ' . . . 1602 

Scotch. Lindsay, Sir David, poet ..... 1490 

Eng. Lingard, Eev. John, historian of England . . . 1779 

Eng. Litchfield, Earl of, at whose house the famous "Litchfield House 

compact" was made 1797 

Ital. Li tto, Pompeo, author of "Famiglie Italiani Celebri" . 

Amer. Livingston, Brockholst, jurist .... 1757 

Amer. Livings'ton, Eobt. E., chancellor of the State of N. T. and diplomatist 1746 

Fr. Louis Philippe I., king of the French . 

Eng. Lovelace, Ada Augusta, countess, mathematician and metaphysician, 

daugh ter. of Byron . .... 

Span. Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits 

Eng. Macauley, Catliarine, historian ' . . . 

Scotch. Macgillivray, Wm., naturalist 

Eng. Mackenzie, Alex., senior general in queen's service 

Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist 

Scotch. Macpherson, Hugh, for 61 years prof. Greek in Aberdeen 

Eom. Macrobius, A. A. T., miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Madan, Martin, translator of Juvenal, &c. 

Irish. Magee, Wm., archb. of Dublin— theological writer, . 

Eng. Maitland, Peregrine, Sir, Gen. mil. com. 

Fr.' Malebranche, Nicholas, priest and philosophical writer 

Fr. Malesherbes, C. W.. statesman and author . 

Eng. Mandeville, Sir John, traveller 

Egypt. Manctho, historian .... 

Eom. Manlius, Titus Torquatus, warrior and consul . , 

Eom. Manlius, Marcus, saved capitol from Gauls . 

Scotch. Mansfield, Wm. Murray, earl of, chief justice . . 

Eng. Mantel), Gideon A., mineralogist and naturalist 

Fr. Marceau, F. S. D., general under Napoleon . . 

Eom. Marcellus, M. Claudius, general against Hannibal 

Ital. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England 

Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany 

Eng. Marlowe, Christopher, poet and dramatist 

Fr. Marmont, duke of Eagusa, marslial of France under Napoleon 

Fr. Marast, Armand, journalist and statesman 

Irish. Martin, Mrs. Bell, novelist — died at New York 

Eng. Marvel, Andrew, poet and political writer 

Scotch. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots — murdered by queen Elizabeth 

Eng. Maskelyne, Nevil, mathematician and astron. 

Imer. Mason, J. L., capt. of engineers XJ. S. army . . 

Amer. Mather, Increase, D. D., theol. and historian 

Eng. Maurice, Tliomas, oriental scholar and historian 
Maximus Tyrius, philosopher of second century 

Eng. McAdam, John Loudon, Colossus of i2oa£^,9 . . 

Amer. McDuflBe, Geo'., gx-Gov. of S. C. senator of U. S., &c. 

Amer. McKinley, John, associate justice Sup. Court, U. S . 

Ital. Medici, Cosmo de, merchant and statesman 

Ital. Melloin, Macedoine, physicist, known for researches on heat 

Scotch. Melville, Henry Dundas, viscount — statesman 

Scotch, Melville, Lord, (Eobert Dundas) son of the above, statesman 

J'ew. Mendelssohn, Moses— the Socrates of the Jews 

Port. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand — lying traveller . . f. 1550 

Amer. Mercer, Hugh, brig'r general in Eevolutionary army . . 1777 

Amer. Merwin, Jesse, school teacher, W. Irving's " Ichabod Crane" 1782 1852 

Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., discoverer of animal magnetism . . 1734 1815 

Fr. Michaux, Andre, traveller and botanist — N. A. Sylva . . 1746 1802 

Amer, Milledoler, Philip, one of the formers of Amer. Bible Society, and for 

many years pres. Eutgers college . . . . 1775 1852. 

Amer. Miller, James, gen. milit. commander in war of 1812 . 1775 1851 

Eng, Miller, Philip, gardener and botanist .... 1691 

Eng, Miller, Joseph, witty act >r— the Father Of JesM • . 1684 1738 



1815 
1491 
1730 

1771 

1690 

1768 

1726 
1765 
1777 
1638 
1721 

f. B. 

1705 
1790 
1769 



1717 
1773 



1620 
1542 
1732 

1639 
1753 

1756 



1389 

1798 
1740 
1770 
1729 



DIED. 

1804 
1732 
1781 
1704 
1S52 
1821 

1738 
1681 
1557 
1851 

1854 
1852 
1823 
1813 
1850 

1852 
1556 
1791 
1852 
1853 
1787 
1854 
420 

1831 
1854 
1715 
1794 
1372 

304 

341) 

, c. 383 
1783 
1852 
1796 

, c. 2(19 
1482 . 
1780 
1593 
1852 
1852 
laoO 
1678 
1587 
ISll 
1853 
1723 
1824 

183& 

1851 
1852 
1464 
1854 
1811 
1851 



ADDENDA. 



833 



KATIOW. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Fr. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Mex. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Welsh. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Assy. 

Assy. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eora. 

Irish. 

Dan. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Anier. 

Irish. 

Swiss. 

Sar. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Fr.^ 

Scotch. 

Egypt. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Brit. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PEOFESSION. 

Miller, Samuel, D. D., histoilan of " 18th Century" and theologian 
Miller, Wm., founder of the •' Millerites," "End of the World^'sect 
Milner, John, Catholic divine and theological writer 
Minucius-Felix, Marcus, rhetorician .... 
Mirabaud, J. B. de, philosopher and translator 
Moir, David, poet— the "Delta" of Blackwood 
Montgomery, James, poet .... 

Montagu, Basil, editor of Bacon's works, essayist, &c. 
Monmouth, James, Duke of, natural son of Charles II. 
Montagu, Elizabeth, essayist and founder of the Blue Stockings . 
Montespan, Mad. de, mistress of Louis XIV. 
Montezuma, emperor of Mexico— conquered by Cortes 
Montl'aucon, antiquary and critic .... 

Montfort, Simun de, earl of Leicester— founder of the H. of Commons 
Montgolfler, J. E., inventor of air balloons 
Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, royalist general 
Moore, Thomas, poet, biographer and historian . 
•^ More, Henry, theological and philosophical writer 
Morgan, William, mathematician .... 

Morton, Sam'l G., distinguished craniologist and ethnologist . 
Moule, Thos., writer on heraldic and topographical antiquities 
Munchausen. J. C. F. — proverbial for " stories" 
Nabonassar, 1st king of the Chaldeans .... 
Naboi)olassai-, king of Babylon .... 
Napier, W. J., lord, naval commander 
Nash Richard — commonly called Beau Nash 
Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople— founder of Nestorians 
Newton, liobert, Eev., celebrated Wesleyan preacher . 
Nicephorus, Calistus, ecclesiastical iiistorian 
Nicephorus, Gregorius, Byzantine historian 
Nicholas, John, antiquary and miscellaneous writer 
Nield, James Camden, left all his property (£500,000) to the queen 
Noah, Mordecai M., ex-consul to Morocco, editor and politician 
Nochden, G. H., grammarian and misc. writer . 
North, Fred., lord, premier during Amer. war 
Northampton, Spence Compton, marquis of, succeeded the duke of 

Sussex as pres. of royal society 

Norton, Andrews, professor of theology 

Norton, John P., prof, of agric. chem!"in Tale College, U. S. . 

Nugent, lord, author of Life of Hampden, &c. 

Numa Fompilius, 2d king of Eome .... 

O'Connor, Arthur Condorcet, general, leader of rebels of 1T97 and 

exile 

Oersted, Hans, Ch. phil. scientific scholar, discov. of electro-magnetism 

Oglethorpe, J. E., general — founder of Georgia 

Oldcastle, Sir J., lord Cobham 

Olin, Stephen, D. D., Pres. Wesleyan Sem., author of Travels in the 

East, &c. . 
O'Keefe, J. dramatist .... 

Oken, Lorenz, mineralogist and naturalist 
Omar, 3d, caliph of the Saracens — founder of the Mosque 
O'Meara, surgeon and biographer of Napoleon 
Opie, Amelia, Mrs., novelist and essayist 
Orleans, L. J. P., duke of— "Egahte"— guillotined . 
Ossian, ancient Gaelic bard— supposed to have lived in the 
Osymandias, king of Egypt — about 
Overbury, Sir T., poet, &c. — poisoned in the Tower 
Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of " Travels in W. Indies" 
Paine, Elijah, jurist and law reporter 
Paine, John Howard, dramatist 
Paixhans, general, inventor of guns bearing his nanae 
Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer . . - . 

Parnoll, T., poet and divine . . . * , 

Parr, Thomas— lived 152 years . . . 

Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist 
Partridge, Alden, Capt., celebrated military instructor 
Pasco, John, rear admiral of the red, distinguished at Ti-afalgar 
Patrick, Simon, learned prelate and theological writer 
Pattison, Granville Sharp, prof, of anat. in U. of N. T., 
Paul, St, Vincent de, missionary ecelegiastio 



BOF.N. 


DIED. 


1759 


1850 


1781 


1S49 


1752 


1826 


f. 3dc 




f. 1770 




1798 


1851 


1772 


1854 


1770 


1851 


1649 


1635 


1720 


181)0 




1520 


1655 


1741 




1265 


1745 


1793 


16— 


1645 


1779 


1S51 


1614 


16S7 




1S33 


1799 


1851 


1T84 


1S51 




1797 


f, B. c. 747 


f. B. c. 626 


1787 


1834 


1674 


1761 




439 




1854 


14th 


0. 


14th 


0. 


1744 


1828 


1780 


1852 




1851 


1770 


1826 


1733 


1792 


1790 


1851 


1790 


1835 


1822 


1852 




1850 


f. B c 714 


1765 


1852 


1777 


1851 


1698 


1785 




1417 




1851 


1T48 


1833 


1778 


1851 




643 


1778 


1836 


1779 


18.53 


1747 


1793 


3dc 




1500 b 


c. 


1581 


1613 




1540 




1853 


1791 


1851 


1782 


1854 


1729 


1812 


1679 


1717 


1483 


16:^1 


1746 


1825 




1S5J 


1780 


185-3 


1626 


1707 


1792 


1851 


1576 


1660 



834 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS, 



XATIOS. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Enc 

Ital. 

Enir. 

Eiii. 

Eng. 

Anier. 

Amor. 

Eiiir. 

Fr; 

Span. 

Eng. 

Jew. 

ItAl. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Nic. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Auier. 
Amer. 

Fr. 

Polish. 

Ens. 

Fr,^ 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ensr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr.^ 

Eng. 

Enff. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Ft." 

En- 

Eng. 

Soot. Am. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eom. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Brie. 

Enff. Jew 

Aiaer. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Eni. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Brii 

Scotch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Scotch. 



XAMK A>T> PROFESSION. 

Paulus. H. E. G.. celebrated Orientalist and critic 

Pe,irson. Jolin, bishop of Chester — writer on the Creed, &c. . 

Poele, George, damatist and poet .... 

PolHco. Silvio, patriot and poet .... 

Ponn. "\Vm., admiral — lather of the founder of Pennsylvania 

Pep.vs, Sanuiel, secret.^ry to the admiralty, .anthor of "Diary,'* Ac. 

Perceval. Spencer, prime minister— assassinated 

Perkins, Tlios. H„ an eminent, opulent, and benevolent merchant 

Perkins. Hardin, largely identified with hist, of Ala., U. 8. abont 

Peters, Hugh, eccentric preacher and Eoundhead— executed 

Pliilidor, Andrew, writer on chess pluying 

Philip II.. king— married Mary queen of England— sent the Armada 



Philipps. Ambrose, poet and dramatist 
Philo Ji " " ----- 



r ndaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria 
Piazzi. astronomer ..... 

Piotet, Benedict, theological and historical writer 
Pioton. Sir T.. general— killed at Waterloo . 
Pinida. general." President of Nicaragua 
Piozzi, Hester L., miscel. writer — friend of Dr. Johnson 
Plnnket, William C, b.aron, jurist jvnd politician. Lord Chancellor 

Ireland 

Pocock. Dr. E.. learned critic and commentator .... 

Pocock. R., learned prelate and traveller 

Poindexter, Geo., politician, IT. S. Sen.ator 

P<iinsett, Joel E.. statesman, diplomatist, and author 

Polycarp. St, Christian father and martyr . 

Pompadour. J. A. P.. marchioness do, mistress of I^ais XV. 

Poniatowski. Stanislaus Aug.. last king of Pol.nnd 

Porter, Goo. E„ statistician and political economist 

Pr.idt, Abbe Dominique do, political writer 

Prentiss, Sargeant S., lawyer and politician, famed for eloquence 

Price, Dr. R.T writer on civil liberty 

Pritchard. J. C.. ethnologist—'' X,^tural History of Man'' 

Priessnitz. founder of hydropathy 

Prynne, Wm., learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary 

Psalmanazar. Geo., literary impostor . 

Purchas. Samuel, divine-editor of Voyages and Pilgrimages 

Puttenh.am. Goo., poet and critic 

Pve, H. J., poet-laureate ..... 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus — one of the greatest warriors of antiquity 

Quarles, Francis, poet— author of "Emblems,'''' &c. . 

Quin. James, eminent actor .... 

E.ibelais. Frnn.. wit and satirist .... 

Raffles. Sir T. Stamford, author of History of Java 

Raikes, R., printer — founder of Sunday schools 

Eamngo. Adam, improver of printing-press 

Eapia de Thoyras, Paul, author of History of England 

Reggio, C. N. budinot, due de, marshal of France . 

Regulus, M. A., patriotic general and cousul 

Ronoy. Joseph, established pisiculture as an art 

Ronnell, Major J., geographer and topograplier 

Repton. Humphrey, landscape gardener .and architect 

Reynolds, John H." .aiithor of "Naiad" &c.. contrib. to Lon. M.ag 

Rioardo, David, writer on political economy and finjvnce 

Rich, okadiah. bibliographer .... 

Richard I.. Cceur de Lion, king .... 

Richiird in. king— killed at Bosworth . 

Richardson, J.anies, traveller in Africa. &c . . 

Ridley, NichoLas, prelate and protestant martyr . 

Ritchie, Thos., politician. "Father R." . 

Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary, and editor of poets 

Robinson. Sir, Fred". P., Gen., born in U. S.. com. 2d brig. Br. ISI'2 

Rob Roy, (Robert Macgregor,") highland freebooter, about 

Rochambeau. J. B. D.. count do, marshal of France . 

Roland, M. J. P., madame. martyr to the Revolution 

Eomilly, Sir S.. jurist and statesman 

Roscommon. W! D., Earl of, poet and critic 

Rcssetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic^ "Analytic Commenf' 

Rubini. tenor vocalist .... 

Ruddiman, Thos., critic and grammarian . 



of 



BORX. 


DIKtk 


1761 


1S51 


1612 


1CS6 




15i>S 




1S.54 


1«21 


1670 




li^70 


1T62 


3S12 


1764 


1S54 


1791 


1S5!» 


ir^99 


1660 


1726 


1795 


1556 


159S 




174«) 


f. A 


. D, -10 


1746 


1S26 


1655 


1724 




1S15 




1S53 


17S9 


1S21 


1765 


1S54 


16iVt 


1691 


1704 


1765 


1S5S 




177S 


lS5t 




169 


1720 


1764 


1782 


1793 


1793 


1S52 


1759 


1SS7 


ISIO 


1S50 


1723 


1791 




1849 


1799 


1S61 


1609 


1669 


1679 


176S 


1577 


162^ 




1600 


1745 


ISIS 




B. c. 272 


1592 


1644 


1693 


1766 


14S3 


1553 


17S1 


1S26 


17S5 


ISU 


1770 


1850 


16lil 


1725 


1767 




f. 


B. C 


1SC8 


1S54 


1742 


1880 


1752 


ISIS 


1796 


1S52 


1772 


1S23 




1S50 


1157 


1199 


1450 


1485 




1851 


1500 


1556 


1779 


1854 


1752 


1803 


1764 


1852 




1738 


1725 


1807 


1754 


1793 


1757 


ISIS 


16t'>3 


16S4 


17SS 


1854 




1854 


1674 


1757 



ADDENDA. 



835 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. dc, admiral .... 

Eng. Kyrner, Tliomas, antiquarian and historian (Foedera) . 

Eiig. Sachevereli, Henry, divine— impeached for sedition 

Eng. Sackville, T., Earl of Dorset, poet 

Eng. Sackville, Cii., E.arl of Dorset, wit and poet 

Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian 

Jewish. Sadoc, liabbi, founder of the sect of Sadducces . 

Fr. Saint Pierre, Bcrnardin de— " Paul and Virginia," "Stud, of Nat.,' 

Eng. Sale, George, historian and translator of the Koran 

Phoen. Sanchoniatho, philosopher and historian . . . 

Eng. Savage, liichard, poet .... 

Fr. Savary, N., traveller and Oriental scholar 

Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk — famed for zeal and eloquence 

Dan. Saxo Grammaticus, historian .... 

Ital. Scala, statesman and liistorian of Florence . . 

Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justis, critic and historian . . 

Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist 

Ger. Schlcgel, Fred., critic and historian 

Ger. Sclielling, Fred. W. J., philosopher 

Aust. Schwartzoiiberg, Prince F., prime minister of Austria . 

Gei'. Schwab, Gustav., poet .... 

Eng. Scroop, Wm., naturalist ..... 

Fr. Sebastiani, Horace, marshal of France . . • 

Gei". Secnndus, John, Latin poet .... 

Eng. Sedley, Sir C, poet ..... 

Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian . . . 

Scotch. Selkirk, John, mariner— the original of "Robinson Crusoe" 

Amer. Sargeant, John, jurist and statesman . . . 

Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin 

Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess and miscellaneous writer . . 

Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 

Eng. Shelley, Mary \V., widow of the poet — "Frankenstein" 

Eng. Sherwood, Mrs. M, novelist and juvenile writer 

Irish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . 

Eng. Sliirley. James, dramatic writer .... 

Amer. Short, Wtn., charge d'affaires to France, Holland, and Spain 

Amer. Slireve, Henry M., capt., inventor of steam snagboat . . 

Rom. Silius Italicus, Cuius, Roman poet 

Sam. Simon Magus, religious impostor . . . 

Gr. Simonides, ancient poet ..... 

Eng. Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII. 

Amer. Smith, Junius, one of the founders of ocean steam navigation . 

Eng. Sniitii, John Pye, D. D., eminent theologian . . 

Gr. Socrates, ecclesiastical historian .... 

Span. Soils, Antonio de, liistorian of Mexico, &c. 

Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and polit. writer — "Coll. of Tracts' 

Eng. Somerville, "Wm., poet .... 

Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, an eminent vocalist . . . 

Fr. Sorbonne, R. de, divine, founder of the college at Paris . 

Fr. Soult, one of Napoleon's marshals, ex-statcsman, &c. 

Eng. Southern, T., dramatic writer and poet . . 

Eng. Southey, Caroline, poetess .... 

Eng, Sowerly, Geo. B., author of works on natural history 

Gr. Sozomen, Hermias, eccleclastical historian . • 

Eng. Speed, John, chronologist, historian, and antiquary . . 

Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . . 

Dutch. Spinoza, Bened.. remarkable atiieist . . . 

Ital. Spontini, G. L. P., dramatic composer 

Amer. Stanley. Arthur Dr., mathematician 

Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bp. of Worcester and theological writer . 

Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian . . . 

Eng. Strype. John, divine, biographer, and historian . . 

Amor. Stuart, Moses, professor, theologian, and philologist 

Eng. Stukely, Win., divine and antiquary . . . 

Eng. Suckling, Sir J. poet and dramatic writer 

Eng. Sylvester, Joshua, poet . . . . . 

Eng. Talfourd, Thos. N., jurist, statesman, and dramatist 

Amer. Talmailge, Jas., politician, long pres. Anjer. Institute 

Eng. Taylor, Richard C, naturalist — author of "Statistics of Coal" 

Eng. Taylor, John— called the " Water Poet" 



BORN. 


OlED. 


1607 


1679 




1713 


1672 


1724 


1.0.36 


1603 


1037 


1 706 


15U7 


1587 


f. B. 


0. 2ii(t 


&c. 173ti 


1814 




1736 


f. n. c. 


760 


1697 


174.3 




1733 


1452 


1498 




1208 


1430 


1497 


1540 


161)9 


1610 


1060 


1772 


18-29 


1775 


1854 


1779 


1851 


1793 


1852 


1770 


1851 


1770 


1851 


1511 


1536 


1639 


1701 


15S4 


1654 


16S0 




1779 


1852 


1509 


1553 


1744 


IS 9 


1640 


1692 


1798 


1851 


1775 


1852 


1792 


1851 


1594 


1665 


1759 


1850 




1851 


B. 0. 1 


A. D. 74 




66 


f. B. 


0. 450 




1529 


1780 


1S52 


. 1774 


1351 


f. 5th c. 


1610 


1686 


' 1650 


1716 


1692 


1743 


1S04 


18.54 


1201 


1274 


1769 


1851 


1662 


1746 




1854 


1790 


1854 




450 


1555 


1629 


1561 


1643 


1633 


1677 


. 1784 


1851 


. 1711 


1853 


1633 


1699 


1525 


1605 




1737 


. 1780 


1851 


1687 


1765 


1613 


1641 


1563 


1618 


1797 


1854 


1783 


1853 


1791 


1851 


1580 


1654 



836 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATION. KAME AND PnOFESSION. 

Amer, Taylor, Zach., Gen., Pres. TJ. S. — victor at Bnena Vista . 

Eng. Tenyson, Dr. T., arclibisbop of Canterbury, polemical writer 

Gr. Tlicodoret, ecclesiastical bistorian 

Fr. Tliibaudeau, count, statesman and senator . 

Scotch. Thompson, Thos., autbor of ''History of Chemistry," &c. 

Irish. Thompson, William, naturalist — " Birds of Ireland" . 

Eng. Tboresby, Ealph, biographer and antiquary 

Eng. Tickell, Tiiomas, poet^ arid writer in tlie " Spectator" 

Eng. Tindal, Mathew, I). D., polemical divine 

Ital. Tiraboscbi, G., bistorian .... 

Irish. Tone, Theobold Wolfe, general in the Irish Eebellion 

Amer. Troost, Gerard, geologist 

Am. Jew. Traro, Judah, public benefactor of New Orleans, U.S. . 

Jew. Tudela, Benjamin de, rabbi and traveller 

Amer. Turner, Daniel, commodore U. S. navy — distinguished on L. E. 1814 

Eng. Turner, T. Hudson, archseologist, " Dom. Arch, of Mid. Ages" 

Eng. Tnsser, Thomas, old English writer and poet 

Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer, and first translator of the Bible into English 

Eng. Tytler, P. F., historian . . . . • 

Eng. Tyrvvhitt, T., crilic and antiquary .... 

Fr. Valliere, the duchess de la, mistress of Louis XIY. 

Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John, dramatist .... 

Swiss. Vattel, F. de, jurist and metaphysical writer ("Law of Nations") 

Span. Vega, Lopez de, dramatic poet .... 

Ital. Virgil, Polydore, priest and historian 

Fr. Voiture, V., poet and miscellaneous writer 

Brit. Vortigern, warrior ..... 

Gei-. Voss,"J. G., historical writer and chronologist 

Ger. Voss, Isaac, critic and^pbilologist .... 

Eng. AVarburton, Eliot, traveller and historian . 

Scotch. Wardlaw, Eev. R., theologian .... 

Amer. Ware, William, novelist — author of "Zenobia," &c. 

Eng. Warwick, E. Neville, earl of, general and statesman — "King Maker" 

Eng. Waterland, Dr. D., divine, and polemical writer 

Amer. Webster, Daniel, a very eminent statesman 

Eng. Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of pottery 

Eng. Wellington, Arthur, Duke of, warrior and statesman 

Eng. Whitehead, Wm., poet-laureate 

Eng. Whitelocke, Bulstrode, lawj'cr and statesman . . . 

Eng. Whitgift, archb'p, divine, and writer against the Puritans 

Scotch. Wilson, John, poet and essayist .... 

Eng. Wither, George, poet ..... 

Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquaiy and biographer 

Amer. Woods, Leonard, D.D„ theologian 

Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman, and Justice Supreme Court, U. S. 

Eng. Wotton, Sir H., statesman and poet 

Amer. Young, Alex. Eev., historian of the " Pilgrims" . 

Eng. Zouch, T., D. D., biographer . , . 



BOEN. 


DlEIX 


17S4 


1S5C 


1636 


1715 


386 


-^57 


1766 


1854 


1790 


1851 


1S06 


1852 


1658 


1725 


1686 


1740 


1657 


1783 


1631 


1794 


1763 


1798 


1769 


1851 


1776 


1854 


f. 12th 


c. 




1850 


1815 


1855 




1530 


l.-iOO 


1536 


1790 


1849 


1730 


1786 




1726 


1714 


1767 


1562 


1635 




1555 


1598 


1648 




484 


157T 


1649 


1618 


1689 




1851 


1780 


1853 


1797 


1852 




1471 


1683 


1740 


1782 


1852 


1731 


1795 


1769 


1852 


1715 


1785 


1605 


1676 


1530 


1604 


1785 


1854 


1590 


1667 


1632 


1695 


1770 


1851 


1789 


1851 


1568 


1639 


1800 


1854 


173T 


1816 



ADDEl^DA. 



837 



PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, &c. 

{Additions to list on page 6S8.) 

NATION. NAME AND PKOFESSIOX, 

Scotch. Allan, Sir "William 

Irish. Barker, Eobcrt, inventor of panoramas 

Ital. Bartolozzi, Francesco . 

Ger. Bauer, Ferdinand . 

Eng. Beagley, Sam!., dramatist 

Ital. Bellini, Giov,, founder of the Yen'n School 

Ital. Benini. Giovanni, L. 

Eng. Bewick. John, publisher of various works 
with woodcuts 

Eng. Bone, Henry 

Dulch. Brill, Paul .... 

Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., "Pitti Palace" at Flor. 

Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist— au- 
thor of Autobiography 

Ital. Cignani, Carlo 

Dutch. Cort, Cornelius 

Ger. Cranach, Lucas . . 

Eng. Finden, William . 

Scotch. Forrest, Eobert 

Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in 
oak .... 

Amer. Greenough, Horatio 

Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste 

Ital. Guilio, Romano, (see Julio) . 

Eng. Haviland, John . 

Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel 

Dutch. Mieris, Francis 

Ital. Morghen, llaphael 

Dutch. Neefs, L^eter . 

Ital. Piinnini, Giov. Paolo 

Ital. Piombo, Sebastiano del 

Fr. Pradiei', Jacques . . . 

Eng. Pugin, Augustus N. W. 

Eng. Eiclnirdson, Jonathan, writer on art and 

Fr. Eoubilliac, L. F. 

Fr. Eousseau, James 

Eng. Savage, Jas. 

Pruss. Schadow, J. G. 

Ger. Srheifer, Ary — living. 

Ital. Schidono, Bartolomeo 

Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., pres't Eoyal Academy 

Span. Spagnoletto, Guiseppe Eibera la 

Dutch. Steen, Jan 

Amer. Strickland, William 

Ger. Sunder, Lncas, (see Cranach) . 

Ger. Tieck, Christ. Fred. 

Scotch. Thorn, Jas. — Tarn O'Shanter, &c. 

Eng. Thornhill, Sir James 

Eng. Turner, J. "W. M. . 

Amer. Vandelyn, John . 

Dutch. Yan der Neer, Arnold 

Dutch. Yan lluysum 

Fr. "Watteau, Antoine 

Eng, "Westall, Eichard . 

Eng. Wyatt, E. J. 



ssiox. 


BORN. 


DIED 


Painter 


17SI 


1850 


Painter 


1740 


1806 


Engraver 


1730 


1,813 


Botanical painter 




1826 


Architect , 


1785 


1851 


Painter 


1462 


1512 


Pain'r, Sculp^r t&ArchH 


1698 


1680 


Wood engraver 




1795 


Enamel painter 


1755 


1834 


Landscape painter 


1556 


1626 


Architect . 


1877 


1476 




1500 


1570 


Painter 


1628 


1719 


Engraver . 


1536 


157rt 


Engraver 


1470 


loo3 


Engraver . 


1786 


1852 


Sculptor 


1790 


1852 


Sculptor . 




1721 


Sculptor 


1805 


1852 


Painter . 


1726 


1805 


Architect 


1792 


1852 


Familiar life painter 


1615 


1669 


(( (( 


1635 


16S1 


Engraver . 


1758 


1833 


Arch'l painter 


1570 


1651 


i: a 


1691 


1764 


Painter 


1485 


154T 


Sculptor . 


1798 


1852 


Architect 


1811 


1852 


Painter 


1665 


1745 


Sculptor 




1762 


Painter 


1630 


1693 


Architect 


1778 


1852 


Sculptor . 


1764 


1850 


Painter 






n 


1560 


1616 


• 


1795 


1850 


(( 


1589 


1656 


(C 


1636 


1689 


Architect 




1854 


Engraver 






Sculptor . 


1776 


1851 


Sculptor 




1850 


Historical fainter 


1676 


17.32 


Painter 


1775 


1851 


Historical painter 


1776 


1852 


Landscape painter 


1619 


1683 


Fruit painter 


1682 


1749 


Paintar 


1684 


172/ 


Historical painter . 


1781 


1836 


Sculptor 


1795 


1850 



888 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



MUSICIANS. 

{In addition to tJiose mentioned in the BiograpJiical Index.) 



NATION. 

Ger. 
Eng. 
Fr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 

Eng. 

Itai. 
Ital. 

Ital. 
Ger. 
Ital. 
Ger. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 



Bach, John Sebastian . 


. Organist and 


composer 


16S5 


1750 


Bishop, Henry Rowley . 


Composer . 


, 


17S2 


1855 


Boieldien, Francis Adrien 


. Composer 


, 


1775 


1834 


Calcott, J. W., musical doctor, author o 


f 








"Musical Grammar," and 


. Composer 


. 


1766 


1821 


Corelli, Arcangelo 


Violinist and 


composer 


1668 


1821 


Gemimani, Francesco . 


ii 


u 


16S8 


1762 


Giardini, Felice 


(( 


(( 


1716 


1795 


Gluck, Christopher 


Composer 


, ^ 


1712 


1787 


Jomelli, Nicolai . 


(( 


. 


1714 


1744 


Lully, Giovanni Battista 


Violinist and 


composer 


1634 


1687 


Mendelssohn, Felix Bartholch 


Composer 


• . 


1809 


1848 


Mehul, Etienne Henri 


k( 


, 


1763 


1817 


Negri, Benedetto, celebrated Prof, at the 










Conservatoire at Milan 








1854 


Paer, Ferdinand 


Composer . 


, 


1771 


1839 


Paesiello, or Paisiello Giovanni 


(i 


, 


1741 


1816 


Palestrina, Giovanni Perluigi da 


(( 


, 


1524 


1594 


Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista Jesi da 


(( 


, 


1707 173" 


' or '9 


Perf, .Jacopo, (see Rimicini, who did not 


(( 








compose the first opera — Peri did) 






1550 


1625 


Purcell, Henry 


(( 


. 


1658 


1695 


Eiibini 


Tenor vocalist 


^ 




1854 


Sacchlni, Antonio, Maria Gaspardo . 


Composer 




1734 


1786 


Sapio 


Tenor vocalist 


. 


1792 


185 L 


Scarlatti. Alessandro 


Composer 


, 


1659 


1725 


Sontag, Honriette 


Vocalist . 


, 




1854 


Spentini 


Composer 


, 


1780 


1851 


Spohr, Louis— still living 


Violinist a7id 


composer 


1783 




Stradella, Alessandro 


Vocalist . 


, 


1645 


1670 


Tartini, Giuseppe 


Violinist 


, 


1692 


1770 


Tallis, Thomas . . . 


Composer . 




16th 


c. 



ABBEEYIATIOKS. 



Amer. 


American. 


Gr. 


Greek. 


Ara. 


Arabian. 


Heb. 


Hebrevr. 


Assy. 


Assyrian. 


Hind. 


Hindoo. 


B.ab. 


Babylonian. 


Ital. 


Italian. 


Bav. 


Bavarian. 


Jew. 


Jewish. 


Car. 


Carthaginian. 


Mace. 


Macedonian 


Dan. 


Danish. 


Nor. 


Norman. 


Eng. 


English. 


Pers. 


Persian. 


Fr. 


French. 


Phen. 


Phoenician. 


Ger. 


German. 


Port. 


Portuguese. 



Pruss. 


Prussian. 


Rom. 


Roman. 


Euss. 


Russian. 


Sam. 


Samaritan. 


Sar. 


Sardinian. 


Span. 


Spanish. 


Swe. 


Swedish. 


Syr. 


Syrian. 


U. S. A. 


) United States of 


U.S. 


\ America. 



PAINTING. 839 

PAINTING. Clironological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in 
Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of 
the Nineteenth Century. 

{From BelVn Edition of Bredoid's Tables of Universal History.) 

1. Florentine School— Style elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to 
please; sornetiines gigantic; neglects coloring and grace-1240, Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211. 
Andrea raft; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Verrocliio 
Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Leonardo da Vinci; 1469, Bartolomineo 
di ban Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Per uzzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 14S4 Dominico 
Beccafiimi; 14>^8, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493. Jacopo Oarrucci "da Ponturino; 149 i, Del Eosso- 
loUO, Pernio del Vaga; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510. Francesco Salviati; 1510 Giorgio Vassari ' 
lo45, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luigi Cardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matte'o Eosselli* 
1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo- 
foh; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti ; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni- 1702 
Pompeo Battoni. ' ' 

2. EoMAN School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical 
stndy of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most subfime beauty ; colorino- and chiaro 
oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, Eaffael • 
1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Eomano ; 1528, Frederico Barocoi; 1529, Taddeo Zuccliero • 1543' 
Frederico Zucchero ; 1.589, Dominico Feti ; 1594, Nicholas Poussin : 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo 
Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine; 1602, Ceriozzi • 
1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Dogliet. called Poussin or Guaspre' 
1616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Eomanell; 1623", Giacinto Brandi ; 16'>3 Filippo 
Lauri; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, Giro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Eaftael Mengs. 

3. Venetian School.— Faitiiful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent 
coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected studv of the ant'iquc • this 
school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Gioro-jone ■ 1477 
Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore) ; 1480, G. A. Eegillo ; 1485, Se'bastiano del Piombo- ]51o' 
Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Eobusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea 
Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Casliari; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539 Dario 
Varotnri; 1540, Felice Eiccio; 1540, Jacopo Palma (II Vecchio); 1544, Jac Palma; 1549,' Giov. 
Contarino; 1560, Maria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 1586, Tiberio Tinelli; 159o' Aless* 
Varotari; 1600, Aless. 'I'urchi ; 1635. Giov. B. Langetti ; 1642, Andrea Poz/o ; 'l656 'Pranc" 
Trcvisani; 1659, Sebast. Eicci; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Eosa Alba Carriera'- 1675 
Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canale ; 1693. Giov. Bat! 
Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 

4. Lombard and Bolognesk Schools.— Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded 
a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools 
are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and volui)tuous (though 
perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his color- 
ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and inanv of their 



Colonna: 1606, Grira.'ildi ; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani; 1612, Simone Caniarini; 1624, P.Fran. 
Mola; 162S, Cignani; 1638, P. F. Caroli; 1643, Lodov. Quaini ; 1648, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, 
Guis. del Sole; 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 16.5. Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani • 
1671, Donato Creti ; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti; 1691, G. P. Panini. 

(Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having founded 
general S(!hools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great" Italian Schools." Neapol- 
itan. — The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. 
Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310; Fil del Tesauro, 1320 ;''1500,"and Sabbatani ; 1560, Guis 
Cesare d'Arpino; 16u0, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator 
Eosa; 1631, Luca Giordana; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli ; 1679, Sebast. Conca; 
1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design. — 1400. Nich. da Vottri ; 1527 Carn- 



840 



PAINTING. 



dePrado; 1519, Morales; 1528, Luis de Vargas ; 15s2, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete : 1550, Pablo 
de las Eovias; 15S9, Joseph Eibera; 1599, Don Diego Yelasqnez de Silva: 1601, Alonso Cano; 
1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolme Esteban deMurillo; 1617, Franc. Eizzi ; 1631, 
Matias de Torres; 1C40, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan de Alfaro; 1651, Juan C. Falco ; 1663, P. 
di Pietrl.) 

5. Germain School. — This School havig never had a common point of union, bears no 
general and distinctive cliaracter; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists 
to the great masters of Ital}-- and of the Netherlands. 1297, Tb. de Matina; ]'357, Theo. do 
Prague; 1367, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Durer; 1492, Lucas Muller: 149S, Hans Holbein; 
1515, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1.550, Christ. Schwartz; 1.556, John Van Aachen; 
1564, J. Eottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lvs ; 1574, Adam Elzlieimer; 1.593, Sam. Hofmann; 
1600, J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. SanrJrart; "1611, Ch. Loth : 1616, Govaert Flink : 161S, P. Van der 
Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J. Hen Eoos ; 
1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher ; 1640, Ab. Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Merian ; 164S. Godfrey 
Kneller; 1666. G. P. Eusgendas; 1668, J. E. Huber: 1669, Anna Waser; 16S5, Balthasar 
Denner; 16S9, Fr. P. Ferg; J69S, J. E. Eiedenger ; 1709, Brinkman; 1712, C. W. E. Dietrich; 
172S, Eaffael Mengs; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 

6. Fle.mish or Belgic School. — This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imi- 
tation of nature, but does not always exhibit suflicient nobleness of design ; it produces 
eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birth in 
this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but 
there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 14-12. — 1306, Eubert Van Evk ; 
1370, J,)hn Van Eyk; 1450, Quentin Messis ; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabiise ; 
1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- 
bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1.548, C. Van Mander; 1550, H. Steenwvck; 1555. Denys Calvart; 
1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel: 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S. Frank ; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 
1577, Peter Paul Eubens ; 15S0, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Vau 
Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Vc.n Artois ; 1618, Gonzales 
Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1668, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. 
Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort. 

7. Dutch School. — This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence 
of the cliiaro oscuro ; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- 
nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School. 
1467, Erasmus; 1494. "Luke of Leyden ; 149S, Martin Hemskerk"; 1518, An. Moro ; 1564, 
Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol de Brev; 15S5, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1.596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. 
D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynants; 1606, Albert Cuvp ; 1606, Paul Eembrandt van Evn; 
1608, Gerard Tcrbnrg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met- 
zu; 1620, Philip Wouvermans ; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph 
Bakhytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Euysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Fran, Mierirs; 1636, 
John Steen ; 1637; Van den Heyden ; 1638, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 
1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1682, John Van Huysum. 

English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; 
excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1430, Hans Holbein ; 1513, P. 
Zucchero; 1572. Inigo Jones,; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610. W. Dobson ; 1620. Eic. 
Gibson; 16J9, John Greenhill; 1648, Godfrey Knellel- ; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James 
Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Eicli. Wilson; 1723. Joshua Pxevnolds; 1727, Thom. 
Gainsborough; 1733. Sawrey Gilpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg ; 1735," David Allan ; 1738, 
Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Northcote; 17-18, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, 
Pliilip Eeinagle ; 1751. William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beechey : 1755, Thom. Stothard ; 1759, 
Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1774, 
Edward Bird ; 1776, John Constable ; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Tho- 
mas Daniell ; 1785, David Wilkie ; 17S6, E. B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, ^Y. Etty. 

8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the differ- 
ent Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics: they are in general more 
successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation 
and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most numer- 
ous and flourishing school of all.— 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Eosso de Eossi : 1502, J. Cousin ; 
1582, Simon Vouet ; 1.594, Nicholas Pousin ; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600. Le Valentin; 1600, 
James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur ; 
1619. Charles le Brun; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien; 
1667, Nicholas Bertin ; 1667, Antb. Rivallv; 1684, Ant Watteau; 1638, Francis Le Moine: 1692, 
Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire; 1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vien; 
1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 156T, A. L. Girodet. 



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